The conditions of the Peace of Westphalia, which put an end to the Thirty Years' War and made significant changes to the map of Western European states, are contained in two peace treaties x - in the agreement between Sweden, the emperor and the Protestant German princes, concluded in the city of Osnabrück, and in the agreement with France, concluded in Munster (October 24, 1648).

Both of these cities are located in Westphalia, hence the very name "Peace of Westphalia".

In the Peace of Westphalia, as well as in the course of the Thirty Years' War itself, the political weakness of Germany found expression, in which the princes, divided into two camps and competing with each other for their private interests, found expression.

In seeking to expand their possessions, the princes did not at all care about the state interests of their country and the integrity of its territory and went for direct treason, entering into deals with foreign states that harbored aggressive intentions towards the lands of Germany itself.

Thus, Germany became the scene of a long and devastating war, caused mainly by the selfish interests of the great German princes and the great-power politics associated with the papacy and other reactionary forces in Europe.

After the end of the war, Sweden and France, which inflicted a defeat on the coalition forces in its last years, entered into a deal with the German princes, who acted contrary to the political interests of Germany.

Under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Sweden received all of Western Pomerania (Pomerania) with the island of Rügen, and in Eastern Pomerania the city of Stettin and a number of other points. The Wolin Island, the Pomeranian Bay with all the cities on its shores, and also, as an "imperial fief", the Archbishopric of Bremen, the Bishopric of Verden (on the Weser) and the city of Wismar passed to Sweden.

Almost all the mouths of the navigable rivers of Northern Germany were under the control of Sweden. Sweden thus came to dominate the Baltic Sea.

France received Upper and Lower Alsace, Sundgau and Hagenau, with the proviso that Strasbourg and a number of other points in Alsace formally remained part of the empire. The empire officially announced its consent to the transfer to France of the bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun (on the Meuse) occupied by it back in 1552.

Holland and Switzerland have received international recognition as independent states.

Some German principalities, in particular Brandenburg, increased their possessions at the expense of a number of bishoprics, abbeys and other petty sovereigns of the empire.

The most difficult condition for Germany in the Peace of Westphalia was the consolidation of its political fragmentation. The German princes were allowed to conclude alliances among themselves and with foreign powers and conduct their own independent foreign policy. According to Engels, Europe guaranteed the German princes under the Peace of Westphalia "... the right to rebel against the emperor, internecine war and betrayal of the fatherland.

The political decline of Germany, which was already determined in the 16th century, was then aggravated by the economic decline of the late 16th - early XVII in. The Thirty Years' War was a new link in a long chain of disasters for the German people, from which the defeated and enslaved peasants suffered the most.

“For a whole generation,” Engels wrote about the results of the Thirty Years’ War, “in Germany, the most unbridled military clique, which history knows, was in charge up and down. Contributions were imposed everywhere, robberies, arson, violence and murder were committed. The peasant suffered most of all where, apart from large armies, small free detachments, or rather marauders, acted at their own peril and risk and at their own will.

The devastation and depopulation was boundless. When peace came, Germany was defeated - helpless, trampled, torn to pieces, bleeding; and in the most distressed situation was again the peasant.

After the Thirty Years' War, the serfdom of the ruined German peasantry began to spread throughout the country.

The war between France and Spain ended with the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659: The borders of France, which received Roussillon, were expanded in the south to the Pyrenean ridge. In the northeast, Artois and some other areas of the Spanish Netherlands, as well as part of Lorraine, passed to France.

After the failure of the attempt to create a world “Christian” empire under the auspices of the Spanish-Austrian empires, centralized feudal states began to play a leading role in international relations in Europe, developing on a national or multinational basis.

The most powerful of them became Russia in Eastern Europe and France in the West.

As one of the multinational states of Europe, Austria also developed and grew stronger.

After the Peace of Westphalia, the balance of power between the European states and changed.

France changed its attitude towards it, which already needed the support of the Turks much less.

In the second half of the XVII century. Separate and united actions of the European states inflicted major defeats on the Turks, which to a large extent undermined their military might.

On May 23, 1618, a delegation of Protestants from Bohemia (part of the Holy Roman Empire) arrived in Prague regarding the application of strict measures against them. During the negotiations, the delegates threw two Czech Catholic advisers and the Emperor's secretary through the windows. The rebels formed a rebel government and created a small army. This is how it started Thirty Years' War .

This war represents on the one hand, the confrontation between Catholics and Protestants, and on the other, between the German princes and the imperial power, against which they rebelled. There were also territorial issues The princes tried to expand their states. In the empire, Catholicism was professed by a minority, but it was supported by the Habsburgs, the Dukes of Wittelsbach of powerful Bavaria, and religious orders.

In 1635, the war loses its original religious character, and political calculations come to the fore. Sweden and France want to increase their possessions at the expense of a weakened Germany, and the German princes want to free themselves from imperial power. But neither Ferdinand II , nor his son Ferdinand III did not want to cede their territory to the opponents, and the war dragged on for another 13 years.

The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War 1618–1648 and included 2 peace treaties signed after lengthy negotiations on October 24, 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Münster and Osnabrück. The Osnabrück Treaty was concluded between the Roman emperor and his allies on the one hand, and Sweden and the allies on the other. The Treaty of Münster was concluded between the emperor with the allies on the one hand, and France with the allies on the other. The provisions of the Peace of Westphalia concerned territorial changes, religious relations and the political structure of the Roman Empire.

After the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia, Sweden received from the Roman Empire 5 million thalers, the island of Rügen, all of Western and part of Eastern Pomerania with Stettin, Wismar, the Archbishopric of Bremen and the Bishopric of Verden. Thus, the main harbors of the Baltic and North Seas were in the possession of Sweden. Sweden, as the owner of the German principalities, became a member of the empire and was entitled to send its deputies to the imperial diets.

France, after the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia, received the former possessions of the Habsburgs in Alsace, and also confirmed its sovereignty over the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun.

As victors in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), France and Sweden were declared the main guarantors of the Peace of Westphalia. The German principalities of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Braunschweig-Lüneburg, being allies of the victorious powers, expanded their territories by confiscating monastic lands, and the Duke of Bavaria was given the title of elector.

The German princes were independent of the emperor in conducting both domestic and foreign policy, they just could not conclude external alliances against the empire and the emperor. The German reformers were given equal rights with Catholics and Lutherans, the confiscation (secularization) of church lands was legalized, which was carried out before 1624.

The Peace of Westphalia was of great international importance. An attempt to create a world empire under the auspices of the Habsburgs (Spanish and Austrian), as well as their plans to suppress the reform movement in Europe and subjugate the bourgeois Dutch Republic, failed. Switzerland and Holland have achieved international recognition of their sovereignty. France for a long period of time occupied a dominant position in Western Europe.

More than three and a half hundred years ago, the Thirty Years' War ended in Europe. Its result was the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, which greatly influenced the future of European history.

Briefly about the Thirty Years' War

The war arose as a consequence political gain German nation in the Holy Roman Empire and Europe. The date of the beginning of the war is considered to be 1618, it ended in 1648.

The conflict began to flare up as a religious war between Catholics and Protestants, becoming the last major military clash in the struggle for faith.

The theater of operations unfolded in Central Europe, becoming the result of famine and epidemics that devastated entire regions of modern Germany. So, in Southern Germany after the war, only 35% of the inhabitants remained alive. It took more than a century for some areas of the Holy Roman Empire to restore the economy and human resources. Almost everyone took part in the war European countries(except Switzerland).

Russia also did not stand aside.

Rice. 1. Cardinal Richelieu.

The war is divided into several periods: Czech-Palatinate (1618-1624), Danish (1625-1629), Swedish (1630-1635) and Franco-Swedish (1635-1648).

Peace of Westphalia

The cities of Münster and Osnabrück were located in the historical region of Westphal, which gave the peace treaty its name. It is noteworthy that in order to end the Thirty Years' War, it was necessary to convene what actually became the first all-European congress. It was there that Protestants (Calvinists, Lutherans and others) received equal rights with Catholics, which could not have happened if the principle of religious tolerance had not been proclaimed. It was in 1648 that the principle “whose country, that faith” was laid down, which excluded the possibility of waging another religious war.

From the Holy Roman Empire, the ambassadors of the principalities that had active armies or had the status of electors: Bavaria, Saxony, Brandenburg, Hesse-Kassel had the greatest weight of their vote. The rest of the imperial delegations were simply ignored.

But this was not the only thing that led to the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia. In addition, it had other consequences:

France received Alsace, which entailed the dominance of Paris on the Rhine River;
Sweden actually gained control over the mouths largest rivers in northern Germany, making the Baltic Sea its inland;
The Habsburgs abandoned the idea of expanding their possessions at the expense of Western European territories;
undermined the authority of the Holy Roman Empire: German Emperor was no longer senior in rank among all the kings that were part of the empire;
the fragmentation of Germany into small principalities and states was consolidated;
rebels, captives and exiles received amnesty.

Amnesty was received by many and prominent statesmen. So, Karl Ludwig was restored to his rights, becoming Elector of the Palatinate, and his uncle again became a count. Frederick V again received the title of margrave of lands confiscated during the war. Many Protestants returned from exile to Bohemia and other lands.

All the belligerents sought to get their own benefit from the decision at the congress. Sweden dreamed of strengthening its position on the Baltic Sea, demanding Pomerania as the main condition and optionally Silesia and other coastal lands. The French dreamed of getting Alsace and breaking off relations between the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. The Holy Roman Empire and Spain tried to get off with minor territorial losses.

Territorial changes under the Treaty of Westphalia

The conclusion of the Westphalian Peace entailed many territorial changes. On the political map Europe has a new, recognized by all, state - the Swiss Confederation.

The Republic of the United Provinces confirmed its sovereign status without becoming part of either the Holy Roman Empire or Spain. The French did get Alsace, and with it Metz and Verdun.

Sweden was ordered to disband the army, giving her compensation in the amount of five million thalers, as well as Western Pomerania, Wismar and several bishoprics.

In addition, the restriction on trade was lifted, and free navigation was issued on the Rhine.

Olga Nagornyuk

Peace of Westphalia: Winning the Losers

The name "Peace of Westphalia" was given to two peace treaties concluded in 1648 in the cities of Osnabrück and Münster, located in the Duchy of Westphalia. The signing of these agreements marked the end of the Thirty Years' War and another redistribution of spheres of influence. But these documents had other implications as well. About this - in our article.

Peace of Westphalia - the end of the Thirty Years' War

The Thirty Years' War was the first all-European armed conflict in the history of mankind. The reasons that led to its beginning were political and religious contradictions, which escalated in the first decade of the 17th century. This period is characterized by the decline of feudalism and the rise of capitalism. There was a gradual change in historical formations, affecting not only politics and economics, but also the religious sphere.

The Catholics, who supported the feudal system, were forced to give up their hegemony to the growing Protestants, supported by the young bourgeoisie. This state of affairs did not suit Catholic Spain and Germany, led by the Habsburgs, who were looking for an excuse to launch an open attack on the adherents of Protestantism. The Prague Uprising of 1618 was such a pretext, when protesters threw imperial officials out of windows.

As a result, the Thirty Years' War broke out, affecting almost all countries of Europe. On the side of the Catholics were Spain with Portugal, the Catholic principalities of Germany, the Commonwealth and the Holy See. The interests of the Protestants were defended by Sweden, Denmark, the Czech Republic, Transylvania, the Protestant part of Germany and later joined by Catholic France, who understood that the world was beginning to redistribute spheres of influence.

The war, which lasted three decades, brought famine, epidemics and devastation, which painfully hit the economies of the opposing countries: they were exhausted, which forced them to start peace negotiations. Since the anti-Habsburg (Protestant) coalition was in a more advantageous position, it dictated the terms of the agreement. How did the Peace of Westphalia turn out for both sides?

Terms of the Peace of Westphalia

The talks in Osnabrück and Münster were attended by 135 delegates representing the interests of all countries participating in the war. On the agenda were issues of the rights of Catholics and Lutherans, amnesty for war veterans and territorial claims. France wanted to get a part of Germany, breaking the encirclement of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs, Sweden sought sovereignty and gaining a dominant role in the Baltic, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire tried to defend their integrity by making minimal territorial concessions.

The Peace of Westphalia brought:

Catholics and Protestants have the same right to worship. This meant an end to the persecution of Christians of another denomination. The Peace of Westphalia equalized the rights of representatives of both religious movements;

Christians - freedom of religion, regardless of place of residence. Beginning in 1648, Catholics and Protestants were exempted from the obligation to practice the official religion of the principality in whose territory they lived;

The Swiss Confederation and the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland) gained independence. They became sovereign states that were neither part of the Holy Roman Empire nor subordinate to the Spanish crown;

France grew new territories: the bishoprics of Toul, Metz and Verdun, formerly belonging to the possessions of the Duke of Lorraine, and the free cities of Alsace;

part of Pomerania, the Bremen and Ferden bishoprics and the port city of Wismar, which, a century and a half later, the Scandinavians pawned for 1,258 Reichstalers with the right to redeem the Dukes of Mecklenburg, went to Sweden, and did not bother to return the property received as a result of the 30-year-long war;

Brandenburg-Prussia expanded its borders at the expense of Eastern Pomerania, Magdeburg, Minden, Kamminsky and Halberstadt bishoprics.

The signing of this document had far-reaching consequences for the European states, which we will discuss below.

Peace of Westphalia: consequences

The Peace of Westphalia significantly undermined the authority of the Habsburgs and put an end to their plans to strengthen and expand the Holy Roman Empire. The emperor, whose rank was previously higher than the status of kings and princes, became equal in rights with them, and the states switched to a new model of government - national. The conclusion of this treaty had far-reaching consequences for the world:

1. The Church was losing its position in government, dynastic marriages between royal families, which previously led to the unification of states, also sunk into oblivion. was born new model of the world - state-centric, which gave each sovereign state the right to independently determine its foreign and domestic policy.

The Westphalian model of the world lasted until the 20th century, when, after the Second World War, the globalization of the economy began, and international organizations appeared that influenced independent countries and suppressed their sovereignty.

2. Many historians view the Peace of Westphalia as the first step towards the outbreak of World War II. Germany, defeated in the Thirty Years' War, was fragmented into small principalities and experienced a long period of economic and political decline. This loss deeply shocked the Germans, having an effect on them similar to the effect of the Opium Wars on the Chinese. Therefore, all subsequent events in the history of Germany: the unification of the country in the 19th century and the aggression against France in order to return the territories torn away after the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, were caused by the desire of the Germans to restore their former greatness to their nation.

The National Socialist movement, led by Adolf Hitler, according to historians, was directed not only against the Treaty of Versailles, because of which Germany lost part of its territories, but aimed to change the consequences of the Peace of Westphalia, because of which the national interests of the country suffered.

History is a chain of events and their consequences. Whether they will be destructive or constructive depends on us and on our ability to draw conclusions from the lessons that history teaches.

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Peace of Westphalia

In the history of diplomacy, as a rule, the history of European congresses begins with the Peace of Westphalia. It was concluded after lengthy negotiations that began as early as 1644 in the cities of Osnabrück and Münster in Westphalia. Representatives of the emperor, the German princes and Sweden met in Osnabrück, and the ambassadors of the emperor, France and other powers met in Münster. The only thing that the diplomats of Ferdinand III succeeded in during the negotiations was to protect the Austrian possessions of the Habsburgs from further dismemberment and, thus, preserve the state integrity of the future Austria. The final peace terms were signed in Münster on October 24, 1648, where commissioners from Osnabrück had arrived shortly before.

The significance of the Peace of Westphalia lies in the fact that it finally established the principle of "cujus regio, ejus religio" ("whose power, that is faith"). It must be understood that the worldview of the people of that time was exclusively religious, and therefore this principle - the principle of state assurance - could only be stated in religious terms. At the same time, having defined the borders of the states of continental Europe, the Treaty of Westphalia became the starting document for all international treaties for a whole century and a half, up to late XVIII in.

Be that as it may, this principle was the basis of the so-called Westphalian system of international relations. Why "so-called"? Yes, because this principle means nothing more than the legalization of chaos in international relations - and chaos cannot be a system.

Firstly, largest country Central Europe- Germany was split not only politically, but also religiously. After the Peace of Westphalia, all the claims of the Holy Roman Emperor to dominate Germany proved to be untenable. The German princes received the right to conduct an independent foreign policy, conclude treaties with foreign powers, declare war and conclude peace - however, with the proviso that their foreign policy will not be directed against the empire. But in practice, this clause did not matter.

Secondly, by eliminating the remnants of the political influence of the emperor and the religious influence of the pope, the Peace of Westphalia actually legalized the unrestrained struggle of European states for dominance in the arena of European politics. France received Alsace (except Strasbourg) and secured the three bishoprics it had previously acquired - Metz, Toul and Verdun. The French demand for "natural frontiers" was thus put into practice. Moreover, the most important outcome of the Peace of Westphalia was the leading role of this country in European political affairs. The Peace of Westphalia thus marked the end of the era of Habsburg dominance in Europe. It was France (along with Sweden) that was recognized as the guarantor of the Peace of Westphalia.

But Sweden also turned into a great European power, having achieved that the mouths of the Eastern European rivers flowing into the Baltic and North Seas, along which there were grain cargoes from of Eastern Europe to Holland and England, were in their hands. The Treaty of Peace also recognized the independence of Holland and the independence of Switzerland from the Empire.

So, in the Thirty Years' War, not only France won the victory, but also some other new nation-states of Europe. But the losers, and above all the Habsburg monarchy, were not going to lay down their arms. As we will see, the struggle between these powerful and influential countries for dominance on the continent plunged Europe into endless bloody chaos.

But it was from the Westphalian chaos, as we will see later, that the system of international relations was born, which brought order and predictability to these relations. This did not happen as a result of the formation of some new version pax Romana (Latin of the Roman world); rather, it resulted from the creation of a kind of great power condominium. The idea of such a condominium, however, matured only by 1814.

1815, by the time of the Congress of Vienna. But so far this was still a long way off. The Peace of Westphalia opened a long period of French hegemony on the European continent, which lasted until the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.