AT modern world There are two types of people - those who rely on themselves, and those who place responsibility on external factors. talking scientific language, people who attribute their successes and failures to internal factors have an internal (internal) locus of control, and adherents of the opposite position, who see the main reason for what is happening in their lives in external circumstances, other people and fate, have an external (aka external) locus of control . Both of these life positions are common, and are usually easily traced in behavior and communication. A person's ideas about what determines significant (and not only) events of his life have a great influence on the formation of his personality and worldview.

Behavior, motivation, tendency to conformity, nonconformity, social skills, ability to communicate and communicate - all this can be highly dependent on the locus of control.

"There is no chance!"

Externals. These people are convinced that not everything in life depends on them. They usually believe in the existence of some kind of prescription, fate, evil fate, god, cosmos, chance (and other external factors) that influence their lives.

Externals are usually socially oriented - they easily make new acquaintances, establish social contacts, are active, know how to observe subordination, are good subordinates and performers, are able to adapt to changes in external circumstances, know how to work in a team, are flexible in communication, reckless and easy-going. Another good bonus is the fact that they accept failures quite easily, because the externals shift the responsibility for the origin of the latter to other people and circumstances.

The main disadvantage of people with an external locus of control is that they are highly dependent on public opinion and other external factors. The consequence of this is unstable self-esteem, which can fluctuate greatly under the influence of the opinions of others. To reinforce self-esteem and gain the approval of other people, they often resort to conforming behavior. The main danger lies in the fact that while agreeing with others, externals can go against their desires, sometimes without even realizing their essence. People with an external locus of control find it difficult to work alone, as it is important for them to constantly receive feedback, they lack intrinsic motivation, they are often afraid to take the initiative.

Externals are anxious and sensitive, but the orientation to the outside world helps them in understanding others, showing empathy and subtle feeling of changes taking place around.

AT existential psychology there is a defense mechanism "faith in the ultimate savior" through which a person is protected from the anxiety of death. He thinks that there is someone (something) that will protect him from death, as a result of which he behaves passively in relation to the world (passively lives life), excluding the experience of his own strength. In the extreme degree of manifestation, such a mechanism is characteristic of people who are victims, addicts, and people with masochistic manifestations. This strongly echoes the extreme forms of external locus of control.

"Man is the creator of his own destiny"

Internals. These people usually rely on themselves for everything. They are independent, inquisitive, well aware of their needs and desires, assiduous, focused on success and achieving results, self-critical, independent, nonconformists, with a more stable and adequate self-esteem. Internals strive for continuous development personal qualities and abilities. Increasing competence and expanding knowledge is among the interests of people with an internal locus of control, they love to learn, they strive to achieve power and control over the situation and the environment.

At the same time, internals are quite rigid and adapt to external changes much worse than externals. Taking responsibility for everything that happens on themselves, they are at great risk of mental and, sometimes, physical health. Attempts to control everything around and high expectations are very draining, any failure can deal a strong blow to self-esteem, mental state which can result in psychosomatic disorders.

"Faith in one's own uniqueness" is a mechanism that protects internals from the anxiety of death, from the point of view of existential psychology. Such people believe they are special and death is something that happens to others. Thus, they deny existence and show distrust of the world around them, neglecting possible dangers, which can also interfere with the active living of their own lives.

So who is to blame?

Locus of control is an important characteristic of a person that determines his behavior and worldview. The perception of the world is formed in childhood, but can be corrected throughout life. It is very important to find golden mean, and do not forget that the responsibility for our own life lies with each of us, but, in the same way, there are external circumstances that can affect it, and the question "Who is to blame?" it is not always possible to answer unambiguously.

We all approach life differently. Some are like a fun adventure or an exciting journey, others are like a heavy burden and a struggle with circumstances.

Some people believe in luck, others don't. Scientists have even come up with appropriate names: externals and internals. Moreover, studies have confirmed that those who are confident in their lucky star are much more likely to experience disappointment, suffering from blows of fate. Why is this happening?

After all, it seems that the philosophy of positive thinking, on the contrary, convinces us that faith in success and optimism is an indispensable condition for the fulfillment of our desires. Where is the catch? Let's try to figure it out.

You have probably heard the advice of positive thinking trainers more than once: give up luck, and success will immediately come to you!

This is where the problem lies: many people confuse the concepts of luck and success. Yes, they are almost identical, and even in dictionaries you will not find differences (for example, S.I. Ozhegov's dictionary replaces one concept with another), but if you think about it, luck is the result more dependent on a random coincidence, as they say, luck. Success is a positive result of any business, which is often associated not only with successful circumstances, but also with hard work. That is why people who are independent of the "zigzags of fate" often find themselves in a more advantageous position.

The philosophy of positive thinking teaches success, but not through blind faith in the favor of fortune.

Externals - people who are accustomed to relying on the mercy of fate, as they say, at random, believe more in the good arrangement of the stars than their own strength. Despite the fact that representatives of this group most often choose the philosophy of positive thinking, this, as a rule, does not bring results.

Internals are people who rely only on own forces. They will not sit and wait quietly until the crane falls into their hands, but will try their best to catch their titmouse.

And although, according to experts, it is more profitable to be an internal, however, the increased demands on oneself, characteristic of people in this group, has its costs: chronic fatigue syndrome, irritability, nervousness, in case of failure, often a painful sense of guilt. They are encouraged to remember the proverb more often: "Whatever happens, everything is done for the better."

Do you want to know who you are: external or internal? This test was developed by the famous psychotherapist Andrey Kurpatov. Only one statement must be selected for each item.

• All failures are due to bad luck. (Uh)
• Our failures are due to our mistakes. (AND)
• Deserved recognition will come to a person sooner or later. (AND)
• In most cases, a person's merit goes unrewarded. (Uh)
• Unfortunately, some people will always treat you badly. (Uh)
• The bad attitude of people is the result of your inability to get along with them. (AND)
• A good specialist is not afraid of any test. (AND)
• Even an experienced specialist will not be able to withstand the test with predilection. (Uh)
• I make plans that I can carry out. (AND)
• I never make long-term plans, because it is not known how events will turn out. (Uh)
• People do not even suspect how much their life is dependent on chance. (Uh)
• Luck is an invention of people, it does not exist in nature. (AND)
• Good luck is always balanced by trouble. (Uh)
• Trouble is the result of laziness and ignorance. (AND)
• Sometimes I can't influence what happens. (Uh)
• My life is in my hands! (AND)
• Sometimes I act according to the dictates of intuition. (Uh)
• I always think everything through to the last detail (And)
• Those who talk about luck and the machinations of fate are simply trying to relieve themselves of responsibility. (AND)
• It always happens what needs to happen. (Uh)

Count how many answers you have with the letter "I" and how many with the letter "E", and now subtract the second from the first number.
If “+2” or more, you are an internal, that is, you are used to controlling your own destiny.
If “-2” or less, you are external, that is, you are sure that your life is more dependent on fortune.

Externals	Internals
Less concerned about their health and well-being.	Active search for information about possible health problems. More precautions to maintain or improve your health (quit smoking, exercise exercise are regularly shown to the doctor).
More often there are psychological problems A: anxiety and depression are higher, self-esteem is lower, mental illness and even suicide are more common.	Vice versa
Less successful adaptation	More successful adaptation
Much more susceptible to social influence.	They not only resist social influences, but also tend to control the behavior of other people.
Less consistent in their behavior	More consistent in their behavior
The time perspective is shortened and eventless.	The time perspective covers a much longer area both in the future and in the past.
Satisfaction with life in general is lower.	Higher overall life satisfaction and level of optimism.
Less satisfied with the past than with the present, but the future seems more hopeful than the present. P<Н<Б	Also, they are more satisfied with the present than with the past, but the level of satisfaction with the present coincides with expectations for the future. P<Н = Б
There is no need to reject or forget information that is undesirable for them, because. all failures are explained by their external circumstances.	They tend to forget or not perceive information that threatens their self-consciousness (MPZ - denial and repression).

Most people do not belong to the extreme types"pure" internals and "pure" externals, and is located between these two poles, i.e. Each person has both signs of internality and signs of externality. The only question is the ratio of these signs.

Extreme internality is not a sign of responsible behavior.

33 Normal, deviant and pathological adaptation in the concept of A.A. Nalchadzhyan

1. Normal adaptation - an adaptive process of a personality, which leads to its stable adaptation in typical problem situations without pathological changes in its structure and, at the same time, without violating the norms of the social group in which the personality is active. In turn, divided into:

· Normal defensive adaptation- those actions of the personality that are carried out with the help of known protective mechanisms (aggression, rationalization, projection, regression, the formation of a feedback reaction, sublimation, etc.), if these mechanisms have not become pathological.

· Normal non-protective adaptation- begin in non-frustrating problem situations that require the individual to make rational decisions. They are carried out without the participation of known protective mechanisms, i.e., with the help of non-protective adaptive complexes. In order to achieve adaptability in the conditions of the emergence of problematic non-frustrating situations, the cognitive processes of the individual, the processes of goal formation and goal setting, group social and psychological mechanisms and problem solving, various forms of social compliance (in particular, conformal behavior, but without the involvement of protective mechanisms), processes of communication and information exchange, intellectualization of individual life experience, etc.

2. Deviant adaptation - the processes of social adaptation of the individual, which ensure the satisfaction of the graves of the individual in a given group or social environment, while the expectations of other participants in the social process are not justified by such a command. Share on:

· non-conformist adaptation - the process of socio-psychological adaptation of the individual, thanks to which she overcomes the intra-group problem situation in ways and ways unusual for members of this group and, as a result, finds herself in conflict with the norms of the group and their carriers.

· innovative (innovative, creative) adaptation- a kind of human activity or performance of a role, during and as a result of which a person creates new values, implements innovations in certain areas of the group, which the group accepts with a positive attitude.

3.Pathological adaptation- this is such a socio-psychological process (activity of the individual in social situations), which is fully or partially carried out with the help of pathological mechanisms and forms of behavior and leads to the formation of pathological character complexes that are part of neurotic and psychotic syndromes.

Two things should be noted

The first of these is that in the process of pathological adaptation, such protective mechanisms are used that take the behavior of the individual beyond the limits of normal adaptation, become inadequate responses to emerging problem situations.

· The second circumstance is that each type of neurosis and psychosis has its own characteristic defense mechanisms. This observation should be supplemented with three important clarifications:

a) these leading or most characteristic mechanisms for each neurosis or psychosis are pathological (or better, pathologized) defense mechanisms. By “pathologized” we mean such protective mechanisms that initially arose as normal in the process of personality development, ensuring its normal protective adaptation, but later, under the influence of pathogenic factors (the most difficult and repetitive frustrating situations) and in parallel with the general pathologization of the personality, underwent painful changes became pathological. All protective adaptive mechanisms and their complexes can be pathologised. For example, as we will show in more detail in Chapter III, the projection mechanism most characteristic of paranoia takes on a pathological character, the use of which becomes a systematic and involuntarily repetitive process in the mental activity of the individual suffering from this disorder;

b) each neurosis or psychosis is characterized by a certain protective-adaptive complex, and not just a separate protective mechanism;

c) finally, our third addition concerns the question of the extent to which a person's neurotic or psychotic behavior can be considered adaptive in socio-psychological terms.

Universal problems of adaptation in the concept of R. Plutchik and existentialism

Existential idea (Jarlom) - loneliness, fear of death, freedom-responsibility, meaninglessness.

The problem requires acceptance, if a person does not solve these problems, then he will not be able to be adaptive.

Problems according to Plutchik:

· The problem of temporality, associated with the limitation of individual life => the problem of timeliness (everything in time); the problem of losing loved ones, the familiar environment, part of one's identity (the way out is religion, rituals)

· The problem of hierarchy - refers to the vertical dimension of social life; manifests itself in age relationships, in gender relations, in the relationship of socio-economic classes, etc. (every person has a status even before birth).

· The problem of identity - the search for answers to 2 questions: who am I? which group do I belong to? (expressed in the problems of acceptance, self-acceptance, social contact)

· Territorial problem - the problem of property boundaries (where is mine? where is someone else's? etc. => the problem of access to what belongs to another person).

35 Factors of Personality Formation: Basic Psychological Approaches

1. From the point of view of social psychology, the formation of personality occurs in the process of socialization, which includes:

Internalization - the assimilation of social experience by an individual by entering the social environment

· Exteriorization - the process of active reproduction of the system of social relations of the individual, due to his vigorous activity and active inclusion in the social environment.

2. From the point of view of behaviorism - socialization through learning.

3. Humanistic psychology - socialization through the prism of self-actualization.

4. In psychoanalysis and existential psychology, the concept of "basic needs" is considered, which have a significant impact on the development of the individual. The nature of the satisfaction of basic needs is an important factor in the formation of personality (satisfaction of the basic needs of the child by parents). The basis is adequacy and timely satisfaction.

General ideas about the development and formation of personality:

Personal development occurs throughout life, but the foundation of personality is laid in the childhood period of development

· A decisive role in the formation of personality is played by the relationship of the child with parents or people who replace them.

Personal development goes through certain stages

· Formation of personality occurs in a complex interaction of internal driving forces and external conditions (interaction with the outside world/people).

37. The concept and criteria of personal maturity

Personal maturity is identified with the formation of a personality (there are some criteria for formation by which one can judge formation), with mental health and non-neuroticism.

Personal maturity is better understood as a process, not as a result. One can speak about personal maturity as a result in the sense of the formation of certain abilities or characteristics in the personality that contribute to the most complete and adequate formation of the personality, its self-actualization.

Components of a mature personality:

· Emotional maturity - the ability to recognize and adequately express their emotions.

In psychoanalysis, emotional maturity is the strength of the ego, as the ability to accept and acknowledge what a person experiences; Emotional maturity can also be understood as a certain level of self-regulation. According to Allpord, emotional maturity includes the ability to manage one's emotional states, a positive self-attitude, tolerance for disappointments, failures, and one's own shortcomings.

· Social maturity - the ability to establish and maintain adequate social relationships, as well as the ability to withdraw from relationships when necessary.

· Worldview maturity - the formation and consistency of the basic life values ​​and positions, as well as the presence of a hierarchy of values ​​and motives.

Allpord: a coherent philosophy of life, the ability to clearly, systematically and consistently say what is significant in one's own life.

Maslow: a clear definition of the essential from the non-essential in this world.

Tolerance for other worldviews.

Motivational maturity - the ability to realize the true motives of one's behavior

Responsibility - the ability to make a conscious choice, to predict and accept its consequences (the ability to separate one's own responsibility from someone else's).

· Autonomy and independence in thinking, behavior and assessments – internal locus of control, a high degree of self-government, non-comfort, creativity, freedom from stereotypes of perception and thinking.

· Realism and freshness of perception of experience and claims - a more effective perception of reality.

Sense of humor - the ability to laugh at yourself, while continuing to appreciate yourself.

38 The problem of the norm and pathology of personality. The main types of norms.

Three types of rules:

1. The average norm - everything that will be manifested in people in a given population most often and most reliably will be normal. Deviation to either side is abnormal.

2. Ideal (social) norm - everything that is encouraged or not condemned in a given society will be normal (may be different in different societies).

Meet standards 75%

Deviate from the norm to some extent 25%

3. Functional norm - everything that is natural for the functioning of this system will be normal.

For a person, the functional norm is everything that helps or does not prevent her from feeling “good”, and also does not prevent others from feeling “good”.

Mental health:

· Correspondence to subjective images of the reality reflected by the object.

· Correspondence of the nature of the reaction to external stimuli and the meaning of life events.

· Adequate age level of emotional and intellectual maturity.

· Adaptability in microsocial relations.

The ability to manage one's own behavior, plan life intelligently, set goals, and maintain activity in achieving them.

40 Pathology of personality: neurosis, psychopathy, psychosis.

Three main forms of pathologies:

1. Psychosis is a deep mental disorder. Appears:

Violation of the reflection of the real world (hallucinations, paranoia, ignoring reality, etc.)

Violation of the possibility of cognition of the world (profound forms of autism, depression, disorders of cognitive processes)

Change in behavior (aggression, apathy, excitability, obsession)

· Loss of consciousness

Plurality of personality

2. Psychopathy is a pathology of a person's character, in which a person has pronounced psychological properties that interfere with his social adaptation in society. Social disadaptation, but not suffering from it.

Types of psychopathy:

3. Neurosis - based on an unproductively resolved intrapersonal conflict. Manifestations:

Disorder of the emotional sphere, increased vulnerability, tearfulness, irritability

Psychophysiological disorders - sleep disorders, digestive disorders, vegetative disorders, etc.

Psychosomatic syndromes

· Painful experiences, failures, feelings of loneliness, loss, dissatisfaction, fear.

Types of neuroses:

Neurostainia - a conflict between opportunities and needs (a conflict of self-affirmation); accompanied by energy exhaustion, irritability, exhaustion of emotions.

· Phobic neurosis - one bright fear or a large number of phobias, an internal conflict between the need for security and the inability to protect oneself and save one's "I" from external / internal threats.

Neurosis of obsessive states - accompanied by obsessive thoughts, actions, indecision, suspiciousness (a conflict of social desirability, between what is desired and what is received)

Hysterical neurosis - accompanied by capriciousness, egotism, fixing the attention of others to their conditions and illnesses (conflict of recognition, subjectively overestimated desires and possibilities, conflict with their real satisfaction).

344. Two-way functioning of adaptive mechanisms(Nalchadzhyan)

So far, we have been talking mainly about the adaptation of the individual to external, objective social situations. However, it should be kept in mind that many adaptive mechanisms may have two or more "vectors" of functioning. Based on this criterion, two more types of adaptation can be distinguished:

1. External adaptation is an adaptive process by which a person adapts to external, objective problem situations. External adaptation can be with the preservation of the problem situation or with its elimination, etc.

2. Internal adaptation (or co-adaptation), which has a number of varieties:

a) internal adaptation aimed at resolving internal conflicts and other intrapsychic problems of the individual;

b) internal structural adaptation in the narrow sense is the process of coordinating some adaptive mechanism with those already formed adaptive mechanisms with which it constitutes a complex.

It is also the process of formation of coordinations and correlations of a certain adaptive complex with other already formed stable adaptive complexes;

c) internal structural adaptation in a broad sense: the adaptation of an adaptive mechanism or complex to the entire structure of the personality.

The integral structure of the personality may resist the inclusion of new adaptive mechanisms or complexes in its composition as alien, or, on the contrary, it may be very "receptive" to other mechanisms and complexes. This leads to selective learning of new adaptive mechanisms, complexes or strategies, and in some cases to their independent invention.

5. Completeness and sustainability of adaptation

a) temporary situational adaptation, which can easily turn into a state of temporary situational maladaptation both as a result of intrapsychic changes (for example, the actualization of new needs or attitudes) and changes in certain aspects of the situation;

b) stable situational adaptation, i.e., reliable long-term adaptation only in certain typical, repetitive situations in which a person strives to be as often as possible;

c) general adaptability, which, of course, is never complete. It, in our opinion, can rather be considered as a potential ability to adapt to a wide range of typical social situations that are most often created in a given social environment at a given historical time.

This classification of varieties of adaptability can be used to create some criteria for the socio-psychological maturity of the individual. In particular, it can be argued that the possession of a potential and actual ability to achieve a general and flexible, creative adaptability is one of the criteria for mental maturity and health of an adult personality.

43.
Personality structure

Personality consists of three main systems: It, I and Super-I. * Although each of these areas of the personality has its own functions, properties, components, principles of action, dynamics and mechanisms, they interact so closely that it is difficult and even impossible to unravel their lines. influences and weigh their relative contribution to human behavior. Behavior almost always appears as a product of the interaction of these three systems; extremely rarely one of them works without the other two.

* In English translations from German and English-language psychoanalytic literature, the terms id, ego, and super-ego are used. - Note ed..

It is the original system of the personality: it is the matrix in which the Self and the Super-Self are subsequently differentiated. It includes everything mental that is innate and present at birth, including instincts. It is a reservoir of psychic energy and provides energy for the other two systems. It is closely connected with bodily processes, from where it draws its energy. Freud called It "true psychic reality" because it reflects the inner world of subjective experiences and is unaware of objective reality. (For a discussion of Ono, see Schur, 1966).

When the energy builds up, It cannot stand it, which is experienced as an uncomfortable state of tension. Therefore, when the body's tension level rises - either as a result of external stimulation or internal arousal - It acts in such a way as to immediately release tension and return the body to a comfortable constant and low energy level. The principle of tension reduction on the basis of which the id operates is called the pleasure principle.

In order to fulfill its task - to avoid pain, to get pleasure - It has two processes. It is a reflex action and a primary process. Reflex actions are innate automatic responses such as sneezing and blinking; they usually relieve tension immediately. The body is equipped with a number of such reflexes in order to cope with relatively simple forms of excitation. The primary process involves a more complex reaction. He is trying to release energy by creating an image of the object, in connection with which the energy will move. For example, the primary process will give a hungry person a mental image of food. A hallucinatory experience in which the desired object is presented as a memory image is called wish fulfillment. The best example of a primary process in a healthy person is the dream, which, according to Freud, always represents the fulfillment or attempted fulfillment of a wish. The hallucinations and visions of psychotics are also examples of the primary process. Autistic thinking is brightly colored by the action of the primary process. These wish-fulfilling mental images are the only reality known to the id.

Obviously, the primary process alone is not capable of relieving tension. The hungry cannot eat the image of food. Consequently, a new, secondary mental process develops, and with its appearance, the second personality system begins to take shape - I.

I appears due to the fact that the needs of the organism require appropriate interactions with the world of objective reality. A hungry person must seek, find and eat food before the tension of hunger is reduced. This means that a person must learn to distinguish between the image of food that exists in memory and the actual perception of food that exists in the external world. When this differentiation is made, it is necessary to transform the image into perception, which is carried out as the location of food in the environment. In other words, a person correlates the image of food existing in memory with the sight or smell of food coming through the senses. The main difference between the id and the ego is that the id knows only subjective reality, while the ego distinguishes between the inner and the outer.

The Self is said to be subject to the reality principle and to operate through a secondary process. The purpose of the reality principle is to prevent the discharge of tension until an object suitable for satisfaction is found. The reality principle temporarily suspends the action of the pleasure principle, although, ultimately, when the desired object is found and the tension is reduced, it is the pleasure principle that is "served". The reality principle is concerned with the question of the truth or falsity of an experience—that is, whether it has an external existence—while the pleasure principle is concerned only with whether the experience brings suffering or vice versa.

The secondary process is realistic thinking. Through the secondary process, the self formulates a plan to meet the needs, and then puts it to the test - usually by some action - to see if it works. A hungry person thinks about where to find food, and then begins to look for it there. This is called a reality check. In order to play its part satisfactorily, the ego controls all cognitive and intellectual functions; these higher mental processes serve the secondary process.

The ego is called the executive organ of the personality, because it opens the door to action, selects from the environment what the action must correspond to, and decides which instincts must be satisfied and in what way. In carrying out these extremely important executive functions, the ego is compelled to try to integrate the often contradictory commands emanating from the id, the superego, and the external world. This is not an easy task, often keeping the Self in suspense.

However, it should be borne in mind that the Self, this organized part of the It, appears in order to follow the goals of the It and not frustrate them, and that all its strength is drawn from the It. The ego has no existence separate from the id, and in an absolute sense is always dependent on it. Its main role is to be an intermediary between the instinctive demands of the organism and environmental conditions; its highest purpose is to keep the organism alive and see the species reproduce.

Super-I

The third and last developing system of personality is the Superego. It is an internal representation of the traditional values ​​and ideals of society as they are interpreted for the child by the parents and forcibly instilled through rewards and punishments applied to the child. The super-ego is the moral force of the personality, it is an ideal rather than a reality, and it serves more for improvement than for pleasure. Its main task is to evaluate the correctness or incorrectness of something, based on the moral standards sanctioned by society.

The superego, as an internalized moral arbiter that accompanies a person, develops in response to rewards and punishments from parents. In order to receive rewards and avoid punishment, the child learns to build his behavior in accordance with the requirements of the parents. What is considered wrong and for which the child is punished is incorporated into conscience - one of the subsystems of the Super-I. What they approve and reward the child for is included in his ideal Self - another subsystem of the Super-Self. The mechanism of both processes is called introjection.

The child accepts, or introjects, the moral norms of the parents. Conscience punishes a person, making him feel guilty, the ideal self rewards him, filling him with pride. With the formation of the Super-I, self-control takes the place of parental control.

The main functions of self-control: 1) to prevent the impulses of the id, in particular, the impulses of the sexual and aggressive plan, because their manifestations are condemned by society; 2) "persuade" me to change realistic goals to moral ones and 3) fight for perfection. Thus, the Super-I is in opposition to the Id and to the I and tries to build the world in its own image. However, the Super-I is like the Id in its irrationality and like the I in its desire to control instincts.* Unlike the I, the Super-I does not just delay the satisfaction of instinctive needs: it constantly blocks them. (Superego analysis given by Turiell, 1967).

* Freud's original term is translated as attraction, but translations from English traditionally use the calque "instinct", which corresponds to that accepted in English-language psychoanalytic literature.

In conclusion of this brief review, it should be said that the id, the ego and the superego should not be considered as some kind of little men that control our personality. These are nothing more than names for various mental processes that obey systemic principles. Under normal circumstances, these principles do not contradict or cancel each other out. On the contrary, they work as a single team under the direction of the I. The personality normally functions as a whole, and not as something tripartite. In a very general sense, the Id can be considered as the biological component of the personality, the Self as the psychological component, the Super-I as the social component.

The concept of personality A.F. Lazursky

The significance of this concept is that for the first time a position was put forward on the relationship of the personality, which is the core of the personality. Its special significance is also in the fact that the idea of ​​personality relations has become the starting point for many domestic psychologists, primarily representatives of the Leningrad-Petersburg school of psychologists.

views A. F. Lazursky on the nature and structure of personality were formed under the direct influence of ideas V.M. ankylosing spondylitis at the time when he worked under his leadership at the Psychoneurological Institute.

According to V. M. Bekhterev, “personality is, as it were, two sets of traces closely related to each other, of which one is more closely connected with the organic, and the other with the social sphere.” Considering the nature of the relationship between them, V. M. Bekhterev noted that “the social sphere, developing on organic soil, expands it, depending on the social conditions of life, to the extent that organic influences are suppressed by past experience of social relations and social influences.” In general, in the structure of personality, V. M. Bekhterev emphasizes the role of the social sphere, which “is the unifying link and the causative agent of all traces of psychoreflexes in general that arise on the basis of social life and enliven certain organic reactions.”

A comparison of the concept of A. F. Lazursky with the ideas of V. M. Bekhterev suggests that the latter became for A. F. Lazursky the fundamental conceptual provisions that received theoretical and empirical development in the very concept of personality.

According to A.F. Lazursky the main task of personality is adaptation (adaptation) to the environment, which is understood in the broadest sense (nature, things, people, human relationships, ideas, aesthetic, moral, religious values, etc.). The measure (degree) of activity of a person's adaptation to the environment can be different, which is reflected in three mental levels - lower, middle and higher. In fact, these levels reflect the process of human mental development.

Personality in the view of A. F. Lazursky is unity of two psychological mechanisms. On the one hand, this endopsychics- the internal mechanism of the human psyche. Endopsychic reveals itself in such basic mental functions as attention, memory, imagination and thinking, the ability to volitional effort, emotionality, impulsivity, i.e., in temperament, mental endowment, and finally, character.

According to A.F. Lazurny, endofeatures are mostly congenital. However, he does not consider them absolutely innate. In his opinion, the endopsyche is the core of the human personality, its main basis.

Another essential aspect of personality is exopsyche, the content of which is determined by the attitude of the individual to external objects, the environment. Exopsychic manifestations always reflect the external conditions surrounding a person. Both of these parts are interconnected and influence each other. For example, a developed imagination, which also determines the ability for creative activity, high sensitivity and excitability - all this suggests art. The traits named here are closely interconnected, and a significant development of one inevitably leads to the development of the others. The same applies to the exocomplex of traits, when the external conditions of life, as it were, dictate the corresponding behavior.

We have already said above that the process of personality adaptation can be more or less successful. A.F. Lazursky, in this regard, distinguishes three mental levels.

Before proceeding to the characterization of these levels, a few words about the signs that characterize the increase in the mental level.

1. Personal wealth, which denotes the total amount of mental production, manifested outside, that is, the abundance, diversity and complexity (or vice versa, primitiveness, poverty, monotony) of individual mental manifestations.

2. Strength, brightness, intensity of individual mental manifestations. The stronger they are, the more opportunities to increase the mental level.

3. Consciousness and ideology of mental manifestations. The higher the spiritual organization of a person, the richer and more intense spiritual life he lives. As a result, a person develops a system of principles - moral, social, etc.

4. Coordination of mental elements, which in their totality constitute the human personality. The higher the tendency to coordinate and integrate these elements, the higher the level of mental development.

lowest level characterizes the maximum influence of the external environment on the human psyche. The environment, as it were, subordinates such a person to itself, regardless of his endo-features. Hence the contradiction between human capabilities and acquired professional skills. Therefore, a person is unable to give even the little that he could with a more independent and independent behavior.

Average level implies a great opportunity to adapt to the environment, to find one's place in it. More conscious, with greater efficiency and initiative, they choose activities that correspond to their inclinations and inclinations. You can call them adaptable.

On the highest level In mental development, the process of adaptation is complicated by the fact that significant tension, the intensity of mental life, forces not only to adapt to the environment, but also gives rise to a desire to remake, modify it, in accordance with one's own inclinations and needs. In other words, here we can rather meet with the creative process.

So, the lowest level gives people who are insufficiently or poorly adapted, the middle one - adapted, and the highest one - adaptable.

The combined interaction of two personality characteristics - in terms of his belonging to a particular level of mental development, on the one hand, and the meaningful psychological characteristics of the personality within each level, on the other hand, allowed A. F. Lazursky to build a specific heuristic typology, which became the basis for subsequent empirical research .

At the lowest level of mental development, the division was made on the basis of identifying the predominant psycho-physiological functions (typology within the endopsychic complex): rational, affective - "mobile", "sensual", "dreamers" and active - energetic, submissively active and stubborn.

At the average level of mental development, the division went on psychosocial complexes corresponding to endo- and exo-psychics. In addition, A.F. Lazursky divided all pure types of the middle level into two large groups, depending on the predominance of abstract-idealistic or practically-realistic tendencies in them: impractical, realist theorists - scientists, artists, religious contemplators and practical realists - philanthropists (altruists), social activists, powerful, business executives.

At the highest level of the mental level, due to spiritual wealth, consciousness, coordination of spiritual experiences, the exopsyche reaches its highest development, and the endopsyche constitutes its natural basis. Therefore, the division goes according to exopsychic categories, more precisely, according to the most important universal ideals and their characterological varieties. According to A.F. Lazursky, the most important among them are: altruism, knowledge, beauty, religion, society, external activity, system, power.

cognitive orientation -

Mental property - the orientation of the individual to external or internal stimuli. Another name is locus of control.

The term "cognitive orientation" was born within the framework of cognitive psychology. Cognitive orientation is considered as an individual cognitive style of a person: to see the causes of his behavior in the external environment or in himself. At the same time, the demonstrated behavior itself can be invariant to its causes, that is, people with different cognitive styles can perform the same actions, but they will see different meanings in them.

Cognitive orientation (locus of control) can be of three types:

- external (respectively, its owners are called externals),

– internal (internals),

- intermediate (mixed, indefinite).

Externals

The reasons for their behavior are seen in external stimuli. A typical external is convinced that all his failures are the result of: bad luck, accidents, unfavorable circumstances, the negative influence of other people (maybe even a conspiracy), etc.

In case of success, the reason for success is no longer so obvious: many externals attribute it to their competence and abilities. But this is also their difference from internals - they are not inclined to analyze themselves, so they attribute success entirely to themselves: "I'm just very capable." It is a special pleasure for the external to know that he corresponds the requirements of reality, the external environment.

The external constantly needs external support and approval. Externals make acquaintances and friends more easily. They prefer collective activity to a greater extent than internals. Due to this, externals at short distances achieve a greater effect than internals. However, in life strategies they clearly lose to internals.

Externals are less emotionally stable and more inclined towards practical thinking than internals.

Internals

They see the reasons for their behavior within themselves. A typical internal is convinced that his failures are the result of his own unpreparedness, low abilities, mistakes and miscalculations, lack of knowledge, etc.

If successful, the internal will more often than the external analyze his behavior, his intentions, his strategy and tactics. A typical conclusion of the internal is something like this: "Everything that I understood and planned came true."

The internal needs less support and approval, and can often do without them at all. Rather, he is more in need of sound advice. In general, internals are more reasonable than externals, and over long distances they more often achieve life success. So, at least, prominent researchers J. Digman, R. Cattell and J. Rotter believe.

One of the most important characteristics of a person is the degree of independence, autonomy and activity of a person in achieving his goals, the development of personal responsibility for the events happening to him.

For the first time, methods for studying the degree of independence were developed in the 1960s in the United States. The most famous is the D. Rotter locus of control scale. This scale is based on the fact that people differ among themselves in terms of where they localize control over events that are significant to them.

There are two possible locus of control and, accordingly, two types of people:

• externalities (external locus of control) - a person believes that the events happening to him are the result of the action of external forces, chance, circumstances, other people, etc.;
• internals (internal locus of control) - a person interprets significant events as the result of their own efforts.

Internals

Internals believe that most important events in their lives were the result of their own actions, and feel their own responsibility for these events and for the way their life as a whole develops. They believe that they themselves have achieved all the good things that have been and are in their lives, and that they are able to successfully achieve their goals in the future. But they take responsibility for all negative events, they tend to blame themselves for failures, troubles, suffering.

Such people consider their actions to be an important factor in organizing their own production, in developing relationships in the team, and in their progress. The internal considers himself responsible for the events of family life, blames not his spouse, but first of all himself for family problems, seeks to change himself.

A person with an internal locus of control considers himself capable of controlling his informal relationships with other people, inspiring respect, sympathy for himself, and actively forming his social circle. Internal considers himself largely responsible for his health. He blames himself for the disease and believes that recovery largely depends on his actions, and not on doctors.

Thus, the internal is characterized by an active life position, independence and responsibility for oneself.

Externals

People with an external locus of control, externals, on the contrary, are more often passive, pessimistic, feel that nothing depends on them, everything depends on circumstances, and they are pawns in this life.

A person does not take seriously his role in certain events of his own life, in how his relationships with other people are built, most often he blames his partner for conflicts.

Externals even attribute their successes, achievements and joys to external circumstances, luck, good fortune, the will of God or the help of other people.

The result of such a position is passivity, lack of desire to achieve their goals.

Special studies have shown that, oddly enough, internals are more “lucky” than externals. They suffer less from psychological problems, they are more successful in life, they are optimistic and able to work. Unlike internals, externals, on the contrary, face a lot of psychological difficulties, failures are their forte, they constantly fall into a pessimistic mood and more often than others commit suicide.

And, in fact, locus of control test

And yet, which is better? How is it better? If we consider the work aspect, it is better if the internal locus of control prevails among subordinates. And they admit their mistakes and know what they get money for. With externals, in this sense, it is more difficult - his circumstances are to blame for everything. Internals are more responsible, more thoughtful, respectively, and the result of their work is more predictable. And if in life - then, probably, it is less expensive to be an external. Less anxiety, less guilt. Although, it is better, of course, to be in the middle. To answer for mistakes, and could be lucky, and the feeling of guilt was not particularly burdensome.

Collected piece by piece in the vast runet