1. Name the main patterns of evolution.

Evolution is irreversible. Organisms that have arisen in the course of evolution cannot return to the previous state of their ancestors.

In the process of evolution there is a progressive complication of life forms.

Evolution is the process of unprogrammed development of living nature. In the process of evolution there is no purposefulness. Its movement is completely dependent on natural selection.

In evolution, the relativity of the adaptability of species to the environment is manifested.

2. What is the similarity between microevolution and macroevolution?

The similarity lies in the absence of differences in the course of these processes, which allows us to consider them as two components of a single development. organic world. Differences: microevolution proceeds at the level of populations and leads to the formation of new species, and macroevolution leads to the formation of larger systematic units (above the species).

3. Why is a population called a form of existence of a species?

Because the formation of a new species occurs at the population level.

4. What role does the struggle for existence play in the evolutionary process?

The struggle for existence is conducted both between individuals of different species (interspecific struggle for existence) and between individuals of the same species (intraspecific struggle for existence). Another manifestation of the struggle for existence is the struggle with inanimate nature. As a result of the struggle for existence, some variations in traits in one individual give it a survival advantage over other individuals of the same species with other variations of inherited traits. Some individuals with unfavorable variations die. Inherited traits that increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction of a given organism, transmitted from parents to offspring, will occur more and more often in subsequent generations. As a result, over a certain period of time, there are many such individuals with new characters, and they turn out to be so different from the organisms of the original species that they already represent individuals of a new species.

5. Describe the main directions of evolution.

The main directions in evolution are biological progress and biological regression. Progress is an increase in the adaptability of organisms to the environment, accompanied by an increase in the number and wider distribution of the species. A decrease in the adaptability of organisms to environmental conditions, accompanied by a decrease in the number and narrowing of the distribution area, is called biological regression. Biological regression is experienced by groups that have not been able to adapt to changes in environmental conditions and have not been able to withstand competition with other groups.

6. Expand the meaning of speciation in the life of nature.

As a result of speciation in nature, new organisms appear that adapt to new environmental conditions and can populate new, previously uninhabited habitats.

7. In each line, three terms are interconnected in a certain way. Name them. Mark the fourth term that is not related to them:

Evolution, adaptation, population, speciation; (an extra term "adaptation", the rest of the terms in the line are interconnected: the population is the main unit of evolution, which leads to the formation of new species (speciation).

Microevolution, population, fitness, macroevolution; (an extra term "population", since micro- and macroevolution are processes of increasing the fitness of organisms in environmental conditions, leading either to the formation of a new species or a structure above the species).

Idioadaptation, aromorphosis, degeneration, biological progress; (an extra term "degeneration" since it is a manifestation of biological regression. All other terms refer to biological progress).

Natural selection, artificial selection, fitness, divergence. (An extra term is “artificial selection”, since this is a process of purposeful selection by a person of organisms with the qualities of organisms he needs and their subsequent reproduction).

188. Fill in the table "Types of evolutionary changes"

Types of evolutionary change	Characteristic	Examples
Parallelism	The result is the appearance of similar features in related organisms.	cetaceans and pinnipeds, independently of each other, moved to living in aquatic environment and bought fins. Similarities in the structure of African and American porcupines
Convergence	Two or more unrelated species become more and more similar to each other. This is the result of adaptation to similar environmental conditions.	Dolphin, shark and penguin look alike; marsupial flyer and flying squirrel. The presence of wings in butterflies and birds
Divergence	Represents an evolutionary tree with divergent branches. The common ancestor gave rise to two or more forms, which, in turn, became the ancestors of many species and genera. Divergence - divergent evolution - almost always reflects the expansion of adaptation to new living conditions	The class of mammals broke up into orders, the representatives of which differ in structure, ecological features, in the nature of physiological and behavioral adaptations (insectivores, predators, cetaceans)

189. Look at the picture in your textbook that illustrates an example of convergent evolution. Suggest the reasons why chordates belonging to different classes have a similar morphological structure

Unrelated species (in the figure) became more and more similar to each other in the course of evolution. This is the result of adaptations to similar environmental conditions - large aquatic animals have adapted to fast swimming

190. Fill in the table "Directions of evolution"

191. The evolutionary changes in the structure and life of organisms are listed below:

A) the process of photosynthesis

B) the emergence of chordates

C) the emergence of multicellularity

D) the appearance of a flower

E) the appearance of a thick undercoat in mammals in winter

E) change in coat color in a hare in winter

H) loss of the digestive system by tapeworms

I) loss of color in some species of shrimp

K) modification of the leaves of a cactus

Write out the letters that indicate the listed changes, in accordance with their belonging to the main directions of evolution

Aromorphoses: A, B, C, D

Idioadaptations: D, E, K

Degenerations: F, G, I

From this lesson, you will learn how macroevolution differs from microevolution, get acquainted with the phenomenon of parallelism, find out what divergence and convergence are, which organs are called similar and which are homologous. What do a man's hand, a bat's wing, a walrus' flippers, and a horse's hoof have in common? How are the eyes of mollusks and insects different from our eyes? What is phylogenesis and how is it related to our individual development - otnogenesis? Is evolution reversible? Why are shark, tuna, ichthyosaur, dolphin and swimming penguin body shapes so similar?

The largest regularities that are observed within the framework of macroevolution were studied and described in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Elements of macroevolution:

1. feature convergence
2. Feature Divergence
3. Parallelism

Divergence- this is the accumulation of differences in the structure and functions of an organ in the process of evolution. As a result of divergence from one organ, several different organs are formed, connected by a common origin.

For example, the upper limbs of vertebrates evolved into the paws and wings of reptiles, the wings of bats and birds, the fins of dolphins, the legs of ungulates, and the arms of primates.

All these organs perform different functions, but have the same origin.

Rice. 1. Homological organs of vertebrates

The organs formed as a result of divergence are called homologous(Fig. 1). They are formed from similar embryonic rudiments.

Divergence ensures the morphological diversity of living beings.

Convergence is a process inverse to divergence. This is the formation of organs that are similar in function and structure, but differ in origin.

Rice. 2. Similar organs: bird and butterfly wings

But, in fact, they developed quite independently from various ancestral forms. The requirement of the environment and the influence of natural selection determined their external similarity.

Organs that perform the same functions but have different origins are called similar(Fig. 3).

A typical example of similar organs is the eyes of cephalopods and vertebrates. These organs formed independently over hundreds of millions of years, and in the end they turned out to be almost the same, differing only in details.

Rice. 3. Similar organs: the eyes of a mollusk (octopus or squid) and humans

The third element in the transformation process is a cross between divergence and convergence, parallelism- such a process when an organ, as a result of divergence, turns into many homologous organs. But then, in the course of evolution, these homologous organs again begin to perform a common function.

For example, the body and shoulder girdle in vertebrates have given rise to many homologous variants. Ungulates, birds, fish, reptiles were formed from the same elements of the skeleton, but then, in the process of evolution, some of them again acquired the same features (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. An example of parallelism in the evolution of body shape in cartilaginous fish (shark), reptiles (ichthyosaur) and a mammal (dolphin)

For example, the bodies of an ichthyosaur, a shark and a dolphin (and even a penguin swimming in the water) are very similar and formed from the same skeletal elements, but in completely different evolutionary ways.

The ancestors of ichthyosaurs were lizards, the ancestors of dolphins were herbivorous land mammals, the penguins were birds, and the ancestors of sharks were ancient cartilaginous fish.

Evolution follows three main paths: by divergence, by convergence and by parallelism.

Process historical development species is called phylogenesis.

An important step in understanding evolution was the formulation of " basic phylogenetic law» Ernest Haeckel.

"Ontogeny is an accelerated repetition of phylogenesis" E.G. Haeckel.

Haeckel clearly demonstrated that organisms in the process of embryonic development repeat all the stages that the species went through in the process of evolutionary development (see video). It is important to understand that we are talking about the repetition of the germinal stages of ancestral forms.

In the human embryo at different stages of development of ontogenesis, one can see gills, a heart tube and other signs of embryos of our distant ancestors.

Another important law of phylogeny is "the law of irreversibility of evolution". Despite the presence of convergence, the similarities of different species are never complete.

The evolutionary process, due to the extreme complexity of living organisms, cannot create an exact copy of either an existing species or an extinct one. Each type of living organism is unique.

So, we have learned that as a result of evolution, homologous organs can be formed by divergence, and similar organs can be formed by convergence. Found out that ontogenesis repeats the stages of phylogenesis and that each species of living organisms is unique.

Bibliography

1. A.A. Kamensky, E.A. Kriksunov, V.V. Beekeeper. General biology, grades 10-11. - M.: Bustard, 2005. Download the textbook from the link: ( )
2. D.K. Belyaev. Biology 10-11 class. General biology. A basic level of. - 11th edition, stereotypical. - M.: Education, 2012. - 304 p. ()
3. V.B. Zakharov, S.G. Mamontov, N.I. Sonin, E.T. Zakharov. Biology grade 11. General biology. Profile level. - 5th edition, stereotypical. - M.: Bustard, 2010. - 388 p. ()
4. IN AND. Sivoglazov, I.B. Agafonova, E.T. Zakharov. Biology 10-11 class. General biology. A basic level of. - 6th edition, updated. - M.: Bustard, 2010. - 384 p. ()

Homework

1. What is evolution? How is macroevolution different from microevolution?
2. What consequences of macroevolution do you know?
3. What organs are called homologous? Give examples.
4. What organs are called similar? Give examples.
5. What is parallelism?
6. Using the example of the human body, discuss with friends and family the phenomena of homology, analogy, and parallelism.

1. Biological dictionary ().
2. All biology ().
3. Internet portal Bio.fizteh.ru ().
4. Biology ().
5. Internet portal Sochineniya-referati.ru ().

Lesson Objectives:

• To form students' knowledge about the types of evolutionary changes.
• Consider the paths of evolution of the organic world and the relationship between them using specific examples.
• To acquaint with the main directions of the evolution of the organic world - biological progress and biological regression.
• Show the role of Russian scientists in the development of evolutionary doctrine.
• To form the skills of determining aromorphosis and idioadaptation in the plant and animal world.

Equipment: biology textbook "Homologous and similar organs of plants and animals", presentation for the lesson.

DURING THE CLASSES

I. Actualization of basic knowledge

What is biological evolution? (B. evolution is the irreversible development of the organic world).
What evolutionary process is called microevolution? (The process of formation of new species).
What is macroevolution? (The process of formation of larger systematic units - genera, families, etc.).

II. new material

1. Types of evolutionary changes (lecture, conversation).

(In the course of viewing the slides, students write the definitions in a notebook).

The main types of evolutionary change include parallelism, convergence, and divergence ( Attachment 1 , slide 2).

Parallelism is the independent acquisition of similar traits by related organisms living in the same conditions and leading a similar lifestyle.
For example, the body structure of mammals inhabiting the rainforests of Africa and South America has a general similarity ( Attachment 1 , slide 3).

Convergence - the emergence of similar structural features in unrelated organisms living in the same conditions and leading a similar lifestyle.
For example, four groups of animals gave rise to large aquatic predators: molluscs, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
What common structural features can be distinguished in these animals belonging to different systematic groups ( Attachment 1 , slide 4)? (Fins, streamlined body shape).
Convergent evolution affects only the external structure of organisms, which is associated with environmental conditions. The wing of a bird and a butterfly are adaptations for flight, but the origin and structure of these organs are different. Organs of different origin, but performing similar functions are called similar ( Attachment 1 , slide 5)

Divergence - divergence of signs within the aisles of a population, species, arising under the influence of natural selection, leading to the emergence of new species, orders, classes, etc.

As a result of divergent evolution, the class of mammals broke up into numerous orders, the representatives of which differ in structure, lifestyle, and the nature of physiological and behavioral adaptations ( Attachment 1 , slide 6).
- What was the reason for the formation of numerous groups of mammals? (Adaptation to different conditions environment)
Modified limbs of a whale, a bird, a bat, a mole, a rat are the result of divergent evolution. These organs have the same general structural plan, but perform different functions. Such organs are called homologous ( Attachment 1 , slide 7).

2. Ways and directions of the evolution of the organic world

A significant contribution to the development of the problem of evolution was made by prominent Russian scientists A.N. Severtsev and I.I. Schmalhausen. They found that the main ways of evolution are aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration ( Attachment 1 , slide 8).

The contribution of Russian scientists to the development of evolutionary doctrine(short messages from students)

A.N. Severtsev is a well-known zoologist and the largest theoretician of evolutionary doctrine. Founder of the national school of evolutionary morphologists. Organized and headed the Laboratory of evolutionary morphology and ecology of animals. Creator of the generally accepted theory of the origin of the five-fingered limb and paired fins in animals. The author of the theory of phylembryogenesis, according to which new characters can appear at any stage of ontogenesis, and the morphobiological theory of evolutionary paths, in which he established four main directions of biological progress: aromorphosis, idioadaptation, cenogenesis, and general degeneration.
I.I.Shmalgauzen graduated from Kyiv University in 1907. A student of A.N.Severtsev. At Moscow University, he headed the chair of Darwinism organized by him. For twelve years he headed the Institute of Evolutionary Morphology of the USSR Academy of Sciences. His numerous works are devoted to comparative anatomy and embryology, evolutionary morphology, the origin of terrestrial vertebrates, the ways and patterns of evolution, and biocybernetics. His studies of the mechanisms of the evolutionary process and individual development as self-regulating systems anticipated a number of provisions of cybernetics, from the positions of which he in 1950-60s. presented evolutionary theory. His scientific legacy has had and continues to have a great influence on the development of biological science.
(BENP, Kirill and Melodiy, 2003)

Aromorphosis - adaptive changes of general importance, increasing the level of organization and viability of individuals, populations, species.
The first terrestrial vertebrates gave rise to a group of lobe-finned fish, due to a change in the structure of the skeleton of paired fins. As a result, five-fingered limbs were formed, capable of supporting the body above the ground ( Attachment 1 , slide 9).
An example of aromorphosis in plants is the appearance of a flower (a modified shoot) in angiosperms.
Idioadaptation - private adaptive changes that are useful in a given environment, occurring without changing the overall level of organization.
An example of idioadaptation in animals is the variety of beaks of Hawaiian flower girls that feed on the nectar of various angiosperms.
Adaptation to seed dispersal by wind is an example of one of the ideological adaptations in plants ( Attachment 1 , slide 10)

Correlation of paths of evolution

The muskrat is a North American introduced species whose distribution area is constantly expanding. As a result, it begins to crowd out native species with similar ecological needs, such as the muskrat and the water vole.
biological regression ( Attachment 1 , slide 14) is characterized by:

• Decrease in the number of individuals.
• Narrowing of the range.
• Reducing the number of species, populations.

The cause of biological regression may be a change in environmental conditions to which the species has failed to adapt, or competition from other species. So it was with the numerous dominant group of reptiles on Earth, which, thanks to warm-bloodedness, were replaced by birds and mammals.
At present, by changing the environment, recklessly moving species to new conditions of existence, a person, willingly or unwillingly, becomes the cause of biological progress or regression. Attachment 1 , slide 21)

V. Homework:§63, notebook.

Was used:

1. Educational electronic edition "Ecology", Moscow State Institute of Electronics and Mathematics, 2004.
2. 1C: School, Ecology, grades 10-11, edited by A.K. Aklebinina, V.I. Sivoglazova
3. Laboratory practice. Biology 6-11 cells. Republican multimedia center, 2004.
4. BENP, biology grades 6-11, Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, GURTs EMTO "Cyril and Mifody", 2003.
5. D.K. Belyaev, A.O. Ruvinsky, General biology for grades 10-11, Moscow, Enlightenment, 1991.
6. A.A. Kamensky, E.A. Kriksunov, V.V. Beekeeper, General biology, 10-11kl. DROFA, Moscow, 2005.
7. Lessons in General Biology: A Teacher's Guide / V.M. Korsunskaya, G.N. Mironenko, Z.A. Mokeeva, N.M. Verzilin - M: Enlightenment, 1986.

The presentation gives an idea of ​​the main laws of evolution: unpredictability, irreversibility, progressive complication of life forms, adaptability of organisms and, as a result, the formation of co-adaptive properties of the species. This presentation can be used when studying the topic "Basic patterns biological evolution' in 9th grade.

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Basic laws of biological evolution. Mokina Irina Vladimirovna, teacher of biology, MBOU - gymnasium No. 39. Yekaterinburg

Unpredictability Evolution is unpredictable, not directed towards a specific goal. Orientation carries out natural selection.

Irreversibility Reflects the actual uniqueness of the process of life development.

Progressive complication of life forms The unprogrammed gradual development of living nature is directed by the action of natural selection. In the progressive complication of the organic world, the general direction of the evolutionary process is manifested.

Fitness of organisms A complex process of fitness formation is realized under the influence of factors of the evolutionary process, directed natural selection, combining the requirements of the environment with the structure of the genotype.

Formation of co-adaptive properties of a species Mutual adaptation of different species in the process of joint evolution. Coadaptation is a mutual functional adaptation during the evolution of various organs of one individual, or various living beings of the same biocenosis.