The history of ancient philosophy falls into four periods:

1. Natural Philosophical: origin and formation (9th-early 5th century BC)

2. Classical: maturity and flowering (5th-4th centuries BC)

3. Hellenistic: decline (this is Greek philosophy of the Hellenistic and Latin philosophical periods) The collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great (late 4th - early 1st centuries BC)

4. Roman: period of decline and death during the era of the Roman Empire (1st-5th centuries AD)".

Natural philosophical period:

The main goal is the search for substance, the single beginning of the universe, the cosmos

4 elements:

Miletskaya

3 wise men: Thales, Anaxemander, Anaxemenes

Thales-substance - water, and the remaining elements are obtained using it

Anaxemander-substance- appeiron(a substance that contains an infinite number of saints)

Anaxemen-substance - air, the rest of it

2. Heroclitus

The primal principle is fire.

According to the law of logos, the world is eternal, because it is constantly renewed. A moment arises when everything burns, a world fire occurs, but then everything is restored. "Life arises from opposites."

The fundamental principles are atoms.

There are two worlds - one perceives with our senses, the other is invisible, it is given only in the mind, it is the essence, the foundation of everything.

OporiiZinona:

Achilles and the tortoise

Flying arrow

5. Pythagorean school

Substance-numbers, their proportion governs the world. 10 is a sacred number.

Pythagoras criticized tyranny and democracy, loved the aristocracy. The tyrants tried to kill him.

Classical period

Socrates , Plato, Aristotle

Attention was paid not to the study of nature, but to the improvement of man and society.

The Sophists (teachers of wisdom) were the first to pay attention to the abilities and qualities of man. We began to develop the science of thinking - logic, rhetoric

“Man is the measure of all things.” “Man, know yourself!”

Government must be formulated on the basis of general agreement between people and their common interests. (Element of contract theory)

2 generations of sophists:

Old

Paying attention to human abilities, there was a cult of thinking and speaking. Physical labor was considered worthy only of slaves. For the free, only sports. Sport is needed for the development of beauty and for the ability to control slaves, since there were three slaves for every free man.

Young

Used the teachings of the elders.

Over time, the sophists gained notoriety due to the fact that they began to forgive money for their teachings.

Hellenistic period

Associated with the formation and collapse of the Empire of Alexander the Great

4 philosophical schools:

Philosophy of kineks

Stoic philosophy

Hedonists

Epicureanism

Cynics

The main values ​​are the internal qualities of a person. Shows indifference to everyday comforts.

Famous representative - Deogen Sinonsky

Stoics

(From 3 in BC to 3 in AD)

Representatives: Zenon of Kiteon, Klenf, Chrysiff

The most important element in space is fire, which lives in accordance with universal law. There is a world soul- pure ether.

The universe is one, living being, soul.

A person must follow the logic of this soul. The human will plays a decisive role in everything.

Everything in the world is predetermined -> there is universal expediency -> humility, persistent tolerance of life’s adversities.

Hedonism

All moral standards come from the opposition between propagation and suffering.

The meaning of life is to achieve planting = benefits

Representative-Aristippus Kirinsky

Schools are divided into 2 parts:

Justified any pleasure

Not all pleasure is good, only that which leads to happiness.

Epicureanism

The idea of ​​happiness was continued by Epicurus, the creator of the school of Epicureanism.

Pleasure is contemplation of the wisdom of nature. The state must promote this enjoyment.

He created the school Garden of Epicurus.

At the entrance to the school there was a jug of water and the inscription “Guest, you will feel good here, here pleasure is the highest good.”

Roman period

Pragmatic period

Representatives: Plutarch and Cicero

Marcus Tullius Cicero

The main idea, the desire is to create a doctrine of a perfect state. Based on the ideas of Plato and Aristotle. It is based on Aristotle's teaching on the forms of government.

Identified three beautiful forms of state

Monarchy, royal power

Aristocracy

Democracy

*each form degenerates into its opposite

Compares a perfect state with a skillfully composed bouquet, consisting of different flowers that complement each other, and not with a broom that sweeps away all the best from the state.

A necessary condition is the rule of law.

The Acropolis is one of the most famous works of ancient classics.

“Ancient classics” is the definition that art historians of the Italian Renaissance gave to the most ancient culture known at that time - ancient Roman. During the Renaissance, the monuments of Ancient Greece were not yet familiar to Europeans, since the territory that Greece once occupied was under the rule of the Turks. In the 19th century Thanks to excavations carried out by archaeologists Schliemann and Evens, Europeans were able to get acquainted with earlier cultures. Outstanding works of ancient culture were called classical (the concept of “classics” was introduced back in the 2nd century AD by the ancient Roman writer Aulus Gellius), that is, exemplary, worthy of imitation, and antiquity itself began to be revered as the source of basic ideas that to this day day lead European civilization. The development of ancient classics began in the architecture of the ancient Greeks and underwent several stages: - from 600 to 480 BC. - archaic - the period when the Greeks repelled the attack of the Persians. This is the time of development of the Doric order, powerful columns with virtually no decoration.

Doric Temple at Segeste. Sicily. 5th century BC.

From 480 to 323 BC. (year of death of Alexander the Great) - a heyday when the Ionic style developed, more refined and decorated than the Doric.

Ionian temple Erechtheion in Athens (421-406 BC)

Last third of the 4th century. BC e. - 30 BC - Hellenism, which ended with the Roman conquest of Egypt, which until that time was under Greek influence. At this time, the Corinthian order appeared - the most luxurious of all orders

Corinthian order. Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens (6th century BC to 2nd century AD)

Along with religious buildings, secular buildings began to appear in the Hellenistic era: theaters, markets, sports arenas, as well as residential buildings and palaces, altars, and tombs. The ancient classics of residential buildings of this period are represented by a richly decorated peristyle house with painted walls. The basis of ancient classics is materialism, practicality, logic, and meaningfulness. The empirical nature of creating the forms of buildings in the art of the Sumerians and Egyptians was replaced by precise and logical mathematical calculations. This approach contributed to the emergence and development of canons, free from intuitive perception and imitation of more ancient methods of constructing structures. Beauty, according to the ancient Greeks, is physical and material (this culture is characterized by anthropomorphism - humanization). The ancient Greek philosopher Protagoras said that the measure of all things is man. Based on the ratios of the sizes of parts of the human body, classical architectural columns were created - an element of the order system. The principle of physicality of ancient classics was also reflected in the transmission of basic ideas and philosophical views through the creation of sculptural compositions as visual visual images.

Bas-reliefs on the columns of the Temple of Artemis of Ephesus depict scenes from myths about the Greek gods.

Ancient classics in Greek architecture are tectonic, logical and expressive. The principle of the materiality of an object was emphasized by the concept of “quaternary” - the unity of surface, volume, line and point. For example, the composition of the Athens Acropolis is not built on a holistic perception of space, but on the unification of individual parts, oriented towards a specific view of the viewer - like creating a sculpture. Its characteristic feature is the free placement of individual structures. The visitor approached the Acropolis not along the central axis, but from the side, and all the buildings gradually unfolded before his eyes.

View of the Acropolis ensemble.

The Greeks perceived symmetry not only as the uniform distribution of different parts of the building relative to the central axis, but also as the consistency of all elements of the structure.

Temple of Hephaestus in Athens - characteristic features: severity, rhythm and symmetry.

O. Choisy (Choisy, born in 1841 - engineer, associate professor, author of theoretical works on antiquity) wrote that the Greek ancient classics are characterized by geometry, but at the same time there is no scale. The larger the facade of the building, the larger the doors became, the wider and higher the steps. In Greek architecture, a modular canon was used, according to which there is no connection between the purpose of structural elements and their sizes, but there is rhythm and symmetry, creating the basis for the harmonious perception of the structure.

Geometry of the Pantheon.

The proportions of the building were designed to resemble the relationships between parts of the human body.

Proportions of the Pantheon and Atlas.

A distinctive feature of ancient classics was the order. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio - ancient Roman architect in the 1st century. AD - called the pattern of division of the load-bearing and supported parts of the structure: columns and entablature with the word “ordo” - order. He also coined the definition of “triad” - the basis of the order system, meaning the unity of benefit, beauty and strength. A characteristic element of the order were classical columns, which visually demonstrated the distribution of loads in the building structure, emphasized the tectonic nature of the building and created a vertical division of the facade into separate, rhythmically arranged parts. Instead of classical columns, human figures made of stone - caryatids and atlases - were often used.

Caryatids of the Erechtheion temple in the Acropolis (5th century BC)

After the conquest of Greece by Ancient Rome, Greek ancient classics received a new round in their development. The decor in Roman buildings became more luxurious than in Greek ones. The Romans chose mainly luxurious Corinthian classical columns to decorate facades, later enriching the order system with another order - the composite order, in which they increased the amount of decor. The ancient classics of Ancient Rome have been preserved to this day in the monumental ensembles of ancient stadiums, library theaters, baths, and triumphal arches. Researchers point out that rationalism and a materialistic approach in the architecture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome during the heyday of Christianity lost their relevance. However, ancient classics laid the foundation for European culture and rational artistic thinking of the classical art direction in the 16th-19th centuries. The canonization of ancient classics in architecture was created by J.B. da Vignola (Vignola.1507 -1573), describing five order styles based on ancient examples. Later, his system was used in classical architectural traditions in different historical periods. Renaissance, neoclassicism, classicism, baroque, empire style, Biedemeier, romanticism, “northern modern” used both classical columns and decor, and their modified forms. Antique classics are still popular today, and recently they are most often used in the construction of individual houses. When creating classic houses, they are based on strict forms, symmetry, and rhythm. The decor adorning the facades is based on classicism: moldings, rosettes, platbands, corner elements, pilasters, classical columns, bas-reliefs, cornices.

After restoration, the house is decorated with products made from polyurethane based on ancient classics.

Polyurethane products decorating buildings are not inferior in appearance and characteristics to decor made from traditional materials: stone, plaster, concrete, and buildings acquire a noble and solemn appearance.

Now we begin to characterize the most fruitful and positive period in the development of Ancient philosophy, which received the designation of the Ancient Classics, a period of a perfect example of philosophizing, pursuing the only goal - comprehending the truth and creating methods of cognition that lead us to truly true, reliable knowledge. This was the period of the creation of the historically first universal philosophical systems that grasped the world as a single whole and gave it a rational interpretation. We can say that this was a period of a kind of “creative competition” of thinkers-philosophers, although they held different positions, but pursued one goal - the search for universal truth and the elevation of philosophy as a rational form of description, explanation and understanding of the world.

In socio-economic and political terms, this was the heyday of ancient slave society, democracy and political life, art and science of that period. Economically, it was an era of prosperity, and spiritually, the rise of the principles of high ethics and morality. It seemed to become a model for civilized and cultural development, a model of humanism for all subsequent stages of European and not only European culture and history. Although Greek society of this period also had its own internal contradictions, as indeed for any other. But we can still say that agreement and unity rather prevailed in it than disagreement and disunity.

We can say that the ancestor, the “father” of classical ancient philosophy is Socrates (469-399 BC). This was an outstanding personality in all respects: he was not only a great philosopher-thinker, but an outstanding person and citizen. He amazingly combined his philosophical position and practical actions and deeds in harmonious unity. His integrity as a philosopher and as a person has such high charm and authority that he had a huge influence not only on all subsequent stages of philosophy, both European and world, but became a symbol, an example of an authentic, true person for all times. “Socratic man” is the ideal of man, not as God, but as “an earthly being close to all people.” It can be said that the life of Socrates is an example of demonstrative service to truth and humanity.

Socrates, first of all, draws attention to the peculiarities of philosophy and philosophizing, to the specifics of philosophical knowledge. It lies in the fact that philosophy, through general concepts about an object, tries to discover a single basis, an essence that is generally valid for a number of phenomena or all phenomena, which is the law of the existence of things. The subject of philosophy, according to Socrates, cannot be nature, since we are not capable of either changing natural phenomena or creating them. Therefore, the subject of philosophy is man and his actions, and self-knowledge, knowledge of oneself, is the most important task. Socrates raises the question of the goals and practical purpose of philosophical knowledge for man. Thus, philosophy is given an anthropological 1 1 Anthropology is the science of man. character. Socratic philosophy is one of the first forms of anthropological philosophy. After Socrates in philosophy, the problem of man acquired the meaning of a fundamental problem. What is the purpose of philosophy according to Socrates? The goal and task of philosophy is to teach a person the art of life and to be happy in this life. He gives a very simple definition of happiness, which is essentially universal - happiness is a state of a person when he experiences neither mental nor physical suffering. Eudlaimon is a happy person. The basis of happiness, according to Socrates, can be true knowledge about the good and the good, i.e., which no one doubts, and which does not lead to mistakes and delusions that are the cause of unhappiness. On this basis, Socrates believes that true knowledge is the true good, which is based not so much on benefit as on goodness. By good, Socrates understands bringing benefit to another, without pursuing any selfish gain. But how to achieve and is knowledge of true goodness and goodness achievable, is true knowledge of anything achievable? After all, true knowledge has a special attribute. It is universally significant and obvious to everyone and therefore no one doubts it. Therefore, Truth reveals the universal, essential foundations of the existence of phenomena in a certain quality.

The only way to achieve true knowledge is the method of dialogue, during which the truth is revealed to the participants in the dialogue. According to Socrates, dialogue is a mutual and voluntary search for true knowledge about something, clothed in a system of general concepts under which we subsume specific phenomena. Dialogue is a creative process of searching for truth. Addressing his interlocutor, Socrates says: “And yet I want to think with you and look for what it is” (true virtue). (See Plato. Meno. Selected dialogues and true good). In the dialogue Laches, Socrates asks the question: “What does it mean to define what virtue is?” and answers: “It means to find out what is one and the same in everything, to find in the virtue in question that one thing that covers all cases of its manifestation” 11 Cassidy F.H. Socrates. (Thinkers of the past). - M.: Mysl, 1976. - P. 70-74.. This means that truth, and especially philosophical truth, is correct knowledge about the essence, which has a universally valid character. In this regard, Socrates emphasizes the rationalistic nature of philosophy, capable of resisting mysticism, prejudice and ignorance. Therefore, Socrates insists on the assertion that philosophy is the only impartial form of self-knowledge by a person of his true essence. Hence his motto-aphorism: “Know yourself.”

In dialogue there is always a dialectic of opinion and knowledge, opinion and truth. Opinion, i.e. a statement about something turns into a true judgment only when it turns into a system of concepts that fix what is generally valid. And the dialectics of thinking consists in the transition from one type of concept to another, from particular to general, more general content, from simpler knowledge to more complex one.

According to Socrates, the goal of philosophy is also for man to gain true freedom, the content of which should be to clarify what depends on man and what does not depend on man, and within these boundaries; Based on true knowledge, a person acts accurately and without error. Therefore, a person is free only to the extent that he knows himself. But according to Socrates, true and genuine freedom also includes a moral and ethical component. Freedom, free-thinking is the path to self-improvement, to the perfect ideal of a person, to a kalokagatic person (i.e., perfect in spiritual and moral terms). Socrates insists: “After all, all I do is go around and convince each of you, both young and old, to take first and most of all care not about the body or money, but about the soul, so that it may be as good as possible.” 11 Plato . Selected dialogues. Apology of Socrates. - M.: Kh.L., 1965. - P. 294..

This is the humanistic and educational character of Socratic philosophy. Socrates is a model not only of genuine philosophizing, but also of a genuine combination of philosophy and practice of action, responsibility as a thinker and as a person. In essence, Socrates conducts a “social experiment” on himself, in which he tests the possibility and achievability of the connection and indissolubility of philosophical truths and principles with direct life manifestation. Which always requires extraordinary courage from a thinker and a person, as demonstrated by Socrates at his trial. Let’s finish our characterization of Socrates’ philosophy with Michel Montaigne’s statement about him: “It is truly easier to speak like Aristotle and live like Caesar than to speak and live like Socrates. This is precisely the limit of difficulty and perfection: no art will add anything here.”

Speaking about the political thought of Ancient Greece and Rome, it is necessary to keep in mind a number of circumstances related to the fact that the universal form of social existence of ancient civilization was a special structure of human connections - the polis.

Polis (Greek polis - city, state; Latin equivalent - civitas) is a civil community. According to Aristotle, a polis grows out of a rural community, the basis of which is the family (“odnoochazhniki”, “odnokolochniki”): the merger of several villages gives a polis that has a number of characteristics that the village does not have. The latter does not have an acropolis (fortified citadel) containing shrines and an eternal flame (common civic hearth); it also does not have an area for a general meeting, porticoes, temples, gymnasiums, theaters, walls; the policy has all this. But the main thing in a polis is not walls, not buildings and ships, but civil, human connections; polis - a set of obligations to the state, fellow citizens, the sum of family and friendly relations. According to Cicero, civitas are, first of all, citizens and the “common cause” that binds them, the “property of the people”: sanctuaries, porticoes, streets, laws and other institutions, rights, courts, voting, customs, all kinds of mutual affairs and settlements. In other words, the urban community represents, first of all, a spiritual connection between people that turns them into citizens.

“... parents are dear, children are dear, relatives and close friends are dear, but all the affections of all people together are contained only in the fatherland, for which a good citizen will not hesitate to suffer even death if it benefits the fatherland.”

(Cicero. On duties, I, 53).

Interpretation:

In another of his works, “On the State” (III, 43-45), Cicero points out that civil freedom and rights are an obligatory feature of the state as “the property of the people.” In conditions where these elements are absent, as, for example, in Syracuse during the reign of the tyrant Dionysius or in Athens, when thirty tyrants seized power there, there is no state, although the city, its ancient glory, beautiful appearance, etc. - all this remains.

The polis is the only place where a person is a full citizen; and vice versa, only a citizen of the polis is a person. According to Aristotle, all creatures living outside the boundaries of the polis community are either above man - superhuman entities, gods, or below him - morally underdeveloped creatures, animals (Politics, 1253 a 4-5).

Finally, the polis, according to classical ancient ideas, is a naturally occurring animate body, in which its separate part, the human citizen, being the bearer of the good of the whole and participating in it, has no meaning in itself; the order of political connection is part of the general cosmic order; as a single body, the polis was clearly perceived by fellow citizens twice: as a national assembly and as a military system.

The structure of the polis is formed by the following main elements, associated with some fundamentally important features of the polis culture.

Land ownership

In ancient society, a mandatory prerequisite for property was belonging to a civil community: only a free citizen was the full owner of the land. On the other hand, only the civil community had the supreme right to dispose of and control all land property. Hence the desire for equality of allotments and their inalienability. Sparta called itself a "community of equals"; the legendary Romulus determined, according to legend, the size of one plot of two yugera (slightly more than 0.5 hectares), which provided a “living wage”. And although the principles of inalienability and equality of allotments were not observed, they were not openly opposed to them.

Citizenship Institute

A polis is a collection of citizens equal in dignity. But at the same time, those who received freedom by decision of the national assembly were excluded from the number of citizens (or full citizens): metics and slaves, young men who had not reached the age of majority, and elders who had crossed a certain age limit. In fact, there has always been a certain gradation of the fullness of rights: full citizens, unequal citizens (“citizens only in a relative sense,” as Aristotle put it), and those without rights.

Definition :

Aristotle owns the following definitions of full citizenship: 1) citizen - one who has participation in the legislative or judicial power; 2) citizens should be considered those who participate in the court, and in the national assembly; 2) citizens - those who are included in the civil lists: these (if we also exclude minors as future citizens and elders as full citizens in the past) are not slaves, not foreign settlers and not freedmen (but persons whose father and mother freeborn)

(Politics, 1275 a - 1275 b 20).

NB: Descent from a free father and mother as a condition of citizenship was legalized in Athens from 451 BC. Pericles, and on the basis of this legalization, many were deprived of civil rights and sold into slavery.

Citizenship was thus hereditary, and democracy was traditional, “genetic” in nature. The totality of civil rights (the right to hold elected positions, to be judges, to take part in the elections of officials; the right to marry Athenian women; the right to own real estate; the right to make public sacrifices) constituted the honor (time) of a citizen, or the privileges of his civil honor.

Civil uprising

The world of the polis is the world of “similar” individuals, which presupposes the equal participation of all citizens in the exercise of power and military service. The position of a warrior is equal to the position of a citizen. From the middle of the 7th century. BC. The basis of the military power of the state becomes the heavily armed infantryman, the hoplite, who takes his place in close formation, the phalanx. Anyone who can pay the cost of equipping a hoplite (and in Athens these are the zeugites, small owners who make up the demos) is equal in rights to the aristocratic horsemen. Moreover, this means a radical change in the fundamental psychological attitude. The characteristics of a valiant equestrian husband were: personal dignity based on purely personal superiority (aristeia) and, above all, on physical prowess; courage, which was drawn from exaltation, rage (timos) and manifested itself as divinely inspired fury, leading to victory achieved in single combat. The hoplite is unknown to the duel, he is a participant in the battle “elbow to elbow”, who must maintain the formation and not leave his place; its main characteristics are: cool-headed sanity, self-control and discipline. The phalanx turns the hoplite into an interchangeable unit, into an element similar to any other similar element - like a city citizen.

The People's Assembly is a special form of self-government; its composition is formed by the same people who are part of the people's militia. The ancient world did not know a representative system, since it was not needed: the size of the policy was too small (Athens in its heyday consisted of 10-15 thousand houses and, accordingly, citizens).

The Assembly, being the highest authority, made the most important decisions, laws and elected officials, magistrates. The public power of these officials went back to the institution of archons (from the Greek arche, beginning, power, supremacy, superiority). The electoral system arose after, according to Aristotle, the Codrids renounced their royal dignity; archons, initially elected for a term of ten years, are subsequently elected annually: the “arche” is thus established each time as a result of a decision made by the assembly in the framework of elections that involved a struggle of opinions and discussion. The last circumstance is the decisive factor that turned the spoken word in the ancient world into a universal means of sociocultural communication and the main instrument of public power. The power of persuasion is based on free argumentation within the framework of discussion. The latter presupposes the presence of the public as an arbiter, making a decision by show of hands. The speeches have the character of antithetical evidence; knowledge, thinking techniques, moral values ​​and problems are brought to the square, made public and become the subject of open discussion.

Interpretation:

S.L. Utchenko, speaking about the so-called oro-acoustic orientation of ancient culture, argues that neither in the classical period of Greek history, nor at the polis level of Roman history, “writing never took, and could not take over, the living word”; “writing, even at the stage of the invention of the phonetic alphabet (which began to be used by the Greeks, apparently, from the 9th-8th centuries BC) had not yet turned into a means of mass communication.” In the conditions of using writing primarily to record material “of an official and documentary nature (reports, legislative acts, contracts, etc.)”, as well as the lack of accessible books and insufficient literacy of people, as well as taking into account the wide the needs of awareness of the population (due to the civil nature of the polis community, governed by a people's assembly, requiring personal participation and discussion of all matters in speeches) - the only possible option was the “orientation of all the most informative “components” of ancient culture towards auditory, acoustic perception.

Writing is not a special skill cultivated by the priestly class, but is an element of education. Laws are recorded in publicly accessible written form and are precise and permanent. Law and justice are interpreted as a universal rule, equally applicable to everyone; justice (oikaiosyne, dikaion), rising above all, is nevertheless subject to joint discussion and decretive change, for it is based on fair equality (to ison).

Classical antiquity is characterized by a pessimistic worldview. As soon as the age of heroes is contrasted with the present time, in which “iron rules”, and an insurmountable distance is established between the gods and man, the image of the divine king as the source of virtues of all classes - priests, warriors, farmers - is debunked. From now on, the gods are on Olympus, man is in his history. History is fleeting and at the same time full of dangers; the polis is likened to a ship wrecked in a storm (Solon).

Finally, classical antiquity is characterized by an ethnogeographical division of the world into West and East. The East as the opposite of the West (Western Mediterranean) - Western Asia. The rivalry of the Hellenes with the barbarians inhabiting this region of the rising sun is the main idea of ​​Herodotus. But this division is not the only one: Hellas, the West also turns out to be the “middle”, and therefore the best part of the inhabited earth (ecumene), since the virtue characteristic of the Hellenes includes simultaneously civil valor (free submission to the law), and courage, and skillful mind: something that neither the northern nor the eastern barbarians have in totality (Politics, 1327 b 20-30).

1) This period began Socrates(469 – 399 BC), which was

a native of Athens. An external threat (the Persians) required the consolidation of the resources and forces of the Greeks.

The construction of the fleet began. Athens became the center of fleet construction. Huge financial and raw material resources were concentrated there. This led to the development of philosophy in Greece. One of the first philosophers was Socrates. His student, Plato, wrote his works in the form of a dialogue with his teacher Socrates. It is in this form that the philosophy of Socrates has reached us: philosophy should concentrate its efforts on understanding man. The essence of a person is his immortal soul, which a person must take care of first of all. It is important for a person to know what good and evil are, then the person will behave properly. The soul must command the body and all its impulses “Knowledge is knowledge only when it is expressed in conceptual form” - this is one of the most important theses of Socrates.

This thesis helped the development of logical research in Europe. Socratic method: communication with people took the form of leading questions. The method of Socratic irony: “I know that I know nothing” - by answering simple-minded questions, the questioner comes to a contradiction; maieutics - the questioner comes to the truth himself, without outside explanations or prompts, again, answering questions. Irony and maieutics are two sides of the Socratic method.

Socrates was condemned to death and died after drinking a cup of poison.

2) The greatest achievement of ancient philosophy was the activity Plato

(427 – 347 BC). He came from an ancient royal family. Plato (broad) was a poet. Then he became a student of Socrates. Plato created an integral system of objective idealism: he recognized the existence of a world of ideas (ideas are eternal, absolute and unchangeable). Ideas cannot be sensed by the senses, which interfere with the perception of the world of ideas. The body for Plato is the prison of the soul. Cognition is the process of the soul remembering what it knew before entering the body. Plato believed in the transmigration of souls. To penetrate the world of ideas you need to distract yourself from feelings and the outside world. The world of ideas is an ordered system of absolute entities, a pyramid of ideas. The base of the pyramid is small ideas. The top of the pyramid is the idea of ​​Good (the highest good)

Plato elevated mathematics to the rank of religious activity. The soul consists of 3 parts:

Reasonable.

Strong-willed (a person’s desire for fame, etc.).

Sensual (or affective)

Plato was a philosopher-poet: the soul is like a chariot with two horses, where the driver is the mind (the rational part of the soul), one horse is “lust” (the volitional part), the other horse is “ardor” (the affective part). In 387 BC. Plato organized a school - the Academy. For Plato, the ideal state consists of three classes:

1. Wars (the volitional principle dominates)

   Farmers (the sensual principle predominates).

Aristotle's philosophy

Aristotle- student of Plato. 335 BC organized his own school - the Lyceum (peripatetic school). He was the teacher of A. Makedonsky. Aristotle is the universal genius of the ancient world. He made a huge contribution to the development of ancient logic. “Organon” is a collection of logical treatises. He was interested in physics, ethics, social sciences. philosophical ethics, etc. He studied metaphysics. Designates and defines philosophy as the first science. Only in the 2nd century. BC. his writings were made public. Metaphysics is a deep and fundamental explanation of the problems, the foundations of reality.

Aristotle is a philosopher and analyst. Aristotle's philosophy shows fluctuations between materialism and idealism. Rejects Plato's thesis that there is a world of ideas independent of things. Ideas cannot exist without things; they act as substances. of things. Distinguishes 4 principles:

2. Action.

   Purpose (ultimate cause).

The relationship between matter and form is very complex: matter is what things are made of, form is the design of a thing, its essence, the algorithm by which the thing is built..

The concept of “being” is ambiguous. Considers being as categories. Categories are the highest forms (kinds) of being. There are 10 categories: the main category of essence, quality, quantity, relationship, action, suffering, place, time, position, possession.

Being as, act and potency. Actual existence is realized in reality. Potential existence is realized in the future, it is only the possibility of existence - the sphere of unformed matter. Actual being has greater priority. Being is truth. Belongs to one's own intellect. Being in its own precise meaning is substance or essence, which means matter or form, their synthesis.

Form is an algorithm for organizing things - the active principle, matter - the inert (passive) principle. Form has an analogue with the concept of “energy”. Aristotle develops the doctrine of the existence of a supersensible idea, where he speaks of pure thinking of oneself (thinking).

God is pure form, actuality in no way connected with things. God is the beginning that connects matter and form, phenomenon. prime mover. All things move from a source of motion. This source is found in infinity, where the form itself is located. Movement is a transition from a potential form to an actual one.

change in quality

change in place

change in quantity

change in substance

Along with God, there are 55 other substances. The soul is the form of the body. There are 3 forms:

• vegetative

  feeling

  reasonable

Man is a social, political “animal”, a citizen of his polis. The goal of life is to achieve happiness through observance of inertia. The highest form of activity is scientific-political theory. It takes the state from the common life of people to the political structure of society. A rational form of political life is the creation of a polis. Divides the following forms of government:

Correct: Incorrect:

monarchy tyranny

aristocracy oligarchy

polity democracy

Hellenistic (Roman) period.

Hellenes are Greeks, Hellenism is associated with the campaigns of Alexander the Great. The creation of a universal, divine monarchy: everyone is equal in rights and classes - the idea of ​​​​A. Makedonsky. After the destruction of the polis system, this idea took root. The general spiritual climate of the social life of society is changing, and a skeptical outlook on life is increasing. 147 BC – Greece falls under the influence of Rome, therefore, the Greco-Roman period is the end of Hellenism. New philosophical schools arise in Alexandria. The schools of Plato and Aristotle continued to exist.

New schools:

school of Epicurus (341-279 BC)

school of stoicism

school of skepticism

school of neoplatonism

Epicurus is a materialist, revives the ideas of Democritus (ideas of atomists).

The tasks of philosophy are practical needs, the art of right living. Develops philosophy... You need to find balance within yourself. Political life interferes with this. A person must achieve happiness. The purpose of philosophy is to free man from fear. Especially from the fear of death. Makes changes to democratic doctrine. A person can independently achieve balance and peace.

Stoicism. Emphasizes practical knowledge. The doctrine of being is subject to knowledge. A person puts first place the strength of spirit, a practical attitude to reality.

Space is fire, the world is cosmic fire. Fire is “logos”, the world is a living organism permeated with fire. Everything around us in the world is physical. A cosmic fire cleanses the world: the old norms of reality are being repeated.

Matter is mind, active principle. Form is an inextricable, passive principle.

Pantheism is God in all things. The idea of ​​fate began to develop; nothing can be changed in the world, but you can change your attitude towards the world. The world whole is eternal and absolute.

The ideal of apathy, equanimity, eternity of spirit. Humans are citizens of space. Everything in the world is in order. You need to be able to see harmony. To follow the ideal is to follow the dispassion of nature. All people are equal in society. Slaves and barbarians are equalized. Representatives of society: Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius.

Our ill-being comes from our wrong perception. All efforts should be directed towards understanding and love for space. A person must prepare himself for death. He must constantly engage in philosophy so as not to be afraid of death.

Skepticism. Founder Piron. Strengthening the motives of subjectivism and individualism. Piron believed that a person cannot obtain true knowledge about reality, therefore one should not make any statements that will lead to harmony in life. Our worries are due to the fact that we have taken upon ourselves the responsibility to affirm, to make a statement about reality.

Neoplatonism. The founder is Plotinus (204-270 AD). The problem of absolute (single) being – unlimited potency. Existence is infinite wealth, superlife. It is the cause of everything and itself, a self-producing activity, a source. The process of emanation (creative outflow): the world mind (Nus) contains ideas  the world soul contains Platonic souls  the cosmos arises  matter is an indefinite infinite beginning. The purpose of life is the knowledge of existence.