Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi made a huge contribution to the development of preschool pedagogy. Already in his youth, he strived to selflessly serve the people. In 1774, he opened an orphanage for children from poor families, where he himself taught them reading, counting and writing, and also educated them. It was assumed that the educational institution would be supported by money earned by the students themselves, who worked in the fields, on spinning and weaving looms. Thus, the teacher made attempts to combine children's education with productive work. However, in order to maintain the orphanage, enormous physical exertion was required from the children, and Pestalozzi, being a humanist and democrat, could not allow the exploitation of his pupils. He viewed work as a means of developing physical strength and wanted to give children versatile labor training. This was Pestalozzi’s most important teaching experience, and after it he devoted the next eighteen years to literary activity.
Teacher's views and ideas were undoubtedly democratic in nature, but were historically limited. Pestalozzi's Basic Principles:
- the principle of the self-worth of the individual, which denied the possibility of sacrificing the individual even for the good of society;
- the principle of conformity with nature, which implies the development of the physical and spiritual capabilities of the child, inherent in him by nature, through education;
- the principle of clarity, promoting the all-round development of the child.
The most important means of educating Pestalozzi considered the teacher’s love for children. The educational influence of the teacher’s personality is of primary importance for the child. Based on these principles, Pestalozzi built a methodology for elementary teaching. “Elementary education” assumed the construction of the learning process in such a way that in the process of cognition of an object, children highlight the simplest elements, moving forward in learning from simple to complex, rising from one level to another, improving more and more knowledge and skills.
Works of Pestalozzi played a huge role in the development of pedagogy as a science. He laid the foundations of the methods of primary education. His textbooks became for a long time a model and indicator for the creativity of subsequent teachers. The speech development exercises he developed are used in elementary school practice. His idea of building the educational process on the basis of mutual love between the teacher and the child became central to humanistic pedagogy.
Pestalozzi's statements about children:
- A child is a mirror of the actions of his parents.
- Nature has placed in the mother's heart the first and most urgent concern for maintaining peace in the earliest period of a child's life. This care manifests itself in people everywhere in the form of a mother's inherent maternal strength and maternal devotion.
- The hour of a child's birth is the first hour of his education.
- A child is loved and believed before he begins to think and act.
- The initial principles and points of contact with what a child should learn at school are prepared and exist in him thanks to knowledge gleaned from observations in home life.
- I try to introduce children into the thick of life and explain to them how any individual good trait of a person, if it remains isolated and does not find support for itself in all that is good that is in human nature, each time risks getting lost again in a person or receiving such a direction, which can equally easily lead to both his downfall and his improvement.
- One should not strive to turn children into adults early; it is necessary that they gradually develop in accordance with the situation and circumstances that await them, so that they learn to bear the burden of life easily and be happy at the same time.
- In general, it is necessary to achieve a situation in which it would be impossible for the child to win anything by lying; on the contrary, being caught in a lie must pose a significant danger to him.
Pestalozzi's pedagogical ideas in quotes:
- Education and only education is the goal of school.
- My first principle is that we can only raise a child well to the extent that we know what he feels, what he is capable of, what he wants.
- Primary education is capable of promoting and encouraging the natural course of development of thinking abilities through its art.
- The school must instill in its pupils such logical thinking skills that would be in harmony with human nature itself.
- Fathers and mothers still believe in holy innocence that if children attend school and are in it, then they are developing both physically and morally.
- The teaching of scientific disciplines presupposes, therefore, a preliminary enjoyment of the freedom which it limits, just as the harnessing of an adult animal to a plow or cart is a voluntary exercise of those powers which the young animal acquired and developed during the period when it lived and roamed freely in the pasture. .
- There is no doubt that only one mother is able to lay the correct sensory foundation for a person’s upbringing. Her real actions, to which she is prompted only by bare instinct, are, in essence, correct, natural means of moral education.
- Every good upbringing requires that the mother's eye at home, daily and hourly, unmistakably read in the eyes, lips and brow of the child every change in his state of mind. It essentially requires that the power of the educator be the power of the father, animated by the presence of the totality of family relations.
- The nature of my means of intellectual education is in no way arbitrary, it is necessary. Since these means are good only insofar as they are determined by the very essence of human nature, they are also basically unchanged.
Philosophical thoughts of Pestalozzi:
- ...it was a misfortune, and not our fault, that we were brought up not to do good, but only to dream about it.
- I lived for years in the circle of more than fifty beggar children, I shared my bread with them in poverty, I myself lived like a beggar in order to teach the beggars to live like humans.
- We know what we want.
- To change people, you need to love them. The influence on them is proportional to the love for them.
- According to the laws of nature, words of love are not spoken before feelings mature.
- In the country there is blind trust of the people in schools, whatever they are.
- The essence of humanity develops only in the presence of peace. Without it, love loses all the power of its truth and beneficial influence.
- Anxiety is essentially a product of sensual suffering or sensual desires; it is the child of cruel need or even more cruel egoism.
- Mental development and the culture of mankind that depends on it require constant improvement of the logical means of art for the purpose of nature-conforming development of our mental abilities, our abilities for research and judgment, to the awareness and use of which the human race has risen for a long time.
- Morality lies in the perfect knowledge of good, in the perfect ability and desire to do good.
- Each of us is completely free, and only as free people do we live, love with active love and sacrifice ourselves to fulfill our goal.
- The eye wants to look, the ear wants to hear, the foot wants to walk, and the hand wants to grab. But the heart also wants to believe and love. The mind wants to think. In any inclination of human nature there is a natural desire to emerge from a state of lifelessness and ineptitude and become a developed force, which in an undeveloped state is inherent in us only in the form of its embryo, and not the force itself.
- Man's ability to perceive truth and justice is essentially a comprehensive, sublime, pure inclination, which can find nourishment in simple, laconic, but broad views, aspirations and feelings.
- The three forces together - the ability to observe, the ability to speak and the ability to think - should be considered the totality of all the means of developing mental powers.
- A significant number of people receive education not through the assimilation of abstract concepts, but through intuition, not through the brilliance of deceptive verbal truths, but through the stable truth inherent in the acting forces.
- True nature-conforming education, by its very essence, evokes the desire for perfection, the desire for the improvement of human powers.
- Man himself develops the foundations of his moral life - love and faith, in accordance with nature, if only he demonstrates them in practice. Man himself develops the foundations of his mental powers, his thinking, in accordance with nature, only through the very action of thinking.
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Rousseau's ideas also had a huge influence on the pedagogical creativity of I.G. Pestalozzi (1746-1827), with whose activities a whole stage in the development of the humanistic educational tradition is associated. Pestalozzi argued “that in the nature of every person there initially lie hidden forces and means sufficient to enable him to create satisfactory conditions of existence for himself; that obstacles that oppose, in the form of external circumstances, the development of a person’s innate inclinations and strengths are, by nature, surmountable.” He came to the conclusion that “the totality of the means of the art of education, used for the purpose of nature-conforming development of the strengths and inclinations of a person, presupposes, if not clear knowledge, then at least a living inner feeling of the path along which nature itself goes, developing and shaping our strengths.” .
For Pestalozzi, education is helping a developing person in mastering culture, in self-movement towards a perfect state; this is helping the child’s nature, striving for social development; This is assistance to the self-development of the strengths and abilities inherent in a person.
Pestalozzi hoped to ensure the harmonious development of the child in full accordance with his nature through the theory of elementary education he developed, which includes physical, labor, moral, aesthetic and mental education (acquisition of elementary knowledge). All these aspects of education must be carried out in close connection and interaction. * Physical education: based on the natural desire for movement; help around the house, games; “school elementary gymnastics” (simple movements associated with self-care); labor education - “special education for industry”; on the basis of “elementary gymnastics” conduct “industrial gymnastics”. * Moral education: development of active love for people. From love to mother in a spiral. Fostering awareness of oneself as a part of the great human whole and spreading one’s active love to all people. Personal example. There is a close connection between moral education and religious education; religion is the basis of morality. The close connection between physical education and moral education. * Objectives, content and methodology of elementary education: visibility is the highest principle of learning; The teacher must teach children to observe. * The simplest elements of all knowledge
- - number, shape, word. Elementary education - teaching a child to count, measure, speak. * Inductive learning path
- - “a sequence in which each new concept is a small, almost imperceptible addition to previous knowledge, which has been very well mastered and has become indelible.” * Development of abilities during the learning process.
In his novel “Liengard and Gertrud,” Pestalozzi paints the ideal of the influence of good education in the family and school on the well-being of the entire community, and consequently of the entire people, and in other works he gives a solid foundation for teaching methods in elementary schools. Pestalozzi himself showed through his pedagogical activities a high example of a teacher and educator, for whom the most important thing is the welfare of the children entrusted to him. Pestalozzi's views had a great influence on German schools, and the success of German schools from 1820 to the present time depended mainly on the activities of the Swiss teacher's students. Under the influence of Pestalozzi's ideas, an extensive pedagogical literature appeared in Germany; many figures theoretically develop psychology as applied to pedagogy and questions about training and education; others deal with the methodology of educational subjects both in public schools and in secondary education. In this way certain views are established which gradually penetrate all layers of society and undoubtedly improve the education of the children of even the poorest classes of the people. The governments of all educated countries are imbued with the idea that the upbringing and education of children is an important matter and must be protected from the limitless arbitrariness of parents; As a result, school laws appear almost everywhere, which introduce compulsory education and define the minimum knowledge and skills that must be imparted to each child.
The principle of visibility. Many years of teaching experience and special psychological and pedagogical research have shown that the effectiveness of training depends on the degree to which all human senses are involved in perception. The more diverse the sensory perceptions of educational material, the more firmly it is assimilated. This pattern has long found its expression in the didactic principle of visibility, to the justification of which Ya.A. made a significant contribution.
Komensky, I.G. Pestalozzi, K.D. Ushinsky, and in our time - L.V. Zankov.
From the very beginning, Pestalozzi had a strong desire for the unity of pedagogical and philosophical views. It is no coincidence that his contemporaries placed his teaching on education side by side with the philosophy of Kant. However, according to Natorp, Pestalozzi is not only not inclined, but also not prepared to clearly and fully develop in himself the philosophy invested with his pedagogy. Thus, for him, the task of strictly scientific construction of a theory of education remains unsolved. Pestalozzi showed the need to combine visualization with special mental formation of concepts. Ushinsky revealed the importance of visual sensations for the development of students’ speech. L.V. Zankov studied in detail possible options for combining words and visualization. Visibility in didactics is understood more broadly than direct visual perception. It also includes perception through motor and tactile sensations. Therefore, visual aids include laboratory equipment and static and dynamic teaching aids.
Music is the language of the Universe. Its beneficial influence was recognized already in ancient times. Music has a tremendous educational influence on a person. The famous German teacher and expert on children's natures Heinrich Pestalozzi says: “The best school is where singing is developed.” Everyone is probably familiar with the words: “Where there is music and singing, there is no evil, go there boldly.” The wider and more numerous the circle of people who love and understand music, the more, I dare to think, in our private and public life we will count more elements of that high spiritual uplift, that mood when our heart becomes more receptive to the noblest impulses of compassion, love, reverence for something that stands above everyday prose..."
A child in a boarding school does not decide anything on his own for days, weeks, or months. When to get up, what to put in the briefcase, where to sit in the dining room, when to get up from the table, when to say thank you to the cooks - the teacher decides everything for the child. The children are fully provided for, clothed, well fed, their life is very easy, but completely empty and boring. Nobody loves children, but no one beats or punishes them. Here is what the Swiss educator Pestalozzi writes about such institutions: “With excessive generosity, calm, careless saturation of all needs, these institutions kill the germs of hard work and inquisitiveness” (Pestalozzi, op., vol. 1, p. 232). The key word here is “kill”.
Naturally, the transition to the point of view of the child’s assimilation and development determines all the claims of psychology in determining the content of education. The organic connection between pedagogy and psychology became indisputable starting from the end of the 18th century. “Educational psychology” was interpreted as the application of psychological data to the process of teaching and upbringing. At the same time, two questions came to the fore: a) to what extent the teaching methods correspond to the possible mental processes of the child; b) what is the importance of teaching methods for the development and deployment of his mental functions. For Pestalozzi, the psychological theory of perception served as the basis and justification for visual teaching methods, and adherence to the principle of gradualism was supposed to ensure the accumulation of knowledge.
In world practice, attempts have been made repeatedly to implement the ideas of student-centered learning, probably starting with the educational ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, I.G. Pestalozzi, G.D. Torey, M. Montessori, etc. Despite all the differences in their concepts, these teachers were united by the desire to educate a free personality, to make the student the center of the teacher’s attention during the pedagogical process, to provide the student with the opportunity for active cognitive activity through creativity, through independent, purposeful activity. “My students,” wrote Pestalozzi, “will not learn new things from me; they will discover this new thing themselves. My main task is to help them open up and develop their own ideas.” These ideas formed the basis of the so-called open schools or classes - open education. The main principles of open education were proclaimed: individual learning, responsibility for one's own successes, cooperation, focus on lifelong learning. Training was based on the principles of decentralization according to individual programs. Following the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, open schools were more concerned with the life of the student, his emotional sphere, his interests, and not with his education in the narrow sense of the word. It must be said that at present, those very few open schools that still continue to operate in the United States are somewhat moving away from the orientation towards free education and, although they adhere to individual plans (per day, per week) and training programs for each student, all -they are clearly guided by general recommendations on learning objectives, curriculum, and requirements for levels of proficiency in educational material, which come from federal and local educational authorities. For the rest, that is, in planning the student’s working day (he does this completely independently or under the guidance of the teacher), contacts with the teacher, making independent decisions about the pace of progress, in choosing educational subjects for the day, etc., the principles of open education remain in force. It must be admitted that the activity of students in these schools, which is completely placed under the personal responsibility of the students themselves, is very high. The children, each in accordance with their own plan for the day, move from teacher to teacher, reporting on the work done and receiving the following tasks for independent study or for seminar classes under the guidance of the teacher. All student activities are recorded in special worksheets for each subject.
Individual learning style (The Learning Style Approach) is based on taking into account the individual characteristics of each student, the characteristics of the student’s mental development, temperament, type of nervous activity, etc. We can again turn to the pedagogical views of humanists. Pestalozzi, like Rousseau, like M. Montessori, insisted that the teacher should respect the student’s experience prior to this stage of learning and the peculiarities of his development. It is necessary to start with what is familiar to the student, gradually revealing to him more and more complex phenomena, relying on the student’s independent activity. People are different by nature. The fact is that some students are more productive in the morning, others in the afternoon; some need clear, sometimes literally step-by-step guidance from the teacher, others prefer proactive, independent learning and do not tolerate supervision; Some people better absorb material with visual support, others perceive material better by hearing; some can work concentratedly for 20-30 minutes, others are distracted after 5-10 minutes; For some, the previous cognitive experience is quite rich, and one can easily rely on it in the further development of the child; for others, for various reasons, it may turn out to be insignificant, and a lot of effort has to be made to enrich it. A traditional school, of course, cannot take into account the full range of differences in a student’s personality. As a result, those students who could learn the material much better with visual support are forced to listen to the teacher’s explanations and immediately answer his questions; those students who are much more productive in the afternoon are forced to come to school in the morning, those who were poorly prepared intellectually (and perhaps spiritually) are forced to follow the pace and methods designed for more advanced students (the so-called intermediate ), guys who do not understand some principles of life, the foundations accepted in a civilized society, often begin to develop complexes, etc. That is why, say supporters of this approach (Dunn, Griggs), it is necessary to rely on and develop the individual styles of cognitive activity of each student. In such a school, students are given the opportunity to work individually on soft carpets or in groups at specialized tables for group work. It uses both clearly structured lessons under the guidance of a teacher and work in small groups (pairs, triplets, etc.), computer technology is used and, most importantly, independent individual activity. Basic subjects requiring explanation from the teacher and his guidance are repeated in the morning and afternoon. Students can thus attend classes, take tests, work on projects at a time convenient for them, at a pace and form convenient for them, in accordance with their biological rhythm and psychological characteristics. The school of individual learning style, in contrast to the traditional school, pays the main attention to the involvement of each student in active cognitive activity, the formation of problem-solving skills, the development of students’ creative abilities, and the revelation of their spirituality. Finally, this school places great emphasis on collaborative learning in small groups. It must be admitted that, despite all the attractiveness of such an organization of training, according to Dunn and Griggs, who visited 10 such schools, one can speak with confidence about the high effectiveness of such training very cautiously. The fact is that the students of such schools really showed very high academic knowledge, some became winners of national competitions. The students themselves spoke very highly of this approach to learning; they are literally in love with their school. However, here, to a greater extent than with other approaches to teaching, the role of the teacher, his professionalism, and the ability to very subtly identify and take into account the individual differences of students, not only in academic knowledge, but also psychologically, are important. It is necessary to prepare educational materials, plans, programs accordingly. All this requires really very high professional skills, tact, and certain personal qualities of the teacher. Perhaps such schools are the future. But for now this is only an ideal, which, unfortunately, cannot be widespread.
Pestalozzi's contemporary, the German religious philosopher and teacher F. Schleiermacher (1768-1834), tried to bring education closer to the natural course of child development. Refusing to consider a person as a product of upbringing, he saw the meaning of pedagogical activity in “protecting”, accompanying children, in choosing their environment and participating in the events taking place in their lives. For Schleiermacher, the task of education was to maintain positive influences on the child's individual and social development and to counteract negative influences.
Pestalozzi's follower F. Froebel (1782-1852), who defended the ideal of educating a free-thinking, independent individual, sought to provide a person with the opportunity to freely express his spiritual essence when developing his pedagogical concept. The task of education, according to Frebel, is to create conditions for the realization of the spiritual principle that is inherent in every person from birth. It was Froebel who formulated the great principle of humanistic pedagogy of the 19th century: “Come, let us live for our children!”
However, in practice, the process of the formation of mass schools in the West in the 19th century was not at all under the sign of the implementation of that humanistic tendency, which was increasingly intensified in pedagogical theory. The character of the mass school was particularly influenced by the ideas of I.F. Herbart (1778-1841). Herbart’s system is a classic example of authoritarian pedagogy, where the teacher appears as a subject, and the student as an object of education and training, where a system of means of controlling the child is especially carefully developed (threat, supervision, command, prohibition, punishment, etc.), where The basis of punishment is not physical pain, but fear of it (intimidation), where the lesson is strictly regulated and special importance is attached to educational training, where the path to the formation of the child’s personality lies through the development of his intellect, and verbal methods dominate in teaching. Herbart's pedagogy in its essential features corresponded to the nature of the society that was being formed in the West in the first half of the 19th century, therefore it intensively penetrated into the practice of mass schools.
In the middle of the 19th century, capitalist relations in Western Europe became all-encompassing - what can be called a bourgeois civilization, an industrial-type society, was formed. Changes also affected the sphere of education and upbringing: during this period, the bourgeois mass school (both secondary and primary) and the pedagogical ideology associated with it
(implying an orientation towards an isolated individual, trained and brought up using standard methods and means that are the same for all, leveling individuality and including a person in the impersonal state order) have become widespread.
This position was most consistently and frankly formulated by G. Hegel (1770-1831), who asserted the need to suppress and alienate the individual for the sake of higher state goals. In his opinion, scientific education, influencing the human spirit, separates him from natural existence, pulls him out of the unfree sphere of feelings and drives and forces him to think; Beginning to become aware of his actions, the individual is freed and thanks to this he achieves power over immediate ideas and sensations. This freedom, according to Hegel, is the formal basis of moral behavior.
Not only formal school science, which alienates the individual from himself, but also military drill, according to Hegel, contributes to the development of the spirit, since it resists natural laziness and absent-mindedness and forces one to accurately carry out other people’s orders. Alienated from himself through formal training, a person acquires the ability to study any science alien to him, any unfamiliar skill. Through alienation, the individual is torn away from the specific, freed from its power and gains the ability to perceive the general, to live in the interests of the state and society. It is impossible not to notice that Hegel absolutizes the general and idealizes the alienating impact of the school order organized according to impersonal rationalistic laws.
In the middle of the 19th century, when mass education, built almost according to Hegel, begins to work in full force, it turns out that instead of organically merging with the general, with the state whole, in accordance with Hegel’s recipe, the individual is hopelessly lost in it, lost along with the sense of individuality originality and meaning of one's own existence. In the 19th century, utopian socialists, followed by Marxists, and leaders of the labor and socialist movements, sought ways to overcome this anti-personal tendency in a broad socio-pedagogical context. Attempts have intensified to preserve the individual beginning of the personality, to save it from dissolution in impersonal reality by turning to irrationalism, and to find rational-utilitarian ways of personality development (positivism).
Literature:
- 1. Reader on the history of foreign pedagogy. M., 1971
- 2. Konstantinov N.A., Medynsky E.N., Shabaeva M.F. History of pedagogy. M., 1982
- 3. Essays on the history of school and pedagogy abroad. M., 1988
- 4. Pedagogical heritage. Ya.A. Comenius, J. Locke, J.-J. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi. M., vol. 2, 2008
PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"ACADEMY OF SOCIAL EDUCATION"
Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology
Test
By discipline"History of Education and Pedagogical Thought"
On the topic of:
«
Pedagogical views and ideas of I. Pestalozzi"
Prepared by:
Student of group 4231/03
Konovalova Yu.V.
Checked:
Ph.D. Sakhieva R.G.
Zelenodolsk 2010
Content
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………… ……............2
1. PEDAGOGICAL IDEAS AND VIEWS OF I.G. PESTALOZZI.............3
2. PURPOSE AND ESSENCE OF EDUCATION. THEORY OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ………… ……………………....................... ............. ................. .5
2.1. Physical and labor education…………………………… ....8
2.2. Moral education.............................................................. .. ..............9
2.3. Mental education……………………………………………………10 3. CREATION OF PRIVATE METHODS OF PRIMARY TRAINING……...13
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………….15
LIST OF REFERENCES……………………………………...17
Introduction
One of the first teachers of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, who with his ideas and practical experience had a huge influence on the subsequent development of world pedagogical thought, was the Swiss I.G. Pestalozzi, the founder of an influential movement in pedagogy known as Pestalozzianism.
In the history of world pedagogy, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) is known as one of the great and noble devotees of the education of the humiliated and insulted. His fame as a “people’s preacher”, “father of orphans”, and creator of a truly people’s school has rightly been strengthened.
I.G. Pestalozzi was born in Zurich into the family of a doctor and was left without a father at an early age. His mother and his devoted servant, a simple peasant woman, had a great influence on his upbringing. Pestalozzi became closely acquainted with the plight of the peasants and, from an early age, was imbued with deep sympathy for the people.
He received the usual education for that time. First, he graduated from an elementary school in German, then from a traditional Latin school and an advanced school that prepared for higher education - a humanities college, something like the senior classes of a gymnasium, after which he studied at a higher school, the Collegium Carolinum, where Protestant theologians and preachers were trained. , having left his last theological course. The main reason for this was Pestalozzi’s passion for educational and revolutionary ideas that came from France, primarily the ideas of J.-J. Rousseau, concern for the fate of the common people living in poverty and ignorance.
1. Pedagogical ideas and views of I.G. Pestalozzi
Pestalozzi's worldview was democratic in nature, but historically limited. Pestalozzi dreamed of the revival of his people, but naively believed in the possibility of changing the lives of workers through their education and upbringing. He did not understand that the social and legal inequality of people in his contemporary society was the result of existing social relations; he saw the source of people's disasters not in economic conditions, but in the lack of education.
Arguing that upbringing and education should be the property of all people, Pestalozzi considered schools one of the most important levers for the social transformation of society. The resolution of pressing social problems and fundamental social transformations will be accomplished, in his opinion, only when all of his truly human powers are awakened and strengthened in each person. This can only be done through the process of education.
The most important means of educating and developing a person, according to Pestalozzi, is work, which develops not only physical strength, but also the mind, and also forms morality. A person who works develops a conviction about the enormous importance of work in the life of society; it is the most important force that binds people into a strong social union.
Pestalozzi developed the idea of self-development of the forces inherent in every person, the idea that every human ability is characterized by the desire to emerge from a state of lifelessness and become a developed force. “The eye,” said Pestalozzi, “wants to look, the ear to hear, the leg to walk, and the hand to grab. But the heart also wants to believe and love. The mind wants to think." This human desire for physical and spiritual activity is invested in him, as Pestalozzi believed, from birth by the creator himself, and education should help him realize it.
The center of all education is the formation of human morality; “active love for people” is what should lead a person forward morally. This “active love for people” is also determined by “natural religion.” Pestalozzi had a negative attitude towards the official religion and its ministers.
Cognition, Pestalozzi argued, begins with sensory perception and ascends through the processing of ideas to ideas that exist in the human mind as formative forces, but for their identification and revitalization they need material supplied by sensations.
Pestalozzi's worldview is generally idealistic, but it was progressive in nature, as it was imbued with humanism, democratic aspirations and contained some materialist statements and dialectical positions.
A significant difference between I.G. Pestalozzi differed from most of his predecessors in that he derived his pedagogical ideas from practice and tried to test their effectiveness in the activities of the educational institutions he himself opened. The first of these was a school for poor children, which he opened on his small estate Neuhof (1774-1780), then for one year he headed an orphanage in the town of Stantz (1798-1799), and finally he headed educational institutions in Burgdof (1800-1804) and Yverdon (1805-1825). The last two were boarding schools, where public school teachers were also trained. These educational institutions have gained international recognition. Many famous scientists and teachers from various European countries came to get acquainted with the experience of these schools.
Pedagogical ideas, observations and conclusions from his pedagogical work in Neuhof and Stantz I.G. Pestalozzi outlined in such widely known works as “Lingard and Gertrude” (1781-1787), “Letter to a Friend about Staying in Stanza” (1799), “How Gertrude Teaches Her Children” (1801), “Swan Song” (1826 ). As a result of reflecting on his work, he came to the conclusion that children’s desire for activity and the development of their natural powers require the maximum simplification of teaching techniques and methods in primary school.
This is how he came up with the idea of elementary (element-by-element) primary education as a tool for developing the personality of students.
2. The purpose and essence of education. Theory of elementary education
1) the powers of knowledge, consisting of a predisposition to external and internal contemplation;
2) the powers of skill, growing from the inclinations for the all-round development of the body;
3) the powers of the soul, growing from the inclinations to love, be ashamed and control oneself. A set of educational means that allows one to help a student in his natural desire for self-development was presented by the ideas of I.G. Pestalozzi about “elementary education”, which he generally referred to as “method”. The elementary education method is a specific system of exercises to develop the child’s abilities. Pestalozzi developed a system of exercises based on the following theoretical ideas:
1) a child from birth has inclinations, potential internal forces, which are characterized by a desire for development;
2) the multilateral and varied activities of children in the learning process are the basis for the development and improvement of internal forces, their holistic development;
3) the child’s activity in cognitive activity is a necessary condition for the assimilation of knowledge, a more perfect knowledge of the world around him.
Pestalozzi's theory of elementary education includes physical, labor, moral, and mental education. All these aspects of education are proposed to be carried out in interaction to ensure the harmonious development of a person.
2.1. Physical and labor education
Pestalozzi considered the goal of a child’s physical education to be the development and strengthening of all his physical strengths and capabilities, and the basis of children’s physical education is the child’s natural desire for movement, which makes him play, be restless, grab onto everything, and always act. Pestalozzi considered physical education to be the first type of reasonable influence of adults on the development of children. The mother, who is feeding the child and organizing his care, should already be involved in his physical development at this time. Children should be exercised and developed by performing the simplest movements that a child makes in everyday life, when he walks, eats, drinks, or lifts something. A system of such consistently performed exercises will not only develop the child physically, but also prepare him for work and develop his work skills. Pestalozzi devoted a large place in physical education to military exercises, games, and drill exercises. At the Iferten Institute, all these military activities were closely combined with sports games, hiking trips and excursions around Switzerland. Physical education took place in close connection with moral and labor education. As mentioned above, the attempt to combine learning with productive work was one of the important provisions in the pedagogical practice and theory of Pestalozzi. At school, children, in his opinion (the novel Lingard and Gertrude), spend the whole day at spinning and weaving looms; There is a plot of land at the school, and each child cultivates his own beds and cares for the animals. Children learn how to process flax and wool, get acquainted with the best farms in the village, as well as handicraft workshops. During work, as well as in free hours, the teacher conducts classes with children, teaches them literacy, numeracy, and other vital knowledge. Pestalozzi emphasized the importance of labor education for the formation of a person. He pointed out that “work teaches you to despise words divorced from deeds”, helps to develop such qualities as accuracy, truthfulness, and contributes to the creation of correct relationships between children and adults and the children themselves. Properly organized physical work for children contributes to the development of their minds and moral strength. Pestalozzi envisioned creating a special “alphabet of skills” that would contain physical exercises in the field of the simplest types of labor activity: hitting, carrying, throwing, pushing, waving, wrestling, etc. Having mastered such an alphabet, the child could comprehensively develop his physical strength and at the same time, master the basic labor skills necessary for any special, professional activity. Pestalozzi sought to prepare the children of workers for the work ahead of them “in industry”, at industrial enterprises.2.2. Moral education
Pestalozzi believed that the main task of education is to form a harmoniously developed person who should take a useful part in the life of society in the future. Morality is developed in a child through constant practice in deeds that benefit others. The simplest element of moral education is, according to Pestalozzi, the child’s love for his mother, which arises from the satisfaction of the everyday needs of the child’s body. The foundations of a child’s moral behavior are laid in the family. His love for his mother gradually spreads to other family members. “Father’s house,” exclaims Pestalozzi, “you are a school of morals.” Further developmentetc.................
The most important and fundamental pedagogical idea of the great Swiss educator is comprehensive harmonious development of personality in the process of training and education. This is the goal of any educational institution; achieving this goal involves ensuring the unity of mental, moral and physical development and preparation for work. I.G. Pestalozzi identifies and characterizes the components of education:
1. Intellectual elementary education, the purpose of which is the comprehensive development of mental inclinations, independent judgment and mastery of intellectual work skills.
2. Elementary physical education is the comprehensive development of a person’s physical inclinations, which is necessary for “physical independence” and mastery of “physical skills.”
3. Elementary moral education, the purpose of which is the comprehensive development of moral inclinations necessary to “ensure the independence of moral judgments and instill certain moral skills.” It presupposes the ability and desire to do good.
Only the unity of all parts of education ensures the harmonious development of human natural inclinations, one-sided mental or physical development only brings harm. Thus, a person can appear to the world as a beacon of science and at the same time do evil, have “unbridled power of intellect” combined with heartlessness, a thirst for wealth and a desire for violence.
Also, all human claims to high morality, if its source is not love for people, faith, nobility, do not represent true morality, but turn out to be only hypocrisy. Even more terrible are people who have an “animal will to violence”, who achieve everything in the world in the name of their own greedy interests; these are “moral predators”. They generate a mass of “moral donkeys”, incapable of any action, limited by impotent benevolence.
The harmonious development of all natural human forces presupposes education in balance, in harmony with oneself.
The idea of conformity to nature in teaching and upbringing in the understanding of I.G. Pestalozzi is the development of “the strengths and inclinations of the human heart, the human mind and human skills.” Human nature itself determines the natural course of development. Indeed, what captures a person is natural, acting “together on the heart, mind and hand.”
Each of these natural forces develops through the exercise of the “external senses”, body organs, and acts of thinking. The need for exercise is inherent in the person himself. “The eye wants to look, the ear wants to hear, the foot wants to walk, and the hand wants to grab. But also the heart - to believe and love. The mind wants to think,” writes Pestalozzi in “Swan Song”. But if you do not manage these natural needs, leaving them to themselves, then development will proceed extremely slowly. It is necessary for the teacher to skillfully guide the development of children's inclinations and abilities.
At the same time, “it is not the educator who invests new strengths and abilities in a person and breathes life into him,” the educator only makes sure that the negative influence does not disrupt the natural course of development, and supports the efforts of the child, which he himself shows for his own development. The moral, mental and practical powers of man "must be nurtured within by it." Thus, faith is strengthened through one’s own conviction, and not through thinking about it, love is based on actions filled with love, and not on lofty words about it, thought - on one’s own thinking, and not on the assimilation of other people’s thoughts. The beginning of the development of each side of the personality is the individual’s spontaneous desire for activity. The school and the teacher are faced with the task of providing children with appropriate tools and materials for their activities.
Teaching methods I.G. Pestalozzi stems from his understanding of education as the consistent development of a child through appropriate exercises, selected to ensure harmony in the manifestation of natural inclinations. Pestalozzi identified the simplest elements that he considered the basis of learning - these are number, shape, word , and elementary education should teach the child count, measure, speak. Through increasingly complex exercises, the child’s natural inclinations are developed. Exercises should be associated with the study of objects, not words, with observation of objects. Hence the need for a lesson, but not for the sake of developing observation, but for the sake of mental education in general. The child learns and develops through sensory perception and his own experience of activity, “receiving impressions and being enriched by experience.” His experience must find clear expression in words.
While learning, the child masters the concept of form through measurement, through counting - a number, through the development of speech - a word. The content of elementary education is reading, writing, arithmetic with the beginnings of geometry, measurement, drawing, singing, in addition, some knowledge of geography and natural science. This extensive program was first implemented in school practice. A feature of learning was a gradual ascent from simple to complex, thanks to the decomposition of the subject being studied into its simplest elements. The old method of teaching, which began with teaching rules, principles, and general definitions, was gradually replaced. Its place was taken by observations of objects and exercises. The purpose of teaching was the development of students, and not the dogmatic memorization of material by them. Pestalozzi was the originator of the idea of developmental education. “The main purpose of primary education is not to endow the student with knowledge, but to develop and increase his mental powers,” he argued in “Swan Song.”
I.G. Pestalozzi argued that the relationship that is established between the teacher and students is very important for the school. These relationships must be based on the love of the teacher for the children. Pestalozzi himself was an example of such love; his students and followers called him father.
One of the important tasks of I.G.’s pedagogy. Pestalozzi is labor education. While spending the whole day at school, children can engage in spinning and weaving; on a piece of land, everyone can cultivate their own beds and care for animals. They learn the processing of flax and wool, get acquainted with the best farms in the village and craft workshops. Such work will promote physical development and prepare for upcoming activities.
Pedagogical ideas of I.G. Pestalozzi found support and further development in Western European pedagogy, and the experience of implementing them in the institutions led by him contributed to the widespread dissemination of the school practice of the famous teacher in Western European countries. Since the Institute of I.G. Pestalozzi in Burgdorf and Yverdon was visited by teachers, students and many people interested in issues of education, the ideas of the teacher began to spread widely and were implemented in the practice of schools in other countries. A trend in pedagogy emerged associated with the name of I.G. Pestalozzi.
Main dates of life and activity:
1746 - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich.
1769-1774 - experiment in Neuhof on running a model farm.
1775-1780 - creation and operation of the “Institution for the Poor” in Neuhof.
1789 - work in an orphanage in the city of Stanza.
1800-1826 - management of Burgdorf and Yverdon educational institutions.
1827 - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi died.
Main works:
1781-1787 - “Lingard and Gertrude.”
1801 - "How Gertrude teaches her children."
1826 - “Swan Song”.
7.3. Developmental and educational training F.A. Disterweg. One of the most famous classical teachers of the 19th century is Friedrich Adolf Diesterweg (1790 - 1866). He went down in the history of pedagogy as the “teacher of German teachers,” as he was the organizer and for a long time the director of teachers’ seminaries in Moers and Berlin, which trained teaching staff for the public mass school.
In 1827 - 1866 published the pedagogical magazine "Rhine Leaflets...", created four teachers' societies, in 1848 he was elected chairman of the General German Teachers' Union, made proposals for the reform of the school existing at that time, demanding its separation from the church and universal education of children, the implementation of universal, civic and national education.
The main pedagogical work of A. Disterweg is “Guide to the Education of German Teachers” (1835). The book contains instructions. How can a teacher improve his professional level, what path to take in teaching individual subjects and what means to use for this.
The teacher wrote over 20 textbooks (he dealt mainly with issues of education and upbringing in primary school), educational manuals on mathematics, German, natural science, geography, and astronomy. The books were widely known in Germany and throughout Europe.
Disterweg based his education on three principles:
Ø Natural conformity of training and education. He understood this principle as the development in the pedagogical process of those good inclinations that are inherent in the child by nature.
Ø The principle of children’s initiative and activity in learning and their own personal development. In modern pedagogy, it is interpreted as the creation in the pedagogical process of conditions for the formation and development of the child’s subjective life position.
Ø Cultural conformity of training and education, that is, taking into account in the pedagogical process the conditions and level of culture of a given time of the country, homeland, and family of the student.
The implementation of these principles in pedagogical practice has necessitated the development of fundamentally new teaching ideas. These in the pedagogical heritage of A. Disterweg are ideas for developmental education. On their basis, he built 33 didactic rules, according to which the teacher must be well aware of the individual manifestations of his students, their characteristics, level of development, range of interests and hobbies. Only knowing and taking into account all this can one learn “naturally”, overcoming difficulties gradually and consistently.
The teacher resolutely spoke out against the educational overload of students: “The trouble usually lies in the fact that young teachers strive to teach students everything that they themselves know, but in fact, they need to tell students only the essential... A bad teacher tells the truth, a good one teaches them to find it.”
In matters of didactics, Disterweg paid special attention to timely repetition of educational material, but he viewed repetition not as simple memorization, cramming, but as meaningful memorization of the most essential things in the material being studied. This not only makes it possible to firmly assimilate the content of the subject, a certain amount of knowledge, but also contributes to development of memory, and therefore the mind.
Disterweg pointed out the need to teach transition from simple to complex, from close to distant, from unknown to known. However, the didactic warned against the mechanical application of these teaching rules. After all, the easy should be interspersed with the difficult: learning should not be easy, it is quite hard work of the mind and heart, of the entire human body. Often what is distant from students in time and space turns out to be very close, interesting and accessible, while what is close turns out to be difficult and complex. It is necessary to encourage students, the teacher emphasized, to work independently, ensuring that the work becomes second nature to them. The desire to carefully think through everything and master the educational material should be the student’s need; only in this case can we talk about the developmental nature of learning.
Much attention was paid by A. Disterweg in his pedagogical works to issues of school discipline. He expressed his negative attitude towards the use of punishment in pedagogical practice as a method of teaching and education. “We better not talk about punishment,” he addressed the teachers. – They are mostly useless and unnecessary, that is, according to the nature of the subject of study itself. It is only necessary that the student work at school willingly. There. Where this occurs, there cannot be, and do not occur at all, cases of student disobedience. Where this is not the case, you have to constantly and unsuccessfully invent punishments."
In all the works of A. Disterweg, a red thread runs through the idea of the importance of the art of teaching and educating a teacher (pedagogical skill) in the successful solution of pedagogical problems. He organically connected the mastery of professional activity with the personal qualities of the teacher, but he did not talk “about the general qualities of the teacher-educator: his honesty, morality, etc., but only about the qualities of the teacher that make teaching educational and fruitful.” Among these most important qualities were energy and liveliness, strength of character, love for children and their teaching work.
One of the first “teachers of German teachers” spoke about the pedagogical significance of the teacher’s appearance and manner of behavior, pointing out that the teacher should absorb “as much liveliness as possible! The latter does not consist of endless waving of arms, grimaces and facial expressions. This is spiritual life, which, of course, is also reflected on the face. On all appearance and gestures." He advised teachers to take care of their appearance, physical and spiritual health, and organization of a healthy and rational lifestyle, since in many ways, according to the German teacher, the effectiveness of a teacher’s work is determined by his physical health, well-being, and internal energy strength.
It is noteworthy that A. Disterweg was the first to attempt to identify several levels of professional activity of a teacher. He pointed out that there are teachers who work conscientiously, achieving good results in teaching and education, but there are also “brilliant virtuosos of pedagogy” who are formed as professionals “under the rarest and happiest circumstances.” Disterweg did not analyze these circumstances and pointed only to individual factors in the development of a high level of teacher professionalism. He named the most important among them the teacher’s ability for constant self-education and self-improvement. He called on teachers to “never stop” and emphasized that the teacher “is capable of educating others until that time, as long as he continues to work on his own education... general, as a person and citizen, and special, as a teacher.”
Pedagogical heritage of F.A. Disterweg is studied in detail by modern teachers and serves as an inexhaustible source of pedagogical ideas in various areas of educational research, pedagogical theory and practice.
7.4. Pedagogical theory I.F. Herbart. Famous German teacher, psychologist, philosopher Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) was among the admirers and followers of Pestalozzi. His work as a professor is associated with the Universities of Göttingen and Köningsberg.
Having become acquainted with the works of I.G. Pestalozzi, having visited the Burg Dorf Institute (1800), he created his first pedagogical work, which he dedicated to the famous Swiss.
Herbart's teaching career began in his youth, when he was a teacher of children in the family of a Swiss aristocrat. Then, upon completion of his university education, he lectured on psychology and pedagogy and directed a seminary for teacher training. Having created an experimental school at the teachers' seminary, he taught mathematics to schoolchildren.
Herbart presented his pedagogical theory in the works: “General Pedagogy Derived from the Goals of Education” (1806), “Textbook of Psychology” (1816), “Letters on the Application of Psychology to Pedagogy” (1831), “Essay on Lectures on Pedagogy” (1835) . All of them are rational and quite difficult to understand.
In his pedagogical views, Herbart was guided by the pedagogical ideas of Pestalozzi, but decided many things differently. Thus, he filled the gap that remained in the Swiss educator’s reasoning about how data from sensory perception can be processed into ideas, how knowledge can influence morality. Herbart believed that one can no longer look at the human mind as a dead table, and complements I.G. Pestolozzi, developing his psychological and pedagogical ideas. If Pestalozzi, relying on the idea of sensory perception, strives to study the physical world, then Herbart did not consider this approach sufficient and aimed at creating a moral and aesthetic idea of the world. Therefore, he preferred pure mathematics, classical languages and literature to natural science studies (arithmetic, geography, natural science).
Herbart brought his pedagogical ideas into a strictly logical system, justifying them with evidence, including psychological evidence.
Let's consider the key psychological concepts of Herbart's theory. The soul (psyche) of a person, filled with nothing from birth, has one important property - it enters into relationships with the environment through the nervous system. Thanks to this, the first ideas received from sensory perceptions appear in the mind, and from the complex interactions of ideas, concepts are formed, judgments and reflections develop. Children's ideas come from two sources: from practical (experienced) contact with nature and from communication with people. The teacher must, by expanding the child's life experience, develop knowledge, and by expanding social communication, develop feelings. This led to two important conclusions:
1. The main ability of the soul is the ability of assimilation (fusion).
2. The main and determining force that shapes the soul and character is education.
Herbart divided the education process into three sections: management, training and moral education.
The teacher and philosopher derived the goals and objectives of education from philosophy and ethics.
He defined the purpose of education as follows: “The whole matter of education can be summarized in the concept of “morality.” The term “virtue” expresses the whole purpose of education.” Virtue is understood as the “idea of inner freedom” that develops in a person in the process of gaining experience. Such experiences cause the individual to approve or disapprove of observed phenomena and to make judgments at the level of taste. Therefore, Herbart called them aesthetic ideas (he called his philosophical treatise “The Aesthetic Idea of the Universe as the Main Goal of Education”). Such ideas include “suitable, beautiful, moral, fair,” that is, everything that is pleasant in the process of contemplation. The main goal of parenting is to develop these preferences through experience, conversation and education.
Herbart reduced virtue to five moral ideas. Chief among them is the idea inner freedom, harmony of will and desire I. The task of education is to form a character that “will remain unshakable in the struggle of life” and is based on strong moral conviction and will.
The tasks of education were defined by the German classical teacher as follows: enriching the soul with ideas or experience based on ideas, developing ideas and motives for behavior.
Morality depends on good will and knowledge, and these in turn depend on the enlightenment of man or ideas developed from original ideas. Will and action (behavior) arise from desire, or motivation. Hence the conclusion that Herbart came to: “The action that the student reveals to himself, choosing good and rejecting evil, is this, and nothing else, is the formation of character.” The teacher’s actions are limited, since the student himself makes the choice and completes it with his actions; the teacher cannot “pour into the soul of his student” a force capable of forcing him to act. But he creates conditions under which the result will be the student’s virtue; all the efforts of the teacher should be directed towards this main goal.
Introduction
Pestalozzi education teacher education
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi is a Swiss democratic teacher, one of the founders of didactics in primary education. He developed two extremely important points. The first is proof of the need for visibility in the learning process. Another important point is the idea of developmental education. The essence of this learning process is that children not only accumulate knowledge, but also develop their abilities, that is, their inclinations. These provisions served as the basis for the development of the ideas of other outstanding teachers, for example, Froebel, Herbart, Diesterwerg.
Special political and social views of I.G. Pestalozzi is expressed in his works and in his life’s journey; he also deserves our attention, but our main task is to study his pedagogical views and consider their essence.
I.G. Pestalozzi is the author of numerous pedagogical works, many of them have become world famous, for example, “Lingard and Gertrude” (1781-1787), “How Gertrude teaches her children” (1801), “Letter to a friend about being in Stanza” (1799) , "Swan Song" (1826).
In education, he believed that it should be in accordance with nature, that it should develop the physical and spiritual strength of the child, who strives for various developments in his activities. Pestalozzi's theory of elementary education consists of moral, mental, physical and labor. These components must be in close connection with each other to ensure the all-round harmonious development of the child.
Pestalozzi also advocated the creation of a school, which Krupskaya spoke of as follows: “... would satisfy the needs of the masses, would be willingly accepted by them and would be largely the creation of their own hands.”
The topic of our course work is relevant because pedagogy requires the harmonious implementation of the natural inclinations of children and the improvement of their abilities. It is these ideas that I.G. reveals in his works. Pestalozzi.
1. Life and work of I.G. Pestalozzi
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Switzerland, in Zurich, into the family of a doctor. His father had a large practice, so the family was considered wealthy. Pestalozzi had a brother and a sister. The father and mother had a gentle character, the life of the family was prosperous. But the unexpected death of his father changed the family's situation. Now she finds herself in a difficult financial situation. Pestalozzi became closely acquainted with the plight of the peasants and from an early age developed deep sympathy for the people.
After the death of his father, Pestalozzi was greatly influenced by his mother and his devoted servant, the simple peasant woman Babel. In fact, Babel became the head of the family. She took upon herself all the petty material concerns to make the family’s life bearable.
Soon after his father's death, Pestalozzi's brother died, so all the mother's love focused on him and his sister. Henry often called himself "mama's boy." Also, because of the good family environment, he grew up trusting of all people, and considered each person beautiful in his own way. One of the important qualities that Babel formed was cleanliness. The maid really didn't like mess, and any small spot made her angry. But the main drawback of his childhood was his detachment from life. This atmosphere influenced the development in him of extreme concentration, constant thoughtfulness in everything.
The company of gentle and kind women in his childhood formed in him a focus on what concerns the feelings rather than the mind. I'M IN. Abramov writes in his book that the sight of a crushed worm made Heinrich cry, meeting a beggar, he gave everything he had, and often remained hungry, as he took his lunch portion to some poor man. This sensitivity to other people's grief, to other people's suffering remained in Pestalozzi throughout his life.
My grandfather and uncle had an open influence on this attitude towards the poor and needy. Pestalozzi's grandfather was a village pastor. His whole life was devoted to his parishioners and their needs. Grandfather not only religiously fulfilled his duty, but also passionately and sincerely loved the villagers, and his attitude towards the townspeople was skeptical. And if his sympathy for them was instinctive, and he could only influence the feelings of little Pestalozzi, then his uncle Götze was a conscious supporter of them. The latter all the time gave heated speeches, which could not help but affect the boy’s mind, about the oppressed situation of the villagers.
Now, after everything stated above, this extraordinary love for the common people becomes clear to us. Natural kindness and justice were combined with the influence on Pestalozzi of two women from the peasant class, the influence of his grandfather, who completely devoted himself to serving the people, with the influence of his uncle, who was a convinced democrat, and also, of course, with direct observation of the situation of the peasants.
He received his primary education first from his grandfather, then graduated from a regular German school, then from a traditional Latin school. Next, he entered college; after completing the course, he began to think about his future choice of activity.
When entering university, Pestalozzi wanted to become a theologian. However, he soon begins to think about the needs of the people and how to help them. The main reason for this was Pestalozzi's passion for educational and revolutionary ideas that came from France, primarily the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and concern for the fate of the common people living in poverty and ignorance. Pestalozzi knew the works of French enlighteners well and at the age of seventeen he read “Emile” by Rousseau. This book, like “The Social Contract,” made a huge impression on the young man and strengthened his intention to selflessly serve the people. Young Zurich residents, including Pestalozzi, organized a semi-legal circle. At meetings they discussed issues of history, politics, morality, and the problems of educating a new man in the spirit of Rousseau. Soon the circle was closed by the city authorities, and young Pestalozzi, among others, was briefly arrested.
But this arrest did not dampen Pestalozzi’s desire to help people. So he begins to study agriculture. And in 1774, he opened an “Institution for the Poor” in Neuhof (German Neuhof - new courtyard), in which he gathered up to fifty orphans and street children, among whom there were many children who often had no parents and no shelter at all. Wishing that the work he had begun would not pass without a trace for the country, that this shelter would not only be the first institution of its kind, but that it would be followed by a whole series of similar institutions in all parts of Switzerland, Pestalozzi, from the first days of the existence of this shelter of his, began to introduce the situation Swiss society is involved in it. The teacher’s completely new idea attracted people’s attention, and many famous Swiss publicists began to propagate it. Pestalozzi's idea aroused general sympathy, and special attention was also paid to the original establishment in Neuhof. Unfortunately, this sympathy of Swiss society was purely platonic.
One of the most important goals that Pestalozzi pursued in his orphanage was the education of homeless children. This goal was feasible due to the fact that Pestalozzi passionately loved his charges and put his whole soul into the business he had started. The responsibilities of the teacher and, in general, all the concerns about this huge number of children of different ages and often with the most bad habits acquired during a vagabond life, lay entirely on Pestalozzi, since there was nothing to support assistants. The teacher's only assistant was his wife. Together they made sure that the numerous residents of Neugofa were fed and clothed. They taught them how to work, taught them to read, and supervised them. Children, no matter how spoiled they are, always appreciate affection and become attached to those who love them. From the book by Y.V. Abramov, we learned that a year later the tramps collected in Neuhof were unrecognizable. They were neat, obedient, sweet children who tried their best to reward their “father” with the most diligent work, diligent study and impeccable behavior. This result was achieved in the absence of any punishments or artificial measures of encouragement in Neuhof, while fully maintaining children's liveliness and penchant for fun and games.
Pestalozzi wanted his orphanage to be maintained with funds earned by the children themselves. Pupils had to work in the fields, as well as on weaving and spinning looms. He selflessly devoted all his energies, teaching them field work in the summer and crafts in the winter. Thus, Pestalozzi made attempts in his institution to combine the education of children with productive labor.
Children could pay for the orphanage in which they lived and worked with their labor only through backbreaking physical labor, but Pestalozzi could not and did not want to exploit his pupils. He saw child labor, first of all, as a means of developing the physical strength, mental and moral abilities of children; he sought to give children not narrow craft skills, but versatile training. This is the most important pedagogical significance of Pestalozzi's Neuhof experience. Lacking the financial means to continue his experiment, Pestalozzi closed his shelter. However, this failure did not dissuade him from his chosen path. Over the next eighteen years, Pestalozzi began to engage in literary activities. He sought to draw attention to the solution of the same question: how to revive the economy of the peasants, make their lives prosperous, how to raise the moral and mental state of children? He publishes the socio-pedagogical novel "Lingard and Gertrude" (1781-1787), in which he develops his ideas about improving peasant life through reasonable farming methods and proper education of children. The novel was a great success. It has been translated into other languages. The novel tells how a simple, intelligent and respected peasant woman in her village, skillfully raising her children, convinced her fellow villagers to open a school in the village. From vague and ardent dreams, Pestalozzi moves on to the harsh prose of life: “it is possible to plug the hole from which the people’s misfortunes flow” only when the level of education of the people rises [cit. by 1]. But since the people have neither the means nor the strength to equip a large number of schools, education, according to Pestalozzi, should be transferred to mothers. To facilitate this task, mothers must be provided with special guidance, which was written by Pestalozzi.
The Legislative Assembly of the French Republic in 1792 awarded Pestalozzi the title of “French citizen” for the novel “Lingard and Gertrude” and for his outstanding teaching activities. In his old age, Pistolozzi had to return to his teaching career. In 1798, a bourgeois revolution took place in Switzerland, and the city of Stanz in Unterwalden suffered especially at this time. The Swiss government invited Pestalozzi to take over the education of street children who wandered through the ruins of the city. And he again gathered the guys around him, having no assistants, he himself coped with hundreds of not the most exemplary children. The government provided him with premises: “The premises for an orphanage were allocated in a nearby convent, long abandoned. It was a series of huge, damp and cold rooms that required major repairs to be suitable for habitation. Repairs were out of the question, since it was necessary to immediately collect the children who were dying among the ruins from hunger and cold (this was in December). The funds allocated to Pestalozzi were extremely meager, and the orphanage was constantly lacking in essentials." .
The same lack of funds forced Pestalozzi to be not only the head of an educational institution, but a teacher, treasurer, janitor, night watchman and even a nurse all rolled into one. His warmth, emotional responsiveness and love for children helped him overcome all difficulties. Pestalozzi strove to make the shelter a big family; he became a caring father and best friend for the children. Here he especially carefully organized and studied educational work and developmental training and conducted research work on these problems. In a letter to one of his friends about his stay in Stanza, he later wrote: “From morning to evening I was alone among them... My hand lay in their hand, my eyes looked into theirs. My tears flowed along with their tears, and my smile accompanied their smile. I had nothing: no home, no friends, no servants, there was only them." The orphanage pupils responded to Pestalozzi's fatherly care with sincere affection and love. The older guys soon became Pestalozzi's assistants. The pedagogical activity of the teacher was unexpectedly interrupted, as the French troops needed premises for a hospital, and he was forced to close the school and put the building at the disposal of the government.
Soon he managed to open a boarding school in Burgdorf and a department for training teachers. In 1805, Pestalozzi moved his institute to the French part of Switzerland - to Yverdon (German name - Iferten) and in the castle provided to him he created a large institute (secondary school and pedagogical educational institution). There the teacher's fame reaches its peak. Scientists, writers, and politicians visited this institute. Many children of aristocrats and wealthy bourgeois, who were preparing for universities or bureaucratic careers, studied there. Pestalozzi experienced great dissatisfaction because his teachings and activities were not used for the masses, but in the interests of the noble and rich. In 1825 he was forced to close the institute due to a complete lack of funds. Disappointed, Pestalozzi returns to Neuhof, where he began his teaching career half a century ago. Here he, already an eighty-year-old man, wrote his last work - “Swan Song” (1826).
In February 1827, Pestalozzi fell ill. He faced death calmly. His last words were: “I forgive my enemies, may they live in peace, and I am moving to eternal peace. I would like to live at least another month to finish my last labors; but still I thank Providence for calling me back from earthly life. And you, my loved ones, live in peace, seek happiness in a quiet home circle" [cit. according to 9, p.339].
February 1828 Pestalozzi died. His body was buried in the town of Birr.
In Neuhof and Stanz, I. G. Pestalozzi made a large number of observations and conclusions from his practical work, he outlined them in many of his famous works: “Lingard and Gertrude” (1781-1787), “Letter to a friend about his stay in Stanz” (1799) and some others. He thought a lot about his work and came to the conclusion that in order to develop natural forces in children, it was necessary to simplify the techniques and methods of teaching in primary school. This is how he came up with the idea of elementary (element-by-element) primary education as a tool for developing the student’s personality.
During those years of his life, when Pestalozzi led the “institutes” in Burgdorf and Yverdon, he decided to transform the idea of \u200b\u200belementary primary training into a certain concept, which became known as the “Pestalozzi Method”. This method was understood as a system of teaching children, focused on their comprehensive development, the formation of “mind, heart and hand.” I.G. Pestalozzi outlined the essence of his method in a number of essays: “Method. Memorandum of Pestalozzi” (1800), “How Gertrude teaches her children” (1801), “Memoir to Parisian friends about the essence and purpose of the method” (1802), “What does the method give to the mind and heart” (1806), “Memoir about the seminary in Canton Vaud” (1806), etc.
The leading concept in his pedagogical concept was a new interpretation of the idea of natural conformity of upbringing, understood as the need to build it in accordance with the inner nature of the child. This is the universal human essence of education and its tasks.
Pestalozzi suggested that the inclinations that a child is given from birth are capable of development. To them he highlighted the forces of human nature:
) the powers of knowledge, consisting of a predisposition to external and internal contemplation;
) skill strengths that grow from the inclinations for the all-round development of the body;
) the powers of the soul, growing from the inclinations to love, be ashamed and control oneself.
According to these points, elementary education was divided into mental, physical and moral. Pestalozzi wanted to emphasize that these components must develop in mutual action, so that one side of the personality does not receive greater development at the expense of the others.
Since I. G. Pestalozzi considered the harmony of development of the forces of human nature as the ideal of education, he considered the goal of education to be the development of a certain “total strength” in those being educated. It is thanks to it that a certain balance can be established between the mental, physical and moral forces of any individual. I. G. Pestalozzi considered the identification of such a balance of forces to be one of the leading tasks of initial training. With all this, the important point was that the child’s theoretical knowledge should not be divorced from practical skills. It was in the interaction of knowledge and skills that I.G. Pestalozzi envisioned the basis of self-development.
The elementary education method is a specific system of exercises to develop the child’s abilities. Pestalozzi developed a system of exercises for developing natural strength in children, based on theoretical ideas:
) a child from birth has inclinations, potential internal forces, which are characterized by a desire for development;
) multilateral and diverse activities of children in the learning process are the basis for the development and improvement of internal forces, their holistic development;
) the child’s activity in cognitive activity is a necessary condition for the acquisition of knowledge, a more perfect knowledge of the world around him.
I.G. Pestalozzi believed that the initial education of children should be built taking into account their age characteristics, for which the child himself should be carefully studied. Various pedagogical means that serve to develop all the internal and external forces of the child must be guided by knowledge of the child’s nature, their needs and aspirations.
Pestalozzi considered the initial moment in cognition to be the sensory perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. That is why he attached particular importance to the principle of clarity in teaching children. He considered observation as the most important source of knowledge. During the training process I.G. Pestalozzi recommended being guided by three rules: learning to look at each object as a whole, introducing the shape of each object, its measure and proportions, introducing the name of the observed phenomena. In this regard, he developed the so-called alphabet of observations, consisting of sequential series of exercises that help the child to establish and determine the characteristic features of the observed object, group them based on the feature and thereby form its image. Of course, this kind of exercise is productive. But in practice, problems often arose due to the overestimation of the role of mechanical exercises in personality development.
Developing ideas for developmental school education and elementary education, I.G. Pestalozzi was one of the founders of the concept of developmental education: he viewed teaching subjects more as a means of targeted development of abilities than as a means of acquiring knowledge. Pestalozzi’s idea of developmental education was introduced by the great Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky called it "Pestalozzi's great discovery." The identification and justification of the developmental function of teaching posed fundamentally new tasks for the teacher: developing clear concepts among students in order to activate their cognitive powers. The idea of developmental education in Pestalozzi's concept carried a potentially innovative force, becoming the subject of close study and development in the pedagogical theories of outstanding teachers of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Considering the tasks of the public school, I.G. Pestalozzi emphasized its special role in moral education, since the final results of school education and all its means are to achieve a common goal - the education of true humanity. The basis for the moral development of the child I.G. Pestalozzi saw reasonable family relations, and school education can be successful only if it acts in full harmony with family relations. The love and affection of teachers and students for each other are the principles on which it is necessary to rely in educational institutions.
The simplest initial element of physical development of I.G. Pestalozzi considered the ability to move in the joints of a child. He proposed building a system of school elementary gymnastics based on the natural daily activities of a child. He also included the development of sense organs in the content of physical education. Therefore, the theory of elementary education is considered the center of Pestalozzi’s pedagogical system. According to this theory, education should begin with the simplest things and gradually move on to more complex ones.
The theory of elementary education consists of physical, labor, moral and mental education. Each side must develop by closely interacting with the others. Only then will a person receive harmonious development.
Pestalozzi considered the development and strengthening of all the physical strengths and capabilities of the child as the goal of physical education. It was based on the child’s natural desire to move, to grab onto everything, etc.
Pestalozzi believed that physical education should come first. The mother, who is feeding and caring for the child, should already be involved in its physical development at this time. You can exercise children's strength by performing the simplest movements that every child makes when eating, drinking, walking or lifting something. If such exercises are systematized, this will develop the child physically and prepare him for work.
Pestalozzi assigned a large place to military exercises in this type of education. At the Iferten Institute, all these activities were closely combined with sports games, hikes and excursions. Physical education took place in close connection with moral and labor education. Pestalozzi believed that if children’s physical work is properly organized, this will contribute to their moral and mental development. Pestalozzi wanted to create a special “ABC of skills” that would contain physical exercises in the field of the simplest types of labor activity: hitting, carrying, throwing, pushing, waving, wrestling, etc. Having mastered such an ABC, a child could comprehensively develop his physical strength, as well as master basic labor skills that will be necessary in any social and professional activity.
Pestalozzi believed that the main task of education is to form a harmoniously developed person who should take a useful part in the life of society in the future. Morality is developed in a child through constant practice of doing things that benefit someone else. Pestalozzi considered the simplest element of this upbringing to be the child’s love for his mother; it arises from the satisfied needs of the child’s body. It is in the family that the foundations of a child’s moral behavior are laid. That's why Pestalozzi called his father's house a school of morals. Further development of the child's moral strength should take place in school, in which the teacher's relationship with children is built on the basis of his fatherly love for them.
Pestalozzi insisted that the moral education of children is formed through the development of moral feelings and moral inclinations, and not through moral teaching. He also considered it important to train children in moral actions, which require self-control and endurance from them, and form their will.
Pestalozzi's moral education is closely connected with religious education. Pestalozzi criticizes ritual religion and speaks of natural religion. He understood it as the development of high moral feelings.
Pestalozzi's thoughts on mental education are rich and insightful. Pestalozzi believed that any learning should be built on observation and experience and rise to conclusions and generalizations. As a result of observations, the child receives visual and auditory perceptions, which awaken in him thoughts and the need to speak. In an effort to simplify and psychologize learning, Pestalozzi came to the idea that there are the simplest elements of all knowledge about things and objects, by assimilating which a person understands the world around him. He considered these elements to be number, shape, word. During the learning process, the child masters form through measurement, number through counting, and words through the development of speech. Thus, elementary learning comes down primarily to the ability to measure, count and speak.
Pestalozzi greatly changed the content of primary school education at that time. He included reading, writing, arithmetic with geometry, measurement, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and the necessary knowledge of geography, history and natural science. He also significantly expanded the curriculum and created a new teaching method that helps develop mental strength in children.
Pestalozzi considered visualization to be the most important basis for learning. Without the use of visualization, it is impossible to achieve correct ideas about the environment, as well as develop thinking and speech. Pestalozzi built the entire learning process through a gradual and consistent transition from part to whole. He tried to make this path universal. In his opinion, training should proceed in strict sequence. But this is not correct, since two transitions can equally exist in learning: from part to whole, from whole to part.
Pestalozzi also believed that a teacher should not only fill the minds of children, but also develop practical skills. He argued that if a child has mastered knowledge, but does not know how to use it, then this is a big vice.
Pestalozzi also assigned a large role to the teacher. He considered a teacher not just an educated person who is ready to pass on knowledge to children, but a person who is capable, first of all, of sincerely loving children, becoming a father for them, and giving appropriate material to the child for the development of his natural powers. And this is only possible if the teacher builds his education on the basis of knowledge of the physical and mental characteristics of students. Pestalozzi initially set himself the task of training and educating peasant children, as well as creating a public school. To achieve his goals, I.G. Pestalozzi tried to create his own methods of initial training.
So, the teacher considered the development of speech in the child and the replenishment of his vocabulary as the basis for creating methods for teaching the native language. Pestalozzi proposed a sound method of teaching literacy, which was extremely important at that time.
The teacher creates a series of instructions to increase the child’s vocabulary; for this, he closely connects teaching the native language with clarity and knowledge of natural science, geography and history.
Through complex exercises I.G. Pestalozzi tried to achieve positive results by combining all the components together, but in practice it turned out to be formal exercises in composing sentences that described the characteristics of objects.
To learn how to write, the teacher recommended doing exercises in advance on drawing lines, which are elements of letters. Even today, in schools, this method of teaching writing is used. Also for the development of speech I.G. Pestalozzi connected it with learning to measure. That is, children take a square and divide it into parts, resulting in different shapes. Teachers should sketch them, this will serve as a basis for writing.
The modern arithmetic box is based on the methods of the Swiss teacher. He objected to the methods of teaching arithmetic and formed the concept of number, starting with the element of each integer - one. First, the child learns to work with one, and then the counting gradually becomes more complicated. To teach children fractions, he took a square and showed on it the relationship between the parts and the whole.
Also I.G. Pestalozzi also proposed his own methods for teaching geography. He based it on the principle from close to distant, that is, based on direct observations of the area surrounding children, it leads to the perception of more complex geographical concepts. He also suggested, for better perception, sculpting reliefs from clay, and then only moving on to maps to study them.
Thus, I.G. Pestalozzi created a fairly extensive school curriculum for primary grades and even gave methodological instructions for a positive effect.
Conclusion
Pestalozzi was an outstanding teacher of the past. Now we can understand for ourselves why I.G. often Pestalozzi is considered the "father of modern pedagogy." It is easy to see that our modern pedagogy has borrowed a lot from Pestalozzi.
The Swiss teacher selflessly devoted all his strength to raising poor children. His great merit lies in the fact that a huge role should be given to the upbringing of the child, and also in the fact that it should be carried out gradually from simple to complex.
Before his education, Pestalozzi put forward a progressive task - to harmoniously develop all the natural forces and abilities of a person. The teacher developed a number of important ideas about the physical, labor, moral, and mental education of a child, insisted on expanding the content of education in primary school, strove to make it close to the people, and paid great attention to the labor training of children and their preparation for life. Pestalozzi developed the general principles of primary education and specific methods of primary education.
However, the teacher sometimes overestimated the role of mechanical exercises in the development of thinking and took the path of justifying the theory of formal education.
But the idea put forward by I.G. Pestalozzi's ideas about schooling undoubtedly had a positive impact on the further development of teaching activities.
It seems to us that modern pedagogy should remember the great pedagogical principles of the famous teacher and note their true significance for public education and the pedagogical system, which is based on love and respect for children and their moral and mental personality.
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