The speed of movement in the universe . Definition: That to - flow – in-phase the movement of all parts of the moving volume of the medium. Wave conditioned out of phase sequential movement (endo flow ) neighboring the volumes that make up the medium (due to the elasticity of the medium) of the moving (or resting) volume. Hence it follows that current always slower waves in this environment. In the theoretical limit, i.e. for microvolumes and short waves ("endoflow", see above), the current velocity can approach the wave velocity.

Respectively ethereal current vuh, including gravity filtration (see Gravity is not attraction) is always slower wave ether movement, speed whom ve.v. is the maximum possible speed in the universe. The maximum wave speed in the universe is the speed of light vWith(Secrets of the speed of light look).

Speed ether current may also be large. Thus, a meteor moved to the Earth by the current of ether flies at a speed of several tens of kilometers per second. If near the Earth vuh was small, then the meteor, having v= vuh in Space, further (the closer to the Earth) it would be more and more inhibited by the ether and smoothly sat down. (Yes, and a person, having stumbled, would not fall so rapidly).

Rising pressure in the galaxyand a star. In the formation of vortices from the ethereal current (flow) from the continuity of the ether ( Space is continuous see) it follows that speed current grows towards the central region of the vortex and the more, the more the curvature of the vortex increases. From The closure of the universe it follows that the highest speed in the vortex - galaxy (star) will be in its central part. It also follows from "The Closure of the Universe" that in central parts of a rotating galaxy (stars) filtration missing. Consequently , the central zone is compressed not by external filtration pressure (Gravity, as it is believed), but by its own internal elastic pressure due to under wedge winding jets (see the figure in "The Closure of the Universe") of the macrovortex by rotation with the maximum speed of the ether in galaxy . Likewise in a star. Respectively for a star in the galaxy there will also be no filtration through the core of the star to the core of the galaxy, but there will be an inflow of ether into the core stars and its gravitational motion due to the flow around the toroidal core of the star (see Stars and galaxies ) a stream of viscous ether moving towards the core of the galaxy.*

From under wedge ivaniya ( see the picture in "Closing the Universe") of each winding elastic layer of ether, it follows that the pressure inside the central zone increases by summing the pressure of each layer. Here the vibration frequency of the ether (see Properties of the cosmic ether) increases – increases (see Pressure ) internal pressure**(Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Diagram of pressure distribution over the depth of the core of a galaxy (star):

R is the core radius; V is the direction of the ether flow; R- the ordinate of the plot.

From the beginning of the phase of winding the ether in layers in the central region of the vortex - the core, the former potential movement of the alignment of the density of the ether ρ i changes to a new movement - accumulation ether with a multifold density ρ core . , compared with ρ tm those places with increased density, from where the ether flowed into the place of the future galaxy (star). Confirmation that the ether is densified here more, what was the density of those places from which the ether flowed, is its subsequent decompression, that is fluctuations, which are fundamental property of the universe (see Fluctuating movements). Otherwise, these oscillations will not occur.

Thus, ether is accumulated inside the nucleus, being in a compressed (stressed) state. The total pressure of the layers of the vibrating elastic ether acts from within to the outside. From outside to inside this pressure is counteracted stability vortex motion (" Stars and galaxies" see ) - the elasticity of the orbits.

Explosion mechanism. When flowing into the vortex of the ether, the movement of the ether to the core of the vortex as it aligns ρ slows down in the near-vortex region. With ideal the absence of bodies, for example, in the galaxy - stars, in the star system - planets, going on smooth rotation slowdown. Between jet viscosity does not appear here, since the ether active during (see Types of galaxies). Then this movement stops. And further, since the density of the ether in the outer pulsating layer of the core is greater than the density of the peripheral zone of the ether outside the core, the phase of equalization of the ether densities of these zones begins: the ether begins to smoothly unwind from the core. Under these conditions, the ether, by way of a new oscillation, comes to its basic state - the parent ether without the formation of bodies.

Really happens differently. The ethereal vortex in its central part winds up on itself, which means it becomes larger in diameter and grows until the pressure from the inside reaches the values ​​of the external pressure (see the paragraph above: "Thus ..."). After that, the vortex is partially or completely destroyed by the explosion. With partial destruction, the outer part of the vortex is thrown off - the shell of the core or part of this shell. In this case, there will most often be many such parts on the surface of the star. The reason for this is the dissimilarity of the star on its surface, see Properties of Space. The presence of many such local explosions excludes their catastrophic nature for the surrounding Space. The surface of the star in its different sections will, as it were, breathe due to local pressure releases. With complete destruction, the entire vortex is destroyed. A particularly powerful explosion will occur when fast deceleration of macrovortex rotation *** . This will be due to the adjoining to the central part of the galaxy (stars) of a large body or cluster of bodies. This rapid deceleration will cause rapid disappearance vortex wedging, holding the central part of the macrovortex in a compressed state (see above) - compression is realized in galaxy (star) explosion.

Before the explosion, the matter flowed into one considered place - the core of the galaxy (star). After the explosion, the density distribution ρ of the ether became completely different. In particular, the ether can now flow to many centers (stars, planets, bodies). In this case from one large vortex many are formed small. These small ones are ordered around a much larger one and a new galaxy (star) appears.

There may be another situation. The explosion scatters in the ethereal Space the peripheral zone and parts of the central core of the galaxy (stars) in all directions (with their forward and backward rotation). In the place of the former core due to the inertia of the core parts (see Essence of Inertia) a zone is formed rarefaction ether ( ρ few). Then comes the alignment ρ n outdoor area with ρ in the internal - again the flow of ether to the place of rarefaction - formation of a new galaxy (stars) in a place close to the previous one.

Consequence. Those galaxies that are not spiral, elliptical, or spherical are in the expansion phase in an explosion ( non-gravitational phase, see "Gravity is not attraction" above) or at the beginning of the next phase (see the two previous paragraphs) of the formation of a new galaxy.

* It can be seen from the above that one extreme (in oscillation) state of the ether is pure ether (maternal), the second is a self-compacted vortex compressed in the core of a star (galaxy). Hence it follows that all known particles (bodies) are free and linked microvortices and they formed outside nuclei in the phase of ether densification. With the reverse oscillation of the ether (see above " Properties of the cosmic ether") they will be scattered over the pure ether with rotation in direct and reverse the main rotation of the side.

** Vibration ether remains, but fluctuations particles , moving in the main stream of ether, disappear, as they themselves particles disappear (look The smaller vortex is extinguished)

*** An analogy is the rupture of a sharpening emery as a result of its jamming by a turned object, for example, an automobile chamber clumsily cleaned for vulcanization.

Birth and death.

Our Galaxy has grown over billions of years from a cluster of smaller galaxies colliding and merging with each other. These young galaxies swirled for a long time in the "dance of death", constantly approaching under the influence of gravity forces. This scenario works for all galaxies in the Universe.

When one galaxy approaches another at a sufficient distance, they begin to feel mutual gravitational forces. galaxy with a more massive black hole in the center attracts and absorbs smaller galaxies, turning the chaotic dance into a real "whirlpool". The black hole - the "vortex" at the center of this "whirlpool" - grows even larger, devouring the black hole of the swallowed smaller galaxy.

By finally finding the center of our Milky Way galaxy and starting to monitor the radio signals sent from it, astronomers saw signs of impending disaster.

Just behind the central hole Milky Way a huge ring of gas grows. Over time, it will accumulate energy equal to the energy of 300 million suns. When this ring reaches the peak of its development, it will begin to highlight the second ring, which will rotate closer to the Center. The inner ring will condense into a giant cloud from which new stars will emerge. Then the cloud of gas will begin to spiral into the arms of the Black Hole. When this "feast" begins, the release of energy will be visible far beyond our Galaxy. Our invisible Black Hole will turn into a violent Quasar with jets stretching for tens of thousands of light years.

If our Galaxy can survive the "feast" of its Black Hole, then it is unlikely to survive the threat that awaits it later: the threat of GALACTIC CANNIBALISM. We have neighbors and we are moving towards each other.

The end of our Galaxy is approaching now: our giant neighbor, the Andromeda Nebula, is moving in our direction.

Knowing the measurements of galaxies, their flight paths, and the laws of gravity, scientists can predict how the “battle of the titans” will unfold.

First, the Galaxies will begin to rotate and intertwine, tearing each other apart, gradually losing their usual forms. The stars will begin to stick and move along the path just formed by the new Center, and become the "food" of this monster. The collision will send a whirlwind of stars and gas into outer space. Some of them will fly towards the crowded center of the newly formed Galaxy, causing even larger explosions.

During this turmoil, our little solar system will either be launched into the abyss of space or fall into the gravitational trap of a Black Hole.

During the merger, a very large explosion will occur, and all the gases will rush to the center of the Galaxy. In addition to the fact that two Black holes will merge together, they will also absorb a lot of gas. The black hole of our Milky Way will provoke the release of such a huge amount of energy that all the gas around it will be blown away by a strong cosmic wind. And it will be a very, very strong leak, incomparable with anything. It will be a catastrophe of enormous proportions. The Milky Way will be destroyed.

Our Black Hole will merge with the Black Hole of the Andromeda Nebula. If the stars of galaxies can come and go, superheavy black holes only get bigger and more massive.

While our monster is resting quietly. But how long to wait until he wakes up again?

Milky Way. Catastrophe cannot be avoided. See:

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GALACTIC SUPERWAVES or explosions in the core of our Galaxy

In the first half of the 20th century, scientists did not even know that explosions at the core of our Galaxy may pose a threat to the earth. Reports of extremely strong explosions occurring in the nuclei of some galaxies began to appear only in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Soon astronomers started talking about the fact that such violent activity is, perhaps, a relatively common phenomenon, periodically repeating in the nuclei of all galaxies, including ours.

However, they were not at all worried that the center of the Milky Way was capable of periodically exploding, because, as they believed, the ejected particles of cosmic rays would not reach the Earth. In their opinion, the interstellar magnetic fields in the core of the Galaxy will serve as a kind of safety net that does not allow electrically charged cosmic particles to move away more than a few hundred light years. Scientists, for example, believed that the lines of the magnetic field of the Milky Way are perpendicular to the direction of cosmic rays. With such an arrangement, these fields would create forces capable of changing the direction of the particles and causing them to rotate in tight spirals, thus trapping and holding them. One study published in 1964 predicted that the delay of cosmic particles would be so long that it would take millions of years before they spread through the solar system. By that time, the explosive energy will be so weakened that the increase in the level of background radiation in the Earth's region will be only a few percent. As we will soon see, this theory is incorrect, since the lines of the magnetic field of the Galaxy are located mainly parallel to the outer trajectories of these particles, and not across.

Astronomers, moreover, greatly overestimated the length of the intervals between explosions, believing that they occur no more than once every 10-100 million years. Such inflated estimates were the result of misconceptions about two-lobed radio galaxies. These are galaxies with nuclei that actively emit cosmic rays, on the sides of which there are two large regions, the so-called radio lobes, where cosmic rays flying outward emit a huge amount of radio waves. Although these petals cover an area of ​​millions of light years, their radiation can be easily explained by the explosion of the galactic core, a process that lasts from 1000 to 10,000 years. However, radio astronomers have incorrectly concluded that these cosmic ray particles are generated by nuclear explosions, a process lasting millions of years and followed by a quiet phase lasting up to 100 million years. Seeing that the core of our Galaxy is currently rather inactive, they decided that this quiet phase would also last for many tens of millions of years. Although evidence to the contrary (that relatively large explosions occurred at the center of the Milky Way in the last 10,000-100,000 years1-2) began to arrive as early as 1977, astronomers somehow believed that those explosions were insignificant and random. that occurred during the period when the core, in general, was in a calm state.

The zodiac message paints a completely different picture. It appears from it that explosions in the core of our galaxy are capable of greatly affecting the Earth and seriously changing the lives of its inhabitants and that, in particular, one such explosion affected our planet before the end of the last ice age. If the above is true, then explosions in the cores of galaxies happen much more often than modern astronomers believe. In this regard, we have no choice but to propose a new hypothesis about explosions of galactic nuclei. Here is her summary:

1. The core of our Galaxy periodically enters an explosive phase, during which it generates an intense stream of cosmic ray particles (electrons, positrons and protons). In this case, as much energy is ejected as in very powerful outbreaks of five to ten million supernovae.

2. These explosions are repeated approximately every 10,000 years and last from several hundred to several thousand years.

3. Cosmic particles (electrons and protons), the result of a nuclear explosion, scatter radially from the galactic nucleus at near-light speed and pass through the galactic disk with minimal attenuation. However, one of the components of cosmic particles, the proton, is still captured by magnetic fields. Being 2000 times heavier than electrons, protons travel much more slowly and lag behind the front of cosmic ray electrons. After that, they scatter, their speed rapidly decreases, and the magnetic fields in the galactic core capture them.

4. One such stream of cosmic rays swept through solar system before the end of the last ice age, bringing huge quantities of space dust. This dust, acting on the Sun and absorbing it as it passes through space sunlight, in turn, significantly changed the earth's climate.

In accordance with this hypothesis, the electrically charged particles of the superwave, electrons, freely scatter from the nucleus of the galaxy, following along the lines of fields that are on the same level with the radial direction of their trajectory. As they fly along them, the particles exert forces that flatten the field lines, like combing a strand of hair. Due to this, the fields maintain a radial direction with respect to the galactic center, and therefore the flying particles encounter minimal resistance. Emissions of superwaves from the center of the galaxy are a rather frequent phenomenon, and therefore the raked fields do not have time to strongly deviate from the radial direction. Although the lines of interstellar magnetic fields also run across, they do not interfere with the propagation of superwave particles, since the radial magnetic field component passes through and around them.

Moving through the galaxy along radial magnetic trajectories, the superwave electrons would push back and forth, emitting a forward-facing conical beam of synchrotron electromagnetic radiation. This forward beam effect occurs because the electrons are moving at almost the same speed as the radiation they emit. The latter facilitates the passage of the superwave, as it heats up the interstellar medium in front of moving cosmic rays, and this, in turn, suppresses the growth of hydromagnetic waves, the so-called plasma waves, which otherwise could slow down their movement.

The ability of a heated gas to facilitate the passage of cosmic particles was demonstrated in the mid-80s of the XX century during testing, as part of the program " star Wars", beam weapons. Scientists have not been able to get the emitted particle beam to move in a straight line towards the target. They found next solution: a fraction of a second before the particle beam was ejected, they turned on a high-power laser. The laser beam pierced a tunnel of hot ionized gas through which the particle beam could pass unhindered. To the surprise of scientists, it turned out that the beam that started moving was directed as straight as an arrow. As soon as the flow of particles began to move along a straight trajectory, its directly directed synchrotron radiation acted like a "laser" that ionized the gas in front of it.

In 1985, new data were obtained indicating that cosmic rays are capable of traveling huge distances, and at the same time they are not interfered with by either galactic magnetic fields or interactions with plasma waves. A team of researchers in the field of high energy physics have discovered that Cygnus X-3, a pulsating source of cosmic rays located 25,000 to 30,000 light years away, is bombarding the Earth with streams of high-energy cosmic particles5. They found that, despite the magnetic fields, these particles, moving at near-light speed along a straight path, are able to reach the Earth. A few years later, another group of scientists found another such source, the X-ray pulsar Hercules X-1, currently bombarding the Earth with streams of ejected particles every 1.2357 seconds. Despite the fact that the specified star is located at a distance of 12,000 light years, the influence of the interstellar medium is so insignificant that the interval between successive emissions of particles does not exceed 300 millionths of a second! If the interstellar medium were to significantly slow down the motion of these particles, their impulses would flow in an almost continuous stream. Therefore, these data confirm the prediction contained in the signs of the zodiac that cosmic rays from the center of the galaxy can travel to Earth at near-light speed.

Following the various stellar explosions in order of increasing strength, we ended up with supernova explosions. For a long time it was believed that these outbreaks are the most grandiose of cosmic catastrophes. But over the past few years, traces of incomparably more powerful cosmic explosions have been discovered, releasing, as we will see, energy equivalent to millions of solar masses. It is clear that such explosions cannot occur in individual stars. They occur in the central regions (cores) of galaxies - star systems, the masses of which are measured in billions of solar masses. We will talk about explosions in the nuclei of galaxies in this paragraph.

The nucleus of a galaxy is a very bright region of small size, usually located in the center of the galaxy. It is difficult to determine the exact sizes of nuclei for distant galaxies, since due to optical properties earth's atmosphere the image of a very small light source appears somewhat "smeared". Therefore, the magnitude of the luminous area may appear larger than it really is. In nearby galaxies, the measured diameter of the core is several tens of light years. So, the closest spiral galaxy to us - the Andromeda nebula (denoted M 31 by its number in the catalog compiled by the astronomer Messier) has a nucleus size of about 50 light years. Not all galaxies have clearly defined cores - some simply increase in brightness towards the center.

The cores of galaxies contain stars, many of which are spectral classes K and M, as well as a gas that radiates energy in spectral lines belonging to hydrogen atoms and ionized oxygen and nitrogen atoms. In addition, in many cases, strong sources of radio and infrared radiation are found in the nuclei. Later, we will talk in more detail about some of the observations that demonstrate the very complex structure of nuclei. When studying the structure of the nuclei of galaxies, it would seem most natural to first of all turn to the nucleus of our Galaxy. But it is so covered by light-absorbing gas-dust clouds that even the regions adjacent to the core cannot be seen. The nucleus of the Galaxy and its environs have been studied by radio astronomy and in infrared light. Some of the results of this study will also be presented below.

For the first time, evidence of gigantic explosive processes occurring from time to time in galaxies was obtained by studying the so-called radio galaxies. What are these objects?

In very many galaxies, in addition to the optical radiation created by stars and the interstellar medium, radiation is also observed in the radio range. Our Galaxy is also a source of radio emission. At the same time, only its radiation at centimeter and decimeter waves comes mainly from heated gas, and longer wavelength radiation is predominantly synchrotron. It is emitted by relativistic electrons as they move in interstellar magnetic fields.

For an observer outside the Galaxy, it would appear to be a relatively weak source of radio emission: in the radio range, it emits hundreds of thousands of times weaker than in the optical range. However, there are star systems, the radio emission flux from which is thousands and tens of thousands of times more intense than from our Galaxy and similar star systems - normal galaxies. Such strongly emitting objects in the radio range are called radio galaxies.

In a number of cases, radio galaxies have been identified with systems, observables and optical means. But it happens that the source of radio emission is not noticeable in visible light. Then we can simply talk about a discrete source of radio emission. Often, when an optical object corresponding to a radio galaxy is seen, its angular dimensions turn out to be much smaller than the size of the radio source. This means that the main mass of the galaxy, from which both optical and radio emission comes out, is surrounded by a very extended region that does not give optical emission. Similar regions also exist in some normal galaxies, but their radio emission turns out to be weak.

If we assume that the radiation of radio galaxies is due to the heating of the gas (ie, it is thermal), then with the observed value of the emitted energy, the temperature of the gas should be measured in billions of degrees. At such high temperatures, optical radiation must exceed radio emission by a huge number of times. But the radiation power of a radio galaxy in the radio range is comparable to the power of its optical radiation. Consequently, the radiation of radio galaxies is mainly non-thermal. There are many data indicating that it, like the long-wavelength radio emission of the Galaxy, is due to the synchrotron mechanism. One of the most important arguments in support of this point of view is the polarization of the radiation of radio galaxies observed in a number of cases not only in radio frequencies, but also in the optical region.

A radio galaxy in the constellation Cygnus, called Cygnus A, was the first object to demonstrate the possibility of a galactic-scale explosion. At first, it was observed simply as one of the strongest extragalactic sources of radio emission. In 1954, an optical object corresponding to this source was installed and its spectrum was obtained. The magnitude of the "red shift" of the spectral lines of the Cygnus A radio galaxy has led, in accordance with formula (11), to a distance of about 500 million light years to it. Estimated from the observed radiation flux from this radio galaxy and known distance the total amount of energy emitted in the radio range led to a value of 10 45 erg/sec. This is much more than the total radiation of the Galaxy in the optical region and in the radio range. The visible image of the radio galaxy Cygnus A is relatively weak, and the radiation energy in the optical region of the spectrum is an order of magnitude less than in the radio range.

The most curious feature of the radio galaxy Cygnus A, which immediately attracted attention, is its duality. Between two extended sources of radio emission, the centers of which are approximately 500 thousand light-years apart, there is an optically bright region ten times smaller. This area, in turn, consists of two parts. Thus, the Cygnus A radio source can be represented as a galaxy with a double nucleus. Two giant plasma clumps move in opposite directions from the nucleus at a speed of thousands of kilometers per second (Fig.).

Rice. Schematic structure of the radio emission source Cygnus A. An optically observable object is depicted in the center - a galaxy with a double nucleus. The areas of radio emission are shaded.

The Cygnus A galaxy contains huge gas clouds moving randomly at high speeds. This conclusion was made on the basis of observations of the optical spectrum of this galaxy, in which there are many emission lines characteristic of gaseous nebulae. According to the width of the lines, they found that they arise in a gas engulfed by chaotic movements, the speeds of which reach up to 500 km / s.

For the first time after the discovery of the duality of the Cygnus A radio source, attempts were made to explain it on the basis of the assumption that we are observing two colliding giant galaxies. This point of view has now been abandoned, in part because, holding it, it is difficult to understand how a huge amount of radiated energy arises. When galaxies collide, only a very small fraction of the energy contained in them can be converted into radio emission. It is now generally accepted that there was an explosion at the core of the Cygnus A galaxy some time ago. At the same time, two objects were ejected from the nucleus in opposite directions, which are now observed as centers of radio emission.

The age of the Cygnus A radio galaxy, ie, the time elapsed since the explosion in its nucleus, is estimated in various ways. It is at least 10 3 years, and most likely much more - 106-10 7 years. The radiation power of this radio galaxy is now on the order of 10 45 erg/sec or more, and there is no reason to assume that it was less after the explosion. Therefore, the energy released as a result of the explosion and the processes that followed it amounted to at least 10 56 -10 58 erg.

Since we observe only radiation in certain regions of the spectrum and, in addition, earlier radiation could be stronger, we can assume that the energy of the explosion reached 1059-1060 erg. It should also be borne in mind that the great importance kinetic energy of objects ejected during the explosion - centers of radio emission. Now it is difficult to estimate the magnitude of this energy with any accuracy.

The structure of some other powerful extragalactic sources of radio emission, for example, sources Centaurus A, Furnace A, is very similar to that observed at the Cygnus A source. These are binary radio galaxies, in which the centers of radio emission are located symmetrically relative to the optically observed galaxy, at a considerable distance from it. In all these cases, the explosion in the core resulted in the ejection of matter in two opposite directions with approximately the same power.

With phenomena that are caused by explosive processes, covering a significant part of star system, we also meet in such galaxies where duality is not noticed. Very interesting in this regard was the giant elliptical galaxy M 87, 50 million light-years away from us. This system, observed in the sky in the constellation Virgo, coincides both in position and in shape with a strong source of radio emission Virgo A.

The photograph of the M 87 nebula (Fig. 43) clearly shows a luminous formation - a jet, or ejection, emanating from the central part of the galaxy. This jet contains several bunches whose optical radiation turned out to be strongly polarized. The jet is several thousand light years long. The color of its radiation is blue, and the spectrum of this radiation does not contain lines. The distance of the main clumps in the jet from the center of the galaxy is no less than several tens of thousands of light years.

Rice. Galaxy M 87 (source of radio emission Virgo A). On the right, an ejection from the core of this galaxy is visible.

The connection of the jet with the nucleus of the galaxy M 87 is quite clear and leaves no doubt that the jet arose as a result of an explosive process in the nucleus. Subsequently, an ejection was detected from the galaxy M 87 in the direction opposite to the jet (it is invisible in Fig. 43). Thus, this galaxy appears to be separating common property exploding galaxies - ejection of matter in two opposite directions.

The ejection of gas from the nucleus of the galaxy M 87 continues, as the nature of its spectrum shows, at the present time. In the spectrum of regions close to the center of the galaxy, there are shifted emission lines belonging mainly to ionized oxygen atoms. Apparently, the displacements are caused by the movements of the radiating gas masses. For the speed of gas movement, values ​​of the order of 500 km/sec are obtained.

Radio emission comes from both the core of the galaxy and the extended region surrounding it, about a hundred thousand light-years in size. In addition, strong radio emission, which is especially noticeable at short (decimeter) waves, is also inherent in the jet. From the strong polarization of optical and radio emission, the jets conclude that it is due to the synchrotron mechanism. As in the Crab Nebula, optical radiation is a continuation of the radio spectrum towards short waves.

An estimate of the magnetic field strength in the jet leads to values ​​of the order of 10 -4 oersted. In such fields, the high-energy electrons that create the optical radiation of the jet must lose most of their energy (“light out”) in about a thousand years. But the jet has existed for at least tens of thousands of years, assuming that the ejection speed was close to the speed of light. It is most likely that the explosion in the core occurred millions of years ago. Consequently, the relativistic electrons giving optical radiation to the jet were not ejected from the nucleus, but received their high energy already in it. As we can see, during the explosion in the core of the galaxy M 87, some formation was ejected from it, which is still a source of relativistic particles.

Galaxy M 87 is a powerful source x-ray radiation. It is about 10 43 erg/sec, while in visible light the jet radiates about 10 42 erg/sec. Over the millions of years that have passed since the ejection of the jet, provided that the radiation power coincided with the present one, at least 10 56 -10 57 erg should have been released in this galaxy in the form of radiation of different wavelengths. The total amount of energy released as a result of the explosion, taking into account the currently unknown value of the kinetic energy of the jet and, probably, more powerful radiation, at first can significantly exceed this figure. Thus, we again have the same value for the amount of energy released as a result of the explosion, which was obtained for the Cygnus A galaxy. It is tens of millions of times greater than the energy of a supernova explosion.

Observations of the irregular galaxy M 82 close to us gave a very interesting picture of gas movements caused by a relatively recent explosion in its core. In this galaxy, despite its irregular shape, two predominant directions can be distinguished - one along the greatest elongation and the other perpendicular to it (Fig. 44). We will call them major and minor axes. A system of fibers is visible along the minor axis M 82. They radiate mainly at the frequencies of the spectral lines, and not in the continuous spectrum, and a particularly large amount of energy comes out at the wavelength of the hydrogen line Ha. A photograph of the nebula, taken with an optical filter that transmits only radiation in the Ha line and in a small adjacent section of the wavelength scale, clearly demonstrates the system of filaments. Comparing Fig. 44 and 45, we also see a difference between regions that predominantly emit in the line spectrum and regions of continuous radiation. The filaments extend 10-12 thousand light-years from the center of the galaxy.

Rice. Galaxy M 82. (Photo in continuous spectrum)

From the shift of lines in the spectra of the filaments, it was possible to establish that the matter composing them moves from the center of the galaxy at a speed of about 1000 km/sec. It takes three million years to travel 10,000 light-years at that speed. Therefore, the explosion at the galactic core that caused this movement of gas occurred several million years ago.

In their fibrous structure, the central regions of M 82 resemble the Crab Nebula. This similarity is also enhanced by the fact that the radiation of the M 82 fibers is strongly polarized. Finally, as in the case of the Crab Nebula, the region of M 82 occupied by filaments is a source of radio emission (though not very powerful.)

In the light of these facts, the conclusion about the synchrotron nature of the radiation from M 82 fibers at the frequencies of the continuous spectrum seems natural. The peculiar shape of the fibers forming the arcs (see Fig. 45) is apparently due to the action of magnetic fields on the plasma; it moves along the field lines of force. After the polarization observations determined the direction of the magnetic field lines, it turned out that the field is symmetrical about the center of the nebula and its field lines are oriented predominantly along the minor axis. Thus, the direction of the lines of force generally coincides with the direction of the fibers.

Rice . Galaxy M 82. (Photo taken in the Hα line.) The filamentous structure in the central part is clearly visible.

The glow of the filaments of the galaxy M 82 in the spectral lines can be explained in the same way as in the case of the Crabot visible nebula. There are, apparently, relativistic electrons of such high energy that they emit photons corresponding to the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. These photons are able to excite the atoms of the gas and thereby create its radiation at the frequencies of the spectral lines. The detection of X-ray emission from the galaxy M 82 suggests the existence of even higher energy electrons in it.

Although the structure created by the explosion in the core, the central regions of the galaxy M 82 are outwardly similar to the nebulae that arose during supernova outbursts, these phenomena are completely different in scale. The energy E 0 of the radiation of the galaxy in the line frequency, which reaches the earthly observer, is approximately 2x10 -11 erg/cm 2 xsec. Since the distance r to this galaxy is about 25 million light years, it radiates in total in one second in the Hα line. energy 4πr 2 E 0 ≈10 41 erg/sec.

It is likely that the emission in the H α line arises from the recombination of hydrogen atoms. Then, in other spectral lines and in the continuous spectrum, a significantly higher energy should be emitted.

Powerful infrared radiation comes out from the region of the galaxy M 82 close to the center, which is not inferior to optical radiation. We emphasize that the radiation of M 82 is so intense millions of years after the explosion, while the Crab Nebula radiates about 10 34 erg/sec.

Let us find the kinetic energy of the gas moving away from the M 82 nucleus. The mass of this gas is calculated from the volume and density it occupies. The volume determined by measuring photographs of the galaxy turned out to be on the order of 10 63 cm3. The concentration of hydrogen atoms in the emitting gas was estimated from the observed radiation flux in the H line, and is about 10 atoms per 1 cm 3 . Consequently, total number atoms in the specified volume is approximately 10 64, and the entire mass of the gas, if it consists mainly of hydrogen, is about 2x10 40 g. Above we indicated that the speed of the fibers is close to 108 cm / sec and, therefore, their kinetic energy is of the order of 10 56 erg .

Total energy released during the explosion in the nucleus of the galaxy M 82, in addition to the just calculated kinetic energy, should also include the energy of cosmic rays and the magnetic field, which is currently estimated at 10 55 -10 56 erg. In addition, the radiation of the galaxy during the time elapsed after the explosion should be at least 10 58 erg, and possibly even 10 57 erg. Thus, for the energy of the explosion in the nucleus of the M 82 galaxy, a value of the order of 10 56 -10 58 erg is obtained, which practically coincides with the energy of explosions in the nuclei of other galaxies.

An explosion in the nucleus of a galaxy causes, as we can see, violent movements of gas near the nucleus. In connection with the study of such explosions, "Seyfert" galaxies (named after the scientist who studied them) are of great interest, in which the nuclei turn out to be areas of unusual activity. A characteristic feature of such a core is its very high brightness compared to the rest of the galaxy. In addition, the spectra of the nuclei of Seyfert galaxies contain emission lines that belong mainly to ionized atoms various elements. The lines are very wide and have a complex structure. They consist of separate "pegs". Based on this structure, it is assumed that the lines are formed in giant complexes of chaotically moving gas clouds. Since the directions of motion of the radiating gas masses are not the same, their velocities along the line of sight are also different. Therefore, from a number of emission lines, differently shifted by the Doppler effect, a wide emission line with "peaks" should be obtained. By measuring the width of the lines, we found that the velocities of the gas masses range from 500 to 3000 km/sec.

One of the most famous Seyfert galaxies (more than twenty have been discovered in total) is spiral galaxy NGC 10 68 (NGC is the designation of the catalog of nebulae, 10 68 is the number in this catalog). The distance to this galaxy is about 40 million light years. The image shows a bright region at the center of the nebula, with a radius of about 6,000 light-years. The mass of this region is twenty-six million solar masses. In the center of the luminous region, the very core of the galaxy is visible. It has a very small size - about 100 light years. The bright region around the nucleus is a collection of clouds of glowing gas. Clouds hundreds of light years in size move at speeds up to 500 - 600 km/sec. The emission spectrum of these clouds contains emission lines. Some of them belong to multiply ionized elements. This indicates a high temperature of the radiating regions. Strong short-wave radiation comes from the region of the nucleus of the galaxy NGC 1068, and at the same time, the nucleus is a powerful source of infrared radiation with very long wavelengths - 10-20 microns. The power of this radiation fluctuates.

Another well-known Seyfert galaxy, NGC1275, is a very strong source of radio emission. Judging by the spectrum, the region adjacent to the core is filled, as in the case of the galaxy NGC 1068, with rapidly moving gas clouds. In addition, there is a filamentous gaseous structure reminiscent of the Crab Nebula - of course, on a much larger scale.

Seyfert galaxies contain near the center not only gas, but also stars. It is they who create in the observed spectrum the absorption lines characteristic of stars. Lines appear in the spectra of individual stars, and they are observed in the total spectrum because all stars of a given class have a lack of radiation in the line frequencies. The observed radiation from the core of a Seyfert galaxy in the continuous spectrum is produced by stars and is 5-10 times stronger than the total radiation in the emission lines. However, since the radiation in the emission lines is distributed over big number relatively narrow sections of the spectrum, in each of these sections the radiation flux is large enough for the line to be clearly visible against the background of the continuous spectrum. The properties of the gas in the bright central region, which is usually called the core of the Seyfert galaxy, chemical composition, density and temperature - were repeatedly determined from the line spectrum of its radiation. As a result, it was found that the gas consists mainly of hydrogen, the concentration of which is on average 10 3 -10 4 atoms per 1 cm 3, and the gas temperature is 10000-20000 °. Gas complexes (clouds) are unevenly distributed over the galactic core, and their total volume is 10 60 -10 62 cm 3 . The mass of gas contained in the central region of the galaxy can reach 10 7 M o, and, accordingly, its kinetic energy is of the order of 1055-1056 erg. Above, we obtained similar values ​​for the energy of explosions in the nuclei of the galaxies M 82 and M 87. Apparently, violent motions in the nuclei of Seyfert galaxies are also created by some kind of explosive processes. In any case, other explanations for such activity of nuclei, for example, thermonuclear reactions, meet with serious difficulties.

Gas clouds in their random movement collide with each other all the time. Due to the enormous speeds of movement, these collisions lead to heating of the gas; some part of the kinetic energy of the clouds is converted into heat. The observed line spectrum of the core of the Seyfert galaxy is the radiation spectrum of the heated gas. At line frequencies, the core radiates about 10 42 - 10 43 erg/sec. If all the kinetic energy of the clouds were converted into radiation, then in this case it would be enough for 10 13 sec, that is, for several hundred thousand years. But practically not all of the kinetic energy can be converted into observable radiation, so the kinetic energy is not able to maintain the glow of the nucleus even for such a period. On the other hand, we know that an explosion in the core of any of the Seyfert galaxies could not have occurred earlier than a few million years ago. After all, it takes millions of years for a gas flying from the explosion area at a speed of about 1000 km / s to travel a distance equal to the radius of the glow region - 10 21 -10 22 cm. Therefore, one has to assume that either there are some ways to maintain the glow of the gas ( “pumping” energy into it), or the kinetic energy of the gas used to be greater than now. But then the explosion energy should significantly exceed the indicated value of 10 55 - 10 56 erg.

Infrared observations of Seyfert galaxies, made in the most last years, further complicated the problem of explaining their glow. Many of these galaxies lose in the form of long-wave radiation, in the wavelength range of 2-20 microns, not less than 10 45 - 10 46 erg/sec. Thus, for 10 6 -10 7 years of its activity the galaxy should lose 10 60 -10 61 erg. Of course, the kinetic energy of gas clouds cannot provide such a huge luminosity, and one has to conclude that a source of energy of a different nature is continuously operating for a long time.

The nuclei of some of the Seyfert galaxies, in particular the galaxy NGC 10 68 and especially, as already mentioned, the galaxy NGC 1275, radiate a lot of energy in the radio range. By the nature of this radiation, it was found that it is of synchrotron origin, i.e., it is created when relativistic electrons move in magnetic fields. These and other facts suggest that relativistic electrons are continuously formed in the central region of the Seyfert galaxy, losing their energy when moving in a magnetic field. The radiation of relativistic electrons, ionizing the gas, must transfer energy to it and thereby compensate for the energy loss by the gas for radiation in lines and the continuous spectrum. As for radiation in the infrared region of the spectrum, in these cases it is attributed to interstellar dust heated again by synchrotron radiation. Neither the mechanism of formation of large amounts of dust in the nuclei of galaxies, nor the methods of its heating have yet been studied, and it is possible that the nature of the infrared radiation of the nuclei of Seyfert galaxies is completely different.

Striking evidence of powerful explosive processes characteristic of the nuclei of Seyfert galaxies is a sequence of radio sources that extends, like a jet in M87, from the galaxy NGC 1275 at a distance of several million light years. According to observers, these sources were ejected from the core of the galaxy NGC1275 relatively recently, 10 6 -10 7 years ago, i.e. at the same time when the gas clouds that make up the visible core of the galaxy were erupted from the explosion region. The ejection velocity of formations now observed as sources of radio emission should have been comparable to the speed of light.

Let us now summarize what has been said in this section. It turns out there are different kinds stellar systems - galaxies, characterized by a special activity of their nuclei. This activity is expressed either in strong radio emission coming from the region of the nucleus, or in the ejection of gas from the nucleus, or, finally, in the chaotic movement of gaseous masses near the nucleus. In all cases, these features can be attributed to an explosion at the galactic core hundreds of thousands or millions of years ago. The explosion caused the release of huge energy - at least 10 56 -10 57 erg, and possibly 10 60 -10 61 erg in its various forms.

Of course, the cases when significant activity is observed in the nuclei of galaxies are not limited to the examples considered above. There is also no doubt that with the expansion of studies of extragalactic objects, more and more evidence of the activity of galactic nuclei should be discovered. When evaluating the possibility of observing explosions in the nuclei of galaxies, one must keep in mind that the explosive process in them cannot be repeated often, and the effect of each explosion lasts a short time compared to the age of the galaxy. During the rest of the time, the activity of the nuclei can be low and therefore only be found in the nearest galaxies.

Noticeable signs of activity in the core and our star system - the Galaxy. Previously, we noted the unavailability central regions Galaxies for studying by optical means. Some information about the structure of the nucleus of the Galaxy was obtained by radio methods due to the fact that radio emission is relatively little delayed by the interstellar medium. In the center of the Galaxy there is a very strong source of radio emission about 30 light years in size and several weaker sources. Judging by the spectrum of radio emission, it is of synchrotron origin. The power of this radiation, 10 37 erg/sec, is three orders of magnitude less than the power of radio emission from the nuclei of Seyfert galaxies.

The nucleus of the Galaxy also contains a source of infrared radiation, which has a relatively small size. Radiation with wavelengths from 5 to 25 microns emerges from a region no more than two light years across. In total, the core of the Galaxy emits in the infrared range about 3x10 43 erg/sec, that is, three to four orders of magnitude less than the core of a Seyfert galaxy. There are reasons to believe that the source of infrared radiation consists of many small formations with a relatively strong intensity of up to 100 oersteds, magnetic field. On the whole, the core of our Galaxy is very similar to the cores of active, in particular Seyfert, galaxies, but with much less, thousands of times, activity.

The similarity of the central region of the Galaxy with the nuclei of Seyfert galaxies is increased by the fact that it contains clouds of gas moving at speeds of 50-100 km/sec. The total kinetic energy of the moving gas, if we take into account that its amount is about 10 7 M , exceeds 1054 erg. This value is about a thousand times less than the kinetic energy of the gas in the core of the Seyfert galaxy. From the central regions of the Galaxy, gas flows out in an amount of about 1 M per year. Thus, the core of the Galaxy is the center of activity similar to that observed in exploding galaxies, but on a smaller scale. It is possible that an explosion also occurred in the core of our Galaxy hundreds of millions of years ago.

Consideration of the possible nature of the nuclei and their role in the evolution of galaxies, we will postpone until the thirteenth paragraph. Here it is worth briefly considering the question of whether the known sources of energy are able to ensure its release in the amount of 10 56 -10 61 erg in a short time.

The assumption that explains the release of energy in radio galaxies and other galaxies with exploding nuclei by collisions between them, of course, must be abandoned, since activity very often manifests itself in the nuclei of single galaxies. The cause of explosions must be sought in the very nature of the nuclei of galaxies.

The hypothesis about the transformation of potential energy into its other forms during the compression of the star system does not solve the problem, since in the case of galaxies, due to their huge size, such a transformation cannot be catastrophic. In addition, it is now quite well known that explosions are localized precisely in very small volumes occupied by the nuclei of galaxies.

Great difficulties also arise in explaining explosions in the nuclei of galaxies by thermonuclear reactions. Accepting this mechanism of energy release, one must assume that a small volume of the core contains a large number of stars that quickly turn into supernovae - on average, one star should flare up per year. The reasons for such frequent outbreaks are unclear, not to mention the fact that observations do not indicate a large concentration of stars in the cores of galaxies. In addition, such a mechanism does not provide anything for understanding the nature of one-sided ejections from the nucleus, such as, for example, in the galaxy M 87.

Thus, the discovery of explosions in the nuclei of galaxies confronted science with the need for a completely new approach to the problem of energy and matter conversion. Before presenting the existing views on this problem, we will deal with another type of objects - quasars. In terms of the scale of energy release, they are hundreds and thousands of times greater than even explosions in the cores of galaxies. Therefore, although it is not known whether we are dealing with explosive processes in the study of quasars, their study is very important for understanding the nature of cosmic explosions.