The structure of matter or what matter is made of. Structurality and systematicity as attributes of matter. Main types of matter Examples of matter physics 7

We cannot observe most of our world - 95% of the mass of the Universe is dark matter and dark energy. What dark matter consists of is not yet clear, but there is an assumption that it could be axions, elementary particles responsible for maintaining time symmetry.

For human consciousness, the past and the future are opposite dimensions: we remember the first, we expect the second. A movie that starts with the ending seems unrealistic to us. Ours is directed from the past to the future.

It seems that the direction of time is unshakable. But if we made a movie about subatomic particles, we would find that the reflected version of it reflects reality quite accurately. The fundamental laws of physics, with some exceptions, are true in any direction of time: the arrow of time is reversible for them.

If we follow the laws of formal logic, the reversal of time should radically change physical laws. But in reality this is not the case. To describe this phenomenon, physicists use the terms "T-invariance" or "T-symmetry".

Unlike the fundamental laws of physics, our everyday life violates T-invariance. This glaring discrepancy leads us to the question: why is the real world “T-asymmetric”? Is it possible that there are some creatures that get younger while we age? And can we use some physical process to turn back time?

Unfortunately, science cannot yet give an exact answer. But we can guess why T-symmetry exists at all. The modern version is deeper and more complex than the assumptions of 50 years ago, but it also has a loophole. And if science figures it out, perhaps we will be able to understand the essence of dark matter - the invisible part of the matter of the Universe. But about dark matter - a little later.

The history of the study of T-symmetry began in 1956. At that time, scientists T.D. Lee and S.N. Young thought about the existence of P-invariance, a spatial analogue of T-symmetry. If P-invariance existed, then events could be reflected as in a mirror. However, the results of the experiments of Lee and Yang showed that P-invariance appears only for gravitational, electromagnetic and strong interactions. It did not exist for weak interactions.

Then physicists moved from spatial symmetry to temporal O y. The existence of T-invariance was an axiom for some time - until in 1964, a team of scientists led by James Cronin and Valentina Fitch discovered a weak effect in the decay of K-mesons that breaks time symmetry. This discovery has physicists excited: how can T-symmetry be both exact and approximate? This problem was solved by Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa. In 1973, they proposed that approximate T-invariance is only an accidental consequence of other, deeper principles.

By then, the outline of the Standard Model of particle physics had grown into a powerful, empirically successful theoretical framework. It is based on the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics and the mathematical rule of uniformity. But connecting these ideas was difficult: together they limit the possibilities of basic interactions.

Kobayashi and Maskawa stated that if physics had been limited to the two families of particles known at that time, quarks and leptons, then all interactions would obey T-symmetry. But Cronin and Fitch's discovery shed light on the existence of a third group of particles that break T-symmetry. Subsequently, these particles were actually found.

However, the story doesn't end there. There was a loophole in Kobayashi and Maskawa's hypothesis. Gerard t'Hooft discovered a new type of interaction that breaks T-symmetry - and it came as a surprise to theoretical physicists. The violation of T-symmetry in this case was more obvious than in Cronin and Fitch. However, nature stubbornly ignores this loophole - T-invariance is strictly observed.

Only one explanation for the inviolability of T-symmetry has stood the test of time. This is Roberto Peccei and Helen Quinn's idea of extending the Standard Model through a neutralizing field whose behavior is particularly sensitive to the new t'Hooft interaction. If a new interaction is present, the neutralizing field adjusts its own magnitude to compensate for the effect of this interaction. Such a neutralizing field, it turns out, closes our loophole. The particles produced by the neutralizing field were called axions.

According to the theory, axions are very light, long-lived particles that weakly interact with matter. But we don’t know anything about their mass: it lies in a wide range of values. The same problem was with other particles: the Higgs boson, the charm quark and the top quark - before each of these particles was discovered, the theory predicted all their properties except the value of their mass. It turned out that the interaction force of an axion is proportional to its mass. Therefore, as the axion's mass decreases, it becomes more and more elusive.

Previously, physicists had focused on models in which the axion was closely related to the Higgs boson. Further, it was suggested that the axion mass should be on the order of 10 keV - one fiftieth the mass of an electron. Most of the experiments we talked about earlier were looking for just such an axion - but it turned out that such axions do not exist. Therefore, scientists decided to switch to much lower axion masses.

Such axions must have been produced in abundance during the first moments of the Big Bang. If axions really exist, then they should fill the Universe in the form of the so-called axion liquid. And this liquid should influence the overall mass density of the Universe, since axions have mass. The mass of axions is estimated to be approximately equal to the mass of dark matter - in fact, the mysterious substance that fills 22% of the Universe may consist of these hypothetical particles.

The experimental search for axions continues on several fronts. Two of the most promising experiments are aimed at finding axion fluid. One of them, ADMX (Axion Dark Matter eXperiment), uses special ultra-sensitive antennas to convert background axions into electromagnetic pulses. Another, CASPEr (Cosmic Axion Spin Precession Experiment), looks for tiny fluctuations in the motion of nuclear spins that can be caused by axion fluid. In addition, these complex experiments promise to cover almost the entire range of possible axion masses. Perhaps if these experiments prove the existence of axions, we will understand what dark matter is actually made of.

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1. Introduction

2. About the concept of “matter”. Formation and development of general ideas about matter

2.2 Matter in philosophy

2.3 Matter in physics

3. Main types of matter

4. Properties and attributes of matter

5. Forms of motion of matter

6. Structural levels of organization of matter

Conclusion

Literature

1. INTRODUCTION

The problem of determining the essence of matter is very complex. The complexity lies in the high degree of abstraction of the concept of matter itself, as well as in the variety of different material objects, forms of matter, its properties and interdependence.

Turning our attention to the world around us, we see a collection of various objects and things. These items have a variety of properties. Some of them are large in size, others are smaller, some are simple, others are more complex, some are comprehended quite fully in a directly sensory way, to penetrate into the essence of others, the abstracting activity of our mind is necessary. These objects also differ in the strength of their impact on our senses.

However, with all their multiplicity and diversity, the most diverse objects of the world around us have one common, so to speak, denominator, which allows us to unite them with the concept of matter. This generality is the independence of the entire variety of objects from the consciousness of people. At the same time, this commonality in the existence of various material formations is a prerequisite for the unity of the world. However, noticing the commonality in a wide variety of objects, phenomena, and processes is far from an easy task. This requires a certain system of established knowledge and a developed ability for abstraction activities of the human mind. Since knowledge is an acquired product, and accumulated gradually, over a long time, many people’s judgments about nature and society were initially very vague, approximate, and sometimes simply incorrect. This fully applies to the definition of the category of matter.

2. ABOUT THE CONCEPT OF “MATTER”. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL CONCEPTS ABOUT MATTER

2.1 Formation and development of general ideas about matter

The most cursory analysis of the ideas of ancient scientists about matter shows that they were all materialistic in spirit, but their common drawback was, firstly, the reduction of the concept of matter to a specific type of substance or series of substances. And secondly, the recognition of matter as a building material, a certain primary unchanging substance, automatically excluded going beyond the limits of existing ideas about it. Thus, further knowledge and penetration into the essence of matter was limited to any specific type of substance with its inherent properties. Nevertheless, the great merit of the ancient materialists was the banishment of ideas about a creator God and the recognition of the relationship between matter and motion, as well as the eternity of their existence.

A noticeable mark in the development of the doctrine of matter was left by the thinkers of Ancient Greece Leucippus and especially Democritus - the founders of the atomistic doctrine of the surrounding world. They were the first to express the idea that all objects consist of tiny indivisible particles - atoms. The primary substance - atoms move in emptiness, and their various combinations are one or another material formation. The destruction of things, according to Democritus, only means their decomposition into atoms. The very concept of an atom contains something common, inherent in different bodies.

A very important attempt to define matter was made by the 18th-century French materialist Holbach, who in his work “The System of Nature” wrote that “in relation to us, matter in general is everything that influences our senses in some way.”

Here we see a desire to highlight what is common in various forms of matter, namely, that they evoke sensations in us. In this definition, Holbach already abstracts from the specific properties of objects and gives an idea of matter as an abstraction. However, Holbach's definition was limited. It did not fully reveal the essence of everything that affects our senses; it did not reveal the specifics of what cannot affect our senses. This incompleteness of the definition of matter proposed by Holbach created opportunities for both materialistic and idealistic interpretations of it.

By the end of the 19th century, natural science, and physics in particular, had reached a fairly high level of development. General and seemingly unshakable principles of the structure of the world were discovered. The cell was discovered, the law of conservation and transformation of energy was formulated, the evolutionary path of development of living nature was established by Darwin, and the periodic system of elements was created by Mendeleev. Atoms were recognized as the basis of the existence of all people and objects - the smallest, from the point of view of that time, indivisible particles of matter. The concept of matter was thus identified with the concept of substance; mass was characterized as a measure of the amount of substance or a measure of the amount of matter. Matter was considered without connection with space and time. Thanks to the work of Faraday and then Maxwell, the laws of motion of the electromagnetic field and the electromagnetic nature of light were established. At the same time, the propagation of electromagnetic waves was associated with mechanical vibrations of a hypothetical medium - the ether. Physicists noted with satisfaction: finally, a picture of the world has been created, the phenomena around us fit into the framework prescribed by it.

Against the seemingly prosperous background of a “harmonious theory,” a whole series of scientific discoveries, inexplicable within the framework of classical physics, suddenly followed. In 1896, X-rays were discovered. In 1896, Becquerel accidentally discovered the radioactivity of uranium, and in the same year the Curies discovered radium. Thomson discovered the electron in 1897, and in 1901 Kaufman showed the variability of the mass of the electron as it moves in an electromagnetic field. Our compatriot Lebedev discovers light pressure, thereby finally establishing the materiality of the electromagnetic field. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Planck, Lorentz, Poincaré and others laid the foundations of quantum mechanics, and, finally, in 1905. Einstein creates the special theory of relativity.

Many physicists of that period, thinking metaphysically, were unable to understand the essence of these discoveries. Belief in the inviolability of the basic principles of classical physics led them to slide from materialistic positions towards idealism. The logic of their reasoning was as follows. An atom is the smallest particle of matter. The atom has the properties of indivisibility, impenetrability, constancy of mass, and charge neutrality. And suddenly it turns out that the atom disintegrates into some particles, which in their properties are opposite to the properties of the atom. So, for example, an electron has a variable mass, charge, etc. This fundamental difference in the properties of an electron and an atom led to the idea that the electron is immaterial. And since the concept of matter was identified with the concept of an atom, substance, and the atom disappeared, the conclusion followed: “matter has disappeared.” On the other hand, the variability of the electron mass, which meant the amount of matter, began to be interpreted as the transformation of matter into “nothing.” Thus, one of the most important principles of materialism collapsed - the principle of the indestructibility and uncreateability of matter.

The dialectical-materialist definition of matter is directed against identifying the concept of matter with its specific types and properties. Thus, it allows for the possibility of the existence, and therefore the discovery in the future, of new unknown, “outlandish” types of matter. It should be said that in recent years, physicists and philosophers have been increasingly predicting this possibility.

2.2 Matter in philosophy

Matter in philosophy (from Latin materia - substance) is a philosophical category to designate objective reality, which is reflected by our sensations, existing independently of them (objectively).

Matter is a generalization of the concepts of material and ideal, due to their relativity. While the term “reality” has an epistemological connotation, the term “matter” has an ontological connotation.

The concept of matter is one of the fundamental concepts of materialism and, in particular, such a concept in philosophy as dialectical materialism.

2.3 Matter in physics

Matter in physics (from Latin materia - substance) is a fundamental physical concept associated with any objects that exist in nature, which can be judged through sensations.

Physics describes matter as something that exists in space and time; or as something that itself defines the properties of space and time.

Changes over time that occur with different forms of matter, make up physical phenomena. The main task of physics is to describe the properties of certain types of matter.

3. BASIC TYPES OF MATTER

In modern natural science, there are 3 types of matter:

Substance is the main type of matter that has mass. Material objects include elementary particles, atoms, molecules, and numerous material objects formed from them. In chemistry, substances are divided into simple (with atoms of one chemical element) and complex (chemical compounds). the properties of a substance depend on external conditions and the intensity of interaction of atoms and molecules. This determines the various aggregate states of matter (solid, liquid, gaseous + plasma at a relatively high temperature); the transition of matter from one state to another can be considered as one of the types of movement of matter.

A physical field is a special type of matter that ensures the physical interaction of material objects and systems.

Physical fields:

Electromagnetic and gravitational

Nuclear force field

Wave (quantum) fields

The source of physical fields is elementary particles. Direction for electromagnetic field - source, charged particles

Physical fields that are created by particles carry the interaction between these particles at a finite speed.

Quantum theories - interaction is caused by the exchange of field quanta between particles.

Physical vacuum is the lowest energy state of the quantum field. This term was introduced in quantum field theory to explain some microprocesses.

The average number of particles (field quanta) in a vacuum is zero, but virtual particles can be born in it, that is, particles in an intermediate state that exist for a short time. Virtual particles influence physical processes.

It is generally accepted that not only matter, but also the field and vacuum have a discrete structure. According to quantum theory, field, space and time on very small scales form a space-time environment with cells. Quantum cells are so small (10-35--10-33) that they can be ignored when describing the properties of electromagnetic particles, considering space and time continuous.

Matter is perceived as a continuous continuous medium. To analyze and describe the properties of such a substance, in most cases only its continuity is taken into account. However, when explaining thermal phenomena, chemical bonds, and electromagnetic radiation, the same substance is considered as a discrete medium that consists of atoms and molecules interacting with each other.

Discreteness and continuity are inherent in the physical field, but when solving many physical problems, it is customary to consider gravitational, electromagnetic and other fields to be continuous. However, in quantum field theory it is assumed that physical fields are discrete, therefore, the same types of matter are characterized by discontinuity and continuity.

For a classical description of natural phenomena, it is enough to take into account the continuous properties of matter, and for the characterization of various microprocesses - discrete ones.

4. PROPERTIES AND ATTRIBUTES OF MATTER

The attributes of matter, the universal forms of its existence are movement, space And time, which do not exist outside of matter. In the same way, there cannot be material objects that do not have spatiotemporal properties.

Friedrich Engels identified five forms of motion of matter:

physical;

chemical;

biological;

social;

mechanical.

The universal properties of matter are:

uncreateability and indestructibility

eternity of existence in time and infinity in space

matter is always characterized by movement and change, self-development, transformation of one state into another

determinism all phenomena

causality- dependence of phenomena and objects on structural connections in material systems and external influences, on the causes and conditions that give rise to them

reflection-- manifests itself in all processes, but depends on the structure of interacting systems and the nature of external influences. The historical development of the property of reflection leads to the emergence of its highest form - abstract thinking.

Universal laws of existence and development of matter:

The law of unity and struggle of opposites

The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones

Law of Negation of Negation

Studying the properties of matter, one can notice their inextricable dialectical relationship. Some properties mutually determine its other properties.

Matter also has a complex structural structure. Based on the achievements of modern science, we can indicate some of its types and structural levels.

It is known that until the end of the 19th century. Natural science did not go beyond molecules and atoms. With the discovery of the radioactivity of electrons, a breakthrough of physics into deeper regions of matter began. Moreover, let us emphasize once again, what is fundamentally new in this case is the refusal to absolutize some first bricks, the unchangeable essence of things. Currently, physics has discovered many different elementary particles. It turned out that each particle has its own antipode - an antiparticle that has the same mass, but the opposite charge, spin, etc. Neutral particles also have their own antiparticles, which differ in the opposite spin and other characteristics. Particles and antiparticles, interacting, “annihilate”, i.e. disappear, turning into other particles. For example, an electron and a positron annihilate and turn into two photons.

The symmetry of elementary particles allows us to suggest the possibility of the existence of an antiworld consisting of antiparticles, antiatoms and antimatter. Moreover, all laws operating in the anti-world must be similar to the laws of our world.

The total number of particles, including the so-called "resonances", the life span of which is extremely short, now reaches approximately 300. The existence of hypothetical particles - quarks, having a fractional charge - is predicted. Quarks have not yet been discovered, but without them it is impossible to satisfactorily explain some quantum mechanical phenomena. It is possible that in the near future this theoretical prediction will find experimental confirmation.

By systematizing the known information about the structure of matter, we can indicate the following structural picture of it.

First, we should distinguish three main types of matter, which include: matter, antimatter and field. Electromagnetic, gravitational, electronic, meson and other fields are known. Generally speaking, each elementary particle is associated with a corresponding field. Matter includes elementary particles (excluding photons), atoms, molecules, macro- and megabodies, i.e. everything that has a mass of rest.

All these types of matter are dialectically interconnected. An illustration of this is the discovery in 1922 by Louis de Broglie of the dual nature of elementary particles, which under some conditions reveal their corpuscular nature, and under others - wave qualities.

Secondly, in the most general form, the following structural levels of matter can be distinguished:

1. Elementary particles and fields.

2. Atomic-molecular level.

3. All macrobodies, liquids and gases.

4. Space objects: galaxies, stellar associations, nebulae, etc.

5. Biological level, living nature.

6. Social level - society.

Each structural level of matter in its movement and development is subject to its own specific laws. For example, at the first structural level, the properties of elementary particles and fields are described by the laws of quantum physics, which are probabilistic and statistical in nature. Living nature has its own laws. Human society functions according to special laws. There are a number of laws operating at all structural levels of matter (the laws of dialectics, the law of universal gravitation, etc.), which is one of the evidence of the inextricable interconnection of all these levels.

Every higher level of matter includes its lower levels. For example, atoms and molecules include elementary particles, macrobodies consist of elementary particles, atoms and molecules. However, material formations at a higher level are not simply a mechanical sum of elements at a lower level. These are qualitatively new material formations, with properties that are radically different from the simple sum of the properties of their constituent elements, which is expressed in the specificity of the laws that describe them. It is known that an atom consisting of dissimilarly charged particles is neutral. Or a classic example. Oxygen supports combustion, hydrogen burns, and water, whose molecules consist of oxygen and hydrogen, extinguishes the fire. Further. Society is a collection of individual people - biosocial beings. At the same time, society is not reducible either to an individual person or to a certain sum of people.

Thirdly, based on the above classification, three different spheres of matter can be distinguished: inanimate, living and socially organized - society. Above we considered these spheres on a different plane. The fact is that any classification is relative, and therefore, depending on the needs of cognition, one can give a very different classification of levels, spheres, etc., reflecting the complex, multifaceted structure of matter. Let us emphasize that the chosen basis for classification is only a reflection of the diversity of objective reality itself. We can distinguish micro-, macro- and mega-worlds. This does not exhaust the classification of the structure of matter; other approaches to it are also possible.

5. FORMS OF MOTION OF MATTER

matter being movement

Forms of movement of matter are the main types of movement and interaction of material objects, expressing their holistic changes. Each body has not one, but a number of forms of material movement. In modern science, there are three main groups, which in turn have many of their own specific forms of movement:

in inorganic nature,

spatial movement;

movement of elementary particles and fields - electromagnetic, gravitational, strong and weak interactions, processes of transformation of elementary particles, etc.;

movement and transformation of atoms and molecules, including chemical reactions;

changes in the structure of macroscopic bodies - thermal processes, changes in states of aggregation, sound vibrations, etc.;

geological processes;

changes in space systems of various sizes: planets, stars, galaxies and their clusters.;

in living nature,

metabolism,

self-regulation, management and reproduction in biocenoses and other ecological systems;

interaction of the entire biosphere with the natural systems of the Earth;

intraorganismal biological processes aimed at ensuring the preservation of organisms, maintaining the stability of the internal environment in changing conditions of existence;

supraorganismal processes express the relationships between representatives of various species in ecosystems and determine their numbers and distribution zone ( range) and evolution;

in society,

diverse manifestations of people's conscious activity;

all higher forms of reflection and purposeful transformation of reality.

Higher forms of motion of matter historically arise on the basis of relatively lower ones and include them in a transformed form. There is unity and mutual influence between them. But the highest forms of movement are qualitatively different from the lower ones and cannot be reduced to them. The disclosure of material relationships is of great importance for understanding the unity of the world, the historical development of matter, for understanding the essence of complex phenomena and their practical management.

6. STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF MATTER

Structural levels of matter are formed from a certain set of objects of any class and are characterized by a special type of interaction between their constituent elements.

The criteria for identifying different structural levels are the following:

spatiotemporal scales;

a set of essential properties;

specific laws of motion;

the degree of relative complexity arising in the process of historical development of matter in a given area of the world;

some other signs.

Micro-, macro- and megaworlds

The currently known structural levels of matter can be classified according to the above characteristics into the following areas.

1. Microworld. These include:

elementary particles and atomic nuclei - area of the order of 10-15 cm;

atoms and molecules 10-8--10-7 cm.

2. Macroworld: macroscopic bodies 10-6--107 cm.

3. Megaworld: space systems and unlimited scales up to 1028 cm.

Different levels of matter are characterized by different types of connections.

On a scale of 10-13 cm there are strong interactions, the integrity of the nucleus is ensured by nuclear forces.

The integrity of atoms, molecules, and macrobodies is ensured by electromagnetic forces.

On a cosmic scale - gravitational forces.

As the size of objects increases, the energy of interaction decreases. If we take the energy of gravitational interaction as unity, then the electromagnetic interaction in an atom will be 1039 times greater, and the interaction between nucleons - the particles that make up the nucleus - will be 1041 times greater. The smaller the size of material systems, the more firmly their elements are interconnected.

The division of matter into structural levels is relative. On available space-time scales, the structure of matter is manifested in its systemic organization, existence in the form of a multitude of hierarchically interacting systems, ranging from elementary particles to the Metagalaxy.

Speaking about structurality - the internal dismemberment of material existence, it can be noted that no matter how wide the range of the worldview of science, it is closely connected with the discovery of more and more new structural formations. For example, if earlier the view of the Universe was limited to the Galaxy, then expanded to a system of galaxies, now the Metagalaxy is being studied as a special system with specific laws, internal and external interactions.

7. CONCLUSION

All natural science disciplines are based on the concept of matter, the laws of motion and changes of which are studied.

An integral attribute of the mother is her movement, as a form of existence of matter, its most important attribute. Movement in its most general form is any change in general. The motion of matter is absolute, while all rest is relative.

Modern physicists have refuted the idea of space as emptiness, and of time as one for the Universe.

The entire experience of mankind, including scientific research data, suggests that there are no eternal objects, processes and phenomena. Even celestial bodies that exist for billions of years have a beginning and an end, arise and die. After all, when objects die or collapse, they do not disappear without a trace, but turn into other objects and phenomena. A quotation from Berdyaev’s ideas confirms this: “...But for philosophy, existing time, first of all, and then space, is the generation of events, acts in the depths of being, before any objectivity. The primary act presupposes neither time nor space, it gives rise to time and space.”

Matter is eternal, uncreated and indestructible. It has always and everywhere existed, and will always and everywhere exist.

LITERATURE

1. Basakov M.I., Golubintsev V.O., Kazhdan A.E. Towards the concept of modern natural science. ? Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 1997. ? 448p.

2. Dubnischeva T.Ya. Concepts of modern natural science. - 6th ed., rev. and additional - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2006. - 608 p.

3. Internet resource “Wikipedia” - www.wikipedia.org

4. Sadokhin A.P. Concepts of modern natural science: a textbook for university students studying in the humanities and specialties in economics and management. ? M.: UNITY-DANA, 2006. ? 447p.

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The fundamental element in the study of the vast majority of natural sciences is matter. In this article we will look at matter, its forms of movement and properties.

What is matter?

Over the course of many centuries, the concept of matter has changed and improved. Thus, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato saw it as the substratum of things, which opposes their idea. Aristotle said that this is something eternal that can neither be created nor destroyed. Later, the philosophers Democritus and Leucippus gave a definition of matter as a certain fundamental substance from which all bodies in our world and in the Universe are composed.

The modern concept of matter was given by V.I. Lenin, according to which it is an independent and independent objective category, expressed by human perception, sensations, it can also be copied and photographed.

Attributes of matter

The main characteristics of matter are three:
Space.
Time.

The first two differ in metrological properties, that is, they can be quantitatively measured with special instruments. Space is measured in meters and its derivatives, and time is measured in hours, minutes, seconds, as well as in days, months, years, etc. Time also has another, no less important property - irreversibility. It is impossible to return to any initial time point; the time vector always has a one-way direction and moves from the past to the future. Unlike time, space is a more complex concept and has a three-dimensional dimension (height, length, width). Thus, all types of matter can move in space in a certain period of time.

Forms of motion of matter

Everything that surrounds us moves in space and interacts with each other. Movement occurs continuously and is the main property that all types of matter possess. Meanwhile, this process can occur not only during the interaction of several objects, but also within the substance itself, causing its modifications. The following forms of motion of matter are distinguished:

Mechanical is the movement of objects in space (an apple falling from a branch, a hare running).

Physical - occurs when the body changes its characteristics (for example, state of aggregation). Examples: snow melts, water evaporates, etc.
Chemical - modification of the chemical composition of a substance (metal corrosion, glucose oxidation)
Biological - takes place in living organisms and characterizes vegetative growth, metabolism, reproduction, etc.

Social form - processes of social interaction: communication, holding meetings, elections, etc.
Geological - characterizes the movement of matter in the earth's crust and the interior of the planet: core, mantle.

All of the above forms of matter are interconnected, complementary and interchangeable. They cannot exist independently and are not self-sufficient.

Properties of matter

Ancient and modern science have attributed many properties to matter. The most common and obvious is movement, but there are other universal properties:

It is uncreated and indestructible. This property means that any body or substance exists for some time, develops, and ceases to exist as an original object, but matter does not cease to exist, but simply turns into other forms.
It is eternal and infinite in space.
Constant movement, transformation, modification.
Predetermination, dependence on generating factors and causes. This property is a kind of explanation of the origin of matter as a consequence of certain phenomena.

Main types of matter

Modern scientists distinguish three fundamental types of matter:

A substance that has a certain mass at rest is the most common type. It can consist of particles, molecules, atoms, as well as their compounds that form a physical body.
A physical field is a special material substance that is designed to ensure the interaction of objects (substances).
Physical vacuum is a material environment with the lowest energy level.

Substance

Substance is a type of matter, the main property of which is discreteness, that is, discontinuity, limitation. Its structure includes tiny particles in the form of protons, electrons and neutrons that make up an atom. Atoms combine into molecules to form matter, which in turn forms a physical body or fluid substance.

Any substance has a number of individual characteristics that distinguish it from others: mass, density, boiling and melting points, crystal lattice structure. Under certain conditions, different substances can be combined and mixed. In nature, they are found in three states of aggregation: solid, liquid and gaseous. In this case, a specific state of aggregation only corresponds to the conditions of the substance content and the intensity of molecular interaction, but is not its individual characteristic. Thus, water at different temperatures can take on liquid, solid, and gaseous forms.

Physical field

Types of physical matter also include such a component as a physical field. It represents a certain system in which material bodies interact. The field is not an independent object, but rather a carrier of the specific properties of the particles that formed it. Thus, the impulse released from one particle, but not absorbed by another, is part of the field.

Physical fields are real intangible forms of matter that have the property of continuity. They can be classified according to various criteria:

Depending on the field-forming charge, electric, magnetic and gravitational fields are distinguished.
According to the nature of the movement of charges: dynamic field, statistical (contains charged particles that are motionless relative to each other).
By physical nature: macro- and microfields (created by the movement of individual charged particles).
Depending on the environment of existence: external (which surrounds charged particles), internal (the field inside the substance), true (the total value of the external and internal fields).

Physical vacuum

In the 20th century, the term “physical vacuum” appeared in physics as a compromise between materialists and idealists to explain certain phenomena. The first attributed material properties to it, while the second argued that vacuum is nothing more than emptiness. Modern physics has refuted the judgments of idealists and proved that vacuum is a material medium, also called a quantum field. The number of particles in it is equal to zero, which, however, does not prevent the short-term appearance of particles in intermediate phases. In quantum theory, the energy level of the physical vacuum is conventionally taken to be minimal, that is, equal to zero. However, it has been experimentally proven that the energy field can take on both negative and positive charges. There is a hypothesis that the Universe arose precisely in conditions of an excited physical vacuum.

The structure of the physical vacuum has not yet been fully studied, although many of its properties are known. According to Dirac's hole theory, the quantum field consists of moving quanta with identical charges; the composition of the quanta themselves, clusters of which move in the form of wave flows, remains unclear.

Fills space and serves as the main component of all living and nonliving elements. Two seemingly incompatible areas of knowledge, such as science and philosophy, agree on only one thing - that matter plays a dominant role in the life of the micro- and macroworlds. What is the matter that surrounds us and from which we are made? Why does it take such strange forms, many of which have not yet even been revealed to us? Let's try to figure this out a little.

How did great people understand this term?

People began to think about what matter consists of and how it changes its forms so radically since ancient times. In those years there were no microscopes and telescopes, and even the wisest philosophers could not study any human organ or just a piece of wood from which a chair was knocked down to the atomic level. However, ancient experts clearly knew what space-time was and how all the elements behaved in it. It was they who compiled the interpretation that has survived to this day. Matter was divided into two halves: things filled space, and events filled time. Due to the constant progress of the latter, all objects and living objects could change their shape. A person was born, grew old and died, wood crumbled, metal rusted. In the 17th century, the physicist and mathematician Leibniz defined matter as the subject that determines the properties of time and space. Later his works were manifested in Einstein's theory of relativity.

Looking at something under a microscope

If we turn to biological optics for help, we can see with our own eyes that matter consists of atoms. This is the simplest characteristic of this term, which has no refutation and does not require further evidence. Atoms are the smallest particles of everything that surrounds us, and ourselves. The structure of each of them is identical. But at the same time, in the atoms of each individual element of our world, be it a methane cloud in the atmosphere of Jupiter or a dog’s liver, information about the properties of the carrier object is encoded. An atom consists of a nucleus, which is always positively charged, and electrons. When the number of protons and electrons coincides, the particle becomes neutral from the point of view. If the equilibrium is disturbed, the atom turns into an ion, which has a positive or negative charge.

What do atoms become?

A molecule is formed from the accumulation of two or more atoms. In addition to information about the carrier, it also contains a considerable proportion of the connecting substance. Thanks to it, molecules are able to form the very matter we are talking about. Such compounds transmit information from different atoms through each other and thereby create an inseparable substance. The most interesting thing is that molecules of initially different components can group together. The most striking example here is water: it contains hydrogen and oxygen in a certain percentage. It turns out that in order to understand what matter consists of, we only need to study the elements of Mendeleev’s periodic table and find them in certain objects that surround us.

What do we see with the naked eye?

Moving the telescope aside, we, having gained certain knowledge, see that matter consists of substance. Due to its structure, which can be viewed through optics, it is capable of taking one of four states of aggregation: gaseous, liquid, solid and plasmatic. We can easily imagine the first three of them using the example of water, which, being liquid, can turn into ice or gas. Some other elements can only exist in one of these four states. Delving deeper into ancient philosophy, it is impossible not to draw an analogy with the four elements. The sages identified among them water, earth, air and fire. It is obvious that flame, which was discovered quite recently, corresponds to plasma.

What does any substance emit?

Those who studied physics at school know that matter consists of energy in exactly the same way as it does of matter. The atoms themselves and their smallest particles, moving and colliding, emit fields with individual frequencies. They are converted into electromagnetic, quantum and depending on the properties of the atoms of a particular substance. Since such interaction and radiation occurs everywhere, that is, in the human body, and in a vacuum, and all our matter is filled with energy. Each object has an individual field that has special properties. It turns out that we all exchange information that we unconsciously perceive and process.

but on the other hand

We briefly looked at what matter consists of and what fields it can have. Now let's consider this aspect: Scientists believe that 85% of the entire Universe consists of it. Dark matter does not emit any fields and does not have its own gravity, but energy emanates from it. Due to the fact that it is impossible to detect electromagnetic waves emanating from dark matter, we cannot catch it and understand its nature. Perhaps in the secret composition of antiparticles lies the secret of the creation of the Universe and all of us.

Inorganic nature	Live nature	Society
1.Submicroelementary	Biological macromolecular
2. Microelementary	Cellular
3. Nuclear	Microorganic	Teams
4.Atomic	Organs and tissues	Large social groups (classes, nations)
5. Molecular	Body as a whole	State (civil society)
6. Macro level	Population	State systems
7. Mega level (planets, star-planetary systems, galaxies)	Biocenosis	Humanity as a whole
8. Meta level (metagalaxies)	Biosphere	Noosphere