What is the speed of light, what is it equal to and how is it measured? Photo, video. Slow light. The speed of light in a medium The speed of light in a vacuum changes

Artist's representation of a spaceship making the jump to the "speed of light." Credit: NASA/Glenn Research Center.

Since ancient times, philosophers and scientists have sought to understand light. In addition to trying to determine its basic properties (i.e. whether it is a particle or a wave, etc.), they also sought to make finite measurements of how fast it moves. Since the late 17th century, scientists have been doing just that, and with increasing precision.

In doing so, they gained a better understanding of the mechanics of light, and how it plays an important role in physics, astronomy and cosmology. Simply put, light travels at incredible speeds and is the fastest moving object in the universe. Its speed is a constant and impenetrable barrier and is used as a measure of distance. But how fast is it moving?

Speed of light (s):

Light moves at a constant speed of 1,079,252,848.8 km/h (1.07 billion). Which turns out to be 299,792,458 m/s. Let's put everything in its place. If you could travel at the speed of light, you could circle the globe about seven and a half times per second. Meanwhile, it would take a person flying at an average speed of 800 km/h more than 50 hours to circumnavigate the planet.

An illustration showing the distance light travels between the Earth and the Sun. Credit: LucasVB/Public Domain.

Let's look at this from an astronomical point of view, the average distance from to 384,398.25 km. Therefore, light travels this distance in about a second. Meanwhile, the average is 149,597,886 km, which means it only takes about 8 minutes for light to make this journey.

It's no wonder then why the speed of light is the metric used to determine astronomical distances. When we say that a star such as , is 4.25 light years away, we mean that traveling at a constant speed of 1.07 billion km/h would take about 4 years and 3 months to get there. But how did we arrive at this very specific value for the speed of light?

History of study:

Until the 17th century, scientists were confident that light traveled at a finite speed, or instantaneously. From the time of the ancient Greeks to medieval Islamic theologians and modern scholars, there has been debate. But until the work of the Danish astronomer Ole Roemer (1644-1710) appeared, in which the first quantitative measurements were carried out.

In 1676, Römer observed that the periods of Jupiter's innermost moon Io appeared shorter when the Earth was approaching Jupiter than when it was moving away. From this he concluded that light travels at a finite speed and is estimated to take about 22 minutes to cross the diameter of the Earth's orbit.

Professor Albert Einstein at the 11th Josiah Willard Gibbs Lecture at the Carnegie Institute of Technology on December 28, 1934, where he explains his theory that matter and energy are the same thing in different forms. Credit: AP Photo

Christiaan Huygens used this estimate and combined it with an estimate of the diameter of the Earth's orbit to arrive at an estimate of 220,000 km/s. Isaac Newton also reported on Roemer's calculations in his seminal 1706 work Optics. By adjusting for the distance between the Earth and the Sun, he calculated that light would take seven or eight minutes to travel from one to the other. In both cases there was a relatively small error.

Later measurements by French physicists Hippolyte Fizeau (1819-1896) and Léon Foucault (1819-1868) refined these figures, leading to a value of 315,000 km/s. And by the second half of the 19th century, scientists became aware of the connection between light and electromagnetism.

This was achieved by physicists by measuring electromagnetic and electrostatic charges. They then discovered that the numerical value was very close to the speed of light (as measured by Fizeau). Based on his own work, which showed that electromagnetic waves propagate in empty space, German physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber proposed that light was an electromagnetic wave.

The next big breakthrough came at the beginning of the 20th century. In his paper entitled “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” Albert Einstein states that the speed of light in a vacuum, measured by an observer having constant speed, is the same in all inertial frames of reference and is independent of the motion of the source or the observer.

A laser beam shining through a glass of water shows how many changes it undergoes as it passes from air to glass to water and back to air. Credit: Bob King.

Using this statement and Galileo's principle of relativity as a basis, Einstein derived the special theory of relativity, in which the speed of light in a vacuum (c) is a fundamental constant. Prior to this, the agreement among scientists was that space was filled with a “luminiferous ether”, which was responsible for its propagation - i.e. light moving through a moving medium will trail in the tail of the medium.

This in turn means that the measured speed of light would be the simple sum of its speed through a medium plus the speed of that medium. However, Einstein's theory rendered the concept of a stationary ether useless and changed the concept of space and time.

Not only did it advance the idea that the speed of light is the same in all inertial frames, but it also suggested that major changes occur when things move close to the speed of light. These include the space-time frame of a moving body appearing to slow down, and the direction of motion when the measurement is from the observer's point of view (i.e., relativistic time dilation, where time slows down as it approaches the speed of light).

His observations also agree with Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, simplify mathematical calculations by avoiding the unrelated arguments of other scientists, and are consistent with direct observation of the speed of light.

How similar are matter and energy?

In the second half of the 20th century, increasingly precise measurements using laser interferometers and resonant cavities further refined estimates of the speed of light. By 1972, a group at the US National Bureau of Standards in Boulder, Colorado, used laser interferometry to arrive at the currently accepted value of 299,792,458 m/s.

Role in modern astrophysics:

Einstein's theory that the speed of light in a vacuum does not depend on the movement of the source and the inertial frame of reference of the observer has since been invariably confirmed by many experiments. It also sets an upper limit on the speed at which all massless particles and waves (including light) can travel in a vacuum.

One result of this is that cosmologies now view space and time as a single structure known as spacetime, in which the speed of light can be used to determine the value of both (i.e. light years, light minutes and light seconds). Measuring the speed of light can also be an important factor in determining the acceleration of the expansion of the Universe.

In the early 1920s, with the observations of Lemaître and Hubble, scientists and astronomers became aware that the Universe was expanding from its point of origin. Hubble also noticed that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it moves. What is now called the Hubble constant is the speed at which the Universe is expanding, it is equal to 68 km/s per megaparsec.

How fast is the Universe expanding?

This phenomenon, presented as a theory, means that some galaxies may actually be moving faster than the speed of light, which could put a limit on what we observe in our universe. Essentially, galaxies traveling faster than the speed of light would cross the "cosmological event horizon" where they are no longer visible to us.

In addition, by the 1990s, measurements of the redshift of distant galaxies showed that the expansion of the Universe has been accelerating over the past few billion years. This led to the theory of "Dark Energy", where an invisible force drives the expansion of space itself, rather than objects moving through it (without placing a limit on the speed of light or breaking relativity).

Along with special and general relativity, the modern value for the speed of light in a vacuum has evolved from cosmology, quantum mechanics, and the Standard Model of particle physics. It remains constant when it comes to the upper limit at which massless particles can move and remains an unattainable barrier for particles with mass.

We will probably someday find a way to exceed the speed of light. While we have no practical ideas about how this might happen, it appears the "smart money" in technology will allow us to circumvent the laws of spacetime, either by creating warp bubbles (aka. Alcubierre warp drive) or tunneling through it (aka. wormholes).

What are wormholes?

Until then, we will simply have to be content with the Universe we see, and stick to exploring the part that can be reached using conventional methods.

Title of the article you read "What is the speed of light?".

The 19th century saw several scientific experiments that led to the discovery of a number of new phenomena. Among these phenomena is Hans Oersted's discovery of the generation of magnetic induction by electric current. Later, Michael Faraday discovered the opposite effect, which was called electromagnetic induction.

James Maxwell's equations - the electromagnetic nature of light

As a result of these discoveries, the so-called “interaction at a distance” was noted, resulting in the new theory of electromagnetism formulated by Wilhelm Weber, which was based on long-range action. Later, Maxwell defined the concept of electric and magnetic fields, which are capable of generating each other, which is an electromagnetic wave. Subsequently, Maxwell used the so-called “electromagnetic constant” in his equations - With.

By that time, scientists had already come close to the fact that light is electromagnetic in nature. The physical meaning of the electromagnetic constant is the speed of propagation of electromagnetic excitations. To the surprise of James Maxwell himself, the measured value of this constant in experiments with unit charges and currents turned out to be equal to the speed of light in vacuum.

Before this discovery, humanity separated light, electricity and magnetism. Maxwell's generalization allowed us to take a new look at the nature of light, as a certain fragment of electric and magnetic fields that propagates independently in space.

The figure below shows a diagram of the propagation of an electromagnetic wave, which is also light. Here H is the magnetic field strength vector, E is the electric field strength vector. Both vectors are perpendicular to each other, as well as to the direction of wave propagation.

Michelson experiment - the absoluteness of the speed of light

The physics of that time was largely built on Galileo's principle of relativity, according to which the laws of mechanics look the same in any chosen inertial frame of reference. At the same time, according to the addition of velocities, the speed of propagation should depend on the speed of the source. However, in this case, the electromagnetic wave would behave differently depending on the choice of reference frame, which violates Galileo's principle of relativity. Thus, Maxwell's seemingly well-formed theory was in a shaky state.

Experiments have shown that the speed of light really does not depend on the speed of the source, which means a theory is required that can explain such a strange fact. The best theory at that time turned out to be the theory of “ether” - a certain medium in which light propagates, just as sound propagates in the air. Then the speed of light would be determined not by the speed of movement of the source, but by the features of the medium itself - the ether.

Many experiments have been undertaken to discover the ether, the most famous of which is the experiment of the American physicist Albert Michelson. In short, it is known that the Earth moves in outer space. Then it is logical to assume that it also moves through the ether, since the complete attachment of the ether to the Earth is not only the highest degree of egoism, but simply cannot be caused by anything. If the Earth moves through a certain medium in which light propagates, then it is logical to assume that the addition of velocities takes place here. That is, the propagation of light must depend on the direction of motion of the Earth, which flies through the ether. As a result of his experiments, Michelson did not discover any difference between the speed of light propagation in both directions from the Earth.

The Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz tried to solve this problem. According to his assumption, the “ethereal wind” influenced bodies in such a way that they reduced their size in the direction of their movement. Based on this assumption, both the Earth and Michelson's device experienced this Lorentz contraction, as a result of which Albert Michelson obtained the same speed for the propagation of light in both directions. And although Lorentz was somewhat successful in delaying the death of the ether theory, scientists still felt that this theory was “far-fetched.” Thus, the ether was supposed to have a number of “fairy-tale” properties, including weightlessness and the absence of resistance to moving bodies.

The end of the history of the ether came in 1905 with the publication of the article “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies” by the then little-known Albert Einstein.

Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity

Twenty-six-year-old Albert Einstein expressed a completely new, different view on the nature of space and time, which went against the ideas of the time, and in particular grossly violated Galileo’s principle of relativity. According to Einstein, Michelson's experiment did not give positive results for the reason that space and time have such properties that the speed of light is an absolute value. That is, no matter what frame of reference the observer is in, the speed of light relative to him is always the same, 300,000 km/sec. From this it followed the impossibility of applying the addition of speeds in relation to light - no matter how fast the light source moves, the speed of light will not change (add or subtract).

Einstein used the Lorentz contraction to describe changes in the parameters of bodies moving at speeds close to the speed of light. So, for example, the length of such bodies will decrease, and their own time will slow down. The coefficient of such changes is called the Lorentz factor. Einstein's famous formula E=mc 2 actually also includes the Lorentz factor ( E= ymc 2), which in general is equal to unity in the case when the body speed v equal to zero. As the body speed approaches v to the speed of light c Lorentz factor y rushes towards infinity. It follows from this that in order to accelerate a body to the speed of light, an infinite amount of energy will be required, and therefore it is impossible to cross this speed limit.

There is also an argument in favor of this statement called “the relativity of simultaneity.”

Paradox of the relativity of simultaneity of SRT

In short, the phenomenon of the relativity of simultaneity is that clocks that are located at different points in space can only run “at the same time” if they are in the same inertial frame of reference. That is, the time on the clock depends on the choice of reference system.

From this follows the paradox that event B, which is a consequence of event A, can occur simultaneously with it. In addition, it is possible to choose reference systems in such a way that event B will occur earlier than the event A that caused it. Such a phenomenon violates the principle of causality, which is quite firmly entrenched in science and has never been questioned. However, this hypothetical situation is observed only in the case when the distance between events A and B is greater than the time interval between them multiplied by the “electromagnetic constant” - With. Thus, the constant c, which is equal to the speed of light, is the maximum speed of information transmission. Otherwise, the principle of causality would be violated.

How is the speed of light measured?

Observations by Olaf Roemer

Scientists of antiquity for the most part believed that light moves at infinite speed, and the first estimate of the speed of light was obtained already in 1676. Danish astronomer Olaf Roemer observed Jupiter and its moons. At the moment when the Earth and Jupiter were on opposite sides of the Sun, the eclipse of Jupiter's moon Io was delayed by 22 minutes compared to the calculated time. The only solution that Olaf Roemer found is that the speed of light is limiting. For this reason, information about the observed event is delayed by 22 minutes, since it takes some time to travel the distance from the Io satellite to the astronomer’s telescope. According to Roemer's calculations, the speed of light was 220,000 km/s.

Observations by James Bradley

In 1727, the English astronomer James Bradley discovered the phenomenon of light aberration. The essence of this phenomenon is that as the Earth moves around the Sun, as well as during the Earth’s own rotation, a displacement of stars in the night sky is observed. Since the earthling observer and the Earth itself are constantly changing their direction of movement relative to the observed star, the light emitted by the star travels different distances and falls at different angles to the observer over time. The limited speed of light leads to the fact that the stars in the sky describe an ellipse throughout the year. This experiment allowed James Bradley to estimate the speed of light - 308,000 km/s.

The Louis Fizeau Experience

In 1849, French physicist Louis Fizeau conducted a laboratory experiment to measure the speed of light. The physicist installed a mirror in Paris at a distance of 8,633 meters from the source, but according to Roemer's calculations, the light will travel this distance in hundred thousandths of a second. Such watch accuracy was unattainable then. Fizeau then used a gear wheel that rotated on the way from the source to the mirror and from the mirror to the observer, the teeth of which periodically blocked the light. In the case when a light beam from the source to the mirror passed between the teeth, and on the way back hit a tooth, the physicist doubled the speed of rotation of the wheel. As the rotation speed of the wheel increased, the light almost stopped disappearing until the rotation speed reached 12.67 revolutions per second. At this moment the light disappeared again.

Such an observation meant that the light constantly “bumped” into the teeth and did not have time to “slip” between them. Knowing the speed of rotation of the wheel, the number of teeth and twice the distance from the source to the mirror, Fizeau calculated the speed of light, which turned out to be equal to 315,000 km/sec.

A year later, another French physicist Leon Foucault conducted a similar experiment in which he used a rotating mirror instead of a gear wheel. The value he obtained for the speed of light in air was 298,000 km/s.

A century later, Fizeau's method was improved so much that a similar experiment carried out in 1950 by E. Bergstrand gave a speed value of 299,793.1 km/s. This number differs by only 1 km/s from the current value of the speed of light.

Further measurements

With the advent of lasers and increasing accuracy of measuring instruments, it was possible to reduce the measurement error down to 1 m/s. So in 1972, American scientists used a laser for their experiments. By measuring the frequency and wavelength of the laser beam, they were able to obtain a value of 299,792,458 m/s. It is noteworthy that a further increase in the accuracy of measuring the speed of light in a vacuum was impossible, not due to the technical imperfections of the instruments, but due to the error of the meter standard itself. For this reason, in 1983, the XVII General Conference on Weights and Measures defined the meter as the distance that light travels in a vacuum in a time equal to 1/299,792,458 seconds.

Let's sum it up

So, from all of the above it follows that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fundamental physical constant that appears in many fundamental theories. This speed is absolute, that is, it does not depend on the choice of reference system, and is also equal to the maximum speed of information transmission. Not only electromagnetic waves (light), but also all massless particles move at this speed. Including, presumably, the graviton, a particle of gravitational waves. Among other things, due to relativistic effects, light’s own time literally stands still.

Such properties of light, especially the inapplicability of the principle of addition of velocities to it, do not fit into the head. However, many experiments confirm the properties listed above, and a number of fundamental theories are based precisely on this nature of light.

And as it was, it is what it is, sixteen kilograms.
M. Tanich (from the song for the film “The Mysterious Monk”)

The special theory of relativity (SRT) is undoubtedly the most famous of physical theories. The popularity of STR is associated with the simplicity of its basic principles, the striking paradox of its conclusions and its key position in the physics of the twentieth century. SRT brought unprecedented fame to Einstein, and this fame became one of the reasons for the tireless attempts to revise the theory. Among professionals, the debate around service stations ceased more than half a century ago. But to this day, the editors of physics journals are constantly besieged by amateurs offering options for revising the SRT. And, in particular, the second postulate, which asserts the constancy of the speed of light for all inertial reference systems and its independence from the speed of the source (in other words, no matter in which direction from the observer and at what speed the observed object moves, the light ray sent from it would have still the same speed, approximately equal to 300 thousand kilometers per second, no more and no less).

Critics of SRT, for example, argue that the speed of light is not constant at all, but changes for the observer depending on the speed of the source (ballistic hypothesis) and only the imperfection of measurement technology does not allow this to be proven experimentally. The ballistic hypothesis dates back to Newton, who viewed light as a stream of particles whose speed decreases in a refractive medium. This view was revived with the advent of the Planck-Einstein photon concept, which gave convincing clarity to the idea of adding the speed of light to the speed of the source, analogous to the speed of a projectile fired from a moving gun.

Nowadays, such naive attempts to revise the SRT, of course, cannot get into serious scientific publications, but they overwhelm the media and the Internet, which has a very sad effect on the state of mind of the mass reader, including schoolchildren and students.

Attacks on Einstein's theory - both at the beginning of the last century and now - are motivated by discrepancies in the assessment and interpretation of the results of experiments to measure the speed of light, the first of which, by the way, was carried out back in 1851 by the outstanding French scientist Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau. In the middle of the last century, this prompted the then President of the USSR Academy of Sciences, S.I. Vavilov, to become concerned with developing a project to demonstrate the independence of the speed of light from the speed of the source.

By that time, the postulate about the independence of the speed of light was directly confirmed only by astronomical observations of double stars. According to the idea of the Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter, if the speed of light depends on the speed of the source, the trajectories of motion of binary stars should be qualitatively different from the observed ones (consistent with celestial mechanics). However, this argument was met with an objection related to taking into account the role of interstellar gas, which, as a refractive medium, was considered as a secondary source of light. Critics have argued that light emitted by a secondary source "loses memory" of the speed of the primary source as it travels through the interstellar medium, because photons from the source are absorbed and then re-emitted by the medium again. Since data about this medium are known only with very large assumptions (as are the absolute values of distances to stars), this position made it possible to question most of the astronomical evidence for the constancy of the speed of light.

S.I. Vavilov proposed to his doctoral student A.M. Bonch-Bruevich to design an installation in which a beam of fast excited atoms would become the light source. In the process of detailed study of the experimental plan, it turned out that there was no chance of a reliable result, since the technology of that time did not allow obtaining beams of the required speed and density. The experiment was not carried out.

Since then, various attempts to experimentally prove the second postulate of STR have been made repeatedly. The authors of the relevant works came to the conclusion that the postulate was correct, which, however, did not stop the flow of critical speeches that either raised objections to the ideas of the experiments or questioned their accuracy. The latter was associated, as a rule, with the insignificance of the achievable speed of the radiation source compared to the speed of light.

However, today physics has a tool that allows us to return to the proposal of S.I. Vavilov. This is a synchrotron emitter, where a very bright light source is a bunch of electrons moving along a curved path at a speed almost indistinguishable from the speed of light With. Under such conditions, it is easy to measure the speed of emitted light in a perfect laboratory vacuum. According to the logic of supporters of the ballistic hypothesis, this speed should be equal to twice the speed of light from a stationary source! Detecting such an effect (if it exists) would not be difficult: it is enough to simply measure the time it takes a light pulse to travel a measured segment in an evacuated space.

Of course, for professional physicists there is no doubt about the expected result. In this sense, experience is useless. However, direct demonstration of the constancy of the speed of light has great didactic value, limiting the basis for further speculation about the unproven foundations of the theory of relativity. In its development, physics constantly returned to the reproduction and refinement of fundamental experiments carried out with new technical capabilities. In this case, the goal is not to clarify the speed of light. We are talking about filling the historical gap in the experimental substantiation of the origins of SRT, which should facilitate the perception of this rather paradoxical theory. We can say that we are talking about a demonstration experiment for future physics textbooks.

Such an experiment was recently carried out by a group of Russian scientists at the Kurchatov Synchrotron Radiation Center of the National Research Center KI. In the experiments, a source of synchrotron radiation (SR) - the Sibir-1 electron storage ring - was used as a pulsed light source. The SR of electrons accelerated to relativistic speeds (close to the speed of light) has a wide spectrum from infrared and visible to the X-ray range. The radiation propagates in a narrow cone tangentially to the electron trajectory along the extraction channel and is released through a sapphire window into the atmosphere. There, the light is collected by a lens onto the photocathode of a fast photodetector. A beam of light on its way through a vacuum could be blocked by a glass plate inserted using a magnetic drive. Moreover, according to the logic of the ballistic hypothesis, light, which previously supposedly had double speed 2 With, after the window should have returned to normal speed With.

The electron bunch had a length of about 30 cm. Passing past the lead window, it generated an SR pulse in the channel with a duration of about 1 ns. The rotation frequency of the bunch along the synchrotron ring was ~34.5 MHz, so that a periodic sequence of short pulses was observed at the output of the photodetector, which was recorded using a high-speed oscilloscope. The pulses were synchronized by a high-frequency electric field signal of the same frequency of 34.5 MHz, compensating for the loss of electron energy on the SI. By comparing two oscillograms obtained in the presence of a glass window in the SR beam and in its absence, it was possible to measure the lag of one pulse sequence from the other, caused by a hypothetical decrease in speed. With a length of 540 cm in the section of the SR extraction channel from the window inserted into the beam to the exit into the atmosphere, the speed of light decreases from 2 With before With should have resulted in a time shift of 9 ns. Experimentally, no shift was observed with an accuracy of about 0.05 ns.

In addition to the experiment, a direct measurement of the speed of light in the lead channel was carried out by dividing the channel length by the pulse propagation time, which led to a value only 0.5% lower than the tabulated speed of light.

So, the results of the experiment turned out to be, of course, expected: the speed of light does not depend on the speed of the source, in full accordance with Einstein’s second postulate. What was new was that it was confirmed for the first time by direct measurement of the speed of light from a relativistic source. It is unlikely that this experiment will stop attacks on SRT by those jealous of Einstein’s fame, but it will significantly limit the field of new claims.

The details of the experiment are described in an article that will be published in one of the upcoming issues of the journal “Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk”.

See also:
E. B. Alexandrov. , “Chemistry and Life”, No. 3, 2012 (more details about this experiment).

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Finally!
It’s just a pity that ignorant loudmouths will still run in and yell that this whole experiment is a complete scam, does not prove anything, and, in general, Einstein came up with his stupid theory only so that scientists could extract more money from them, stupid ordinary people, or not give nugget geniuses deserve the glory for the drawing of a superluminal starship drawn with a crooked pen. :)

Answer

Exactly. This behavior is especially stupid if you consider that even in the “theory of the ether” the SRT formulas remain the same - the sizes of bodies are distorted clearly “according to Einstein”, depending on the speed, the intensity of any processes slows down in the same way, and also exactly according to the slowdown formula time, and taking into account the fact that there is a limiting speed of signal propagation (in the theory of ether, the exchange principle of interaction with this speed is considered, due to which both a reduction in length and a slowdown of processes are observed), the distance has to be measured by half the time it takes for the light beam to travel there -back". It is these three incidents: distortion of length, change in the intensity of processes ("crooked" rulers, lagging clocks) and the forced method of determining distances "by the light" that lead to the fact that from within the ether one can neither determine the zero, absolute frame of reference, nor detect a change in the speed of the ether itself. light is not possible. In this way, the relativistic principle of adding velocities operates, the effect of “increasing mass” is observed (with jet acceleration, for example, a system with automatically decelerating processes will never be able to exceed the speed of light - for an outside observer in an inertial system it will look like the effect of increasing mass, and also in absolute accordance with the formulas from the theory of relativity).

A funny incident, indeed. There is an almost complete coincidence of the mathematical basis of the two theories - however, supporters of one of them constantly rebel against the evidence and try to look for the same deviations in the speed of light. And this is even despite the fact that a number of effects from SRT have long been clearly demonstrated using the example of a quantum liquid - liquid helium! Gentlemen kefir workers. Calm down and rejoice - a change in the speed of light cannot be detected even in your theory. And if the planet is unlucky enough to stumble upon an ethereal flow, then it will simply be torn to shreds, and relativists will describe the phenomenon, before they perish with everyone, as “a rupture in the space-time metric in higher dimensions,” and prove even in the hour of death who is right, everyone it still won't work.

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- Let me clarify: I have already read this note. BEFORE your message. And it was not about the deviation of the speed of light, but about the deviation of the speed of NEUTRINOs from the speed of light. Do you catch the difference? ;)
  By the way, if the assumption is confirmed and a way is found to exchange signals at a speed greater than light, the zero, “absolute” coordinate system will be clearly defined - in view of what has already been stated in my commentary. True, for now the experiment with neutrinos is still doubtful for me. We are waiting for confirmation or refutation from other laboratories!
  
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  I was referring to the note about geostationary satellite tracking. I am more than calm about superluminal neutrinos. Firstly, the existence of the muon neutrino was predicted quite a long time ago, and secondly, the speed of the photon was measured first precisely because a person perceives them directly. The discovery of elementary particles with a speed significantly exceeding the speed of light is a matter of time. This is my personal point of view. If only because the human toolkit has expanded quite considerably.
  
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  - For a satellite? I haven’t read it... I’ll have to take a look :)
    As for the particles, we'll wait. It would be funny if it turns out that we are just “Lorentzian fish” swimming in an ordinary multiverse pond with a specific speed of propagation of basic interactions. Therefore, we are distorted depending on the speed according to local Lorentz transformations, we measure with clocks that lag behind them, and therefore we cannot find out either the speed relative to our own pond, or our own distortions-slowdowns (and what if all our clocks and rulers glitch along with us ?). Yes, particles moving faster than the standard disturbances of our “reservoir” will help us calculate it. But for now... For now everything is too vague and unsteady - and therefore the theory about the curvature of space-time, the metric tensor, the multidimensional interval in Minkowski space has no less grounds.
    
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    - So what is your attitude towards measuring the parameters of the movement of the Earth and the Solar system? Or did the “gentlemen kefir people” measure it with “buggy rulers”? Your point of view does not give you the right to express it with contempt for your opponents. Just a few seconds ago, by geological standards, you would have been first strung up on the rack for your views, in order to force you to renounce them, and then on the gallows, so as not to change your mind. Science does not stand still, and the rotation of the Earth around the Sun and Newton’s laws have become just special cases. It is likely that the same thing awaits Einstein’s general relativity.
      
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      - It depends on what... You see - when we are talking about energy media in space, be it ordinary matter or measuring the frequency of certain radiations arriving at different angles to the observer - then this is a measurement relative to them, and not relative to the absolute system . And as for her specifically... Well, yes. In the theory of the ether, we have a distortion of the rulers, a change in the speed of processes and a certain maximum speed of propagation of signals, which together leads to the fact that a body moving relative to the ether not only does not feel its contraction, but it also seems to it that EVEN a body at rest relative to the ether contracts “according to Lorentz” at the same speed. In the theory of relativity, we initially believe that there is no absolute system at all, and all variations of space-time parameters are only a consequence of invariance during transitions between inertial reference systems. A deeper analysis of the two theories continues to reveal a complete analogy of the hardware of the two theories, which does not allow me personally to prefer either of them. Except that the theory of the ether seems a little more beautiful, since it has completely material analogies (the same experiments in liquid helium), and therefore does not require additional assumptions about operations directly with space-time coordinates.
        In principle, the separation of theories is, of course, possible. But while the data is extremely vague and unreliable - the experiment with “superluminal” neutrinos requires confirmation from other, independent laboratories, experiments on energy spectra will “crawl” only at energies on the order of Planck’s, which even the LHC is like a vacuum cleaner before the LHC. No, gentlemen, whether you are kefirists or relativists - forgive me, for now you are for me just single-minded interpreters of a single mathematical apparatus. It is certainly interesting. But I'm glad that these are not my problems :)))
        
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        So, in the theory of relativity, not everything is relative to each other. For example, we cannot assume that we are moving towards a beam of light at the speed of light while it is standing still.
        
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        Why? Just this moment is considered fully and exhaustively (for the theory of relativity, of course): if you move EXACTLY at the speed of light, then your time stands still, the speed of any processes in you for any external observer with a speed slightly less is absolute zero and you NEVER, NOTHING you can't determine. But if your speed is even slightly different from the speed of light, then the oncoming flow of even infrared radiation for you is hard ultraviolet, or even worse, and it falls on you exactly at the speed of light according to the principle of relativistic addition of velocities.
        Just in case: in the theory of the ether, if you move exactly at the speed of light, your particles do not exchange any signals at all (they simply do not have time to get from one particle to another, since signals propagate in the ether at speed "c", but the particles are already moving at speed "c"). Accordingly, the speed of any processes in you is zero, but this is only in the case of a homogeneous ether. If you have the characteristic Planck size of the ether discretization, you will not be able to get close to “c” at all: when the sizes of the interparticle bonds in you are close to this scale, the nature of the interactions will inevitably change, the spectra of atoms and molecules will “creep”, which will most likely lead to their destruction and your death. But if you move away from the speed of light by even trillionths of a percent, you will see exactly the same as in the theory of relativity: the harshest ultraviolet moving towards you at the same speed of light. Do not forget: You measure distances with crooked rulers, measure time with lagging clocks and synchronize the clocks, mark the rulers all according to the same principle of emission-return of a light signal... This is the sad truth.
        
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In fact, opponents of Einstein’s general relativity also have a version that light emitted by a moving source moves away from the source not with the speed of the source adding to it, but with the speed subtracting it. That is, if the radiation source moves at a speed of 150,000 km/sec, then the light emitted by it will move away from it at approximately the same speed, and not twice as fast, as the respected master pointed out. It is precisely this circumstance that explains the example with double stars, without denying the absolute constancy of the speed of light. The author of the article would do well to use less highly educated irony, since the truth only becomes the only true one when the inconsistency of the others is proven. And with the refutation of this assumption, physicists have a complete collapse. Bye.

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I wonder how the source knows that it is moving at a speed of 150,000 km/sec? To emit light “correctly”?
Let's launch two glass satellites in advance, along one line. One will move away at 150,000 km/s, and the second will turn around and approach at the same speed. At what speed will light move away from us?

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- I am far from an expert in this matter. All my knowledge is drawn from popular science literature, so it is difficult for me to judge who is more right. Regarding your question - “we”, as I understand it, are in one of the glass satellites. Since the speed in the problem is close to that of light, this means that the time reference system is far from earthly, and therefore the perceived speed of surrounding objects does not fit within the earthly framework. This is as difficult to judge as if you try to observe from the outside at what speed light is moving away from one satellite and at what speed it is approaching another. I think that the paradox of the passage of time did not allow Einstein to create a unified field theory.
  
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  - No, we are on Earth, from where we launch satellites and shine light on them.
    As you wrote at the beginning,
    >light emitted by a moving source moves away from the source not with the speed of the source adding to it, but with the speed subtracting it
    For a satellite flying towards us, our source should emit light from 300,000 - 150,000 = 150,000 km/s
    For the receding one, apparently, 450,000 km/s (the satellite itself flies at 150,000, and our light should overtake it at a speed of 300,000 km/s)
    This is the kind of contradiction that arises with “subtraction,” which is obvious to a non-specialist. It turns out that it is not the physicists who collapse, but their opponents.
    
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    - Apparently, you did not carefully read the key phrases about another time system.
      About 25 years ago I was given a book by some foreign author about the theory of relativity and the life of Einstein with comments from foreign experts. To my great chagrin, I don’t remember the author, and the book has long been lost. It describes Einstein's words on how he came to understand the theory of relativity. He often wondered what light was, because it corresponds to both the corpuscular theory (photons, elementary particles) and the wave theory (frequency of electromagnetic oscillations, refraction of light). One day he thought what would happen if he rushed after a beam of light at the same speed and looked at the photons up close: what are they? And then he realized that this was impossible, because the light would still move away from him at the same speed. The same book says that time in moving systems flows more slowly, inversely proportional to the speed of movement, remember the famous example with two twins, and when moving at the speed of light, the great master assumed (note: he assumed, and did not claim) that time stops completely. And in fact, the photon seems to be an eternal thing, outside of time, but it has a certain oscillation frequency in a certain period of time, which can be measured. And now a little arithmetic: when moving at a speed of 150,000 km/sec, time flows twice as slow, so while moving at this speed, you turn on the flashlight forward and a beam of light rushes away from you at a speed of 150,000 km/sec. But for you, a second is two seconds for an outsider, a motionless observer, i.e. we get the required 300,000 km/sec. Turn it back on and the beam of light will fly away from you at the same speed - 150,000 km/sec, since we minus your speed from the speed of light, and again take into account the double change in the flow of time, and "Oh, a miracle!" - again the same immutable 300,000 km/sec. By the way, it is clear to a non-specialist that 150,000 - 300,000 = -150,000. Such is higher mathematics. And, as an ignorant loudmouth, I can add that this whole experiment is just another attempt to measure the speed of light (and with a very large error), since the speed of removal of a beam of photons from a beam of electrons has not been measured in any way. And the speed of light itself cannot be measured, there is no state of immobility in nature: we and the surface of the earth are moving around an axis, the earth at this time is around the sun, it, in turn, is around the center of the galaxy, which, according to the theory of the expanding universe, is generally unknown where it is going . So what is the speed of light? And regarding what?
      Even the great Einstein (this is absolutely without any irony) doubted that time stops, why are we so self-confident?
      
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      - This is again from the above book. Since physicists cannot instrumentally measure the change in time at relativistic speeds, measurements are made using the red-violet shift of the spectrum. The general theory is divided into several special theories, i.e. for several special cases (Einstein failed to create a unified field theory). Special theories consider changes in space-time according to several parameters: the presence of a strong gravitational field, the movement of reference systems relative to each other, the rotation of the gravitational field, the movement of the reference system in the direction of rotation or against it. Modern physicists can operate at speeds tens of thousands of times lower than the speed of light, and measurements are carried out based on indirect evidence, but they are confirmed in practice, in particular, in the GPS system. The most accurate atomic clocks are installed on all satellites and they are constantly adjusted in accordance with the theory of relativity. In the light of this theory, physicists have developed about 30 different theories, the calculations of which are numerically comparable to Einstein’s theory. Several of them provide more accurate measurements. Even Arthur Edington, without whose participation Einstein would not have been possible, significantly corrected his friend in some places. The theory I was talking about states that the speed of light is finite. But it may be slower. This is evidenced by a decrease in speed when passing through transparent media other than vacuum, and a decrease in speed when passing near strong sources of gravity. And the red shift itself is interpreted by some not as the “Doppler effect”, but as a decrease in the speed of light.
        Not to be unfounded, quote:
        The Hafele-Keating experiment is one of the tests of the theory of relativity that directly demonstrated the reality of the twin paradox. In October 1971, J.C. Hafele and Richard E. Keating took four sets of cesium atomic clocks aboard commercial airliners and flew around the world twice, first east and then west, and then compared the clocks as they traveled. with the clock remaining at the US Naval Observatory.
        According to the special theory of relativity, the speed of a clock is greatest for the observer for whom it is at rest. In a reference frame in which the clock is not at rest, it runs slower, and this effect is proportional to the square of the speed. In a frame of reference at rest relative to the center of the Earth, a clock on board an airplane moving east (in the direction of the Earth's rotation) runs slower than a clock that remains on the surface, and a clock on board an airplane moving west (against the Earth's rotation) , go faster.
        According to general relativity, another effect comes into play: a small increase in gravitational potential with increasing altitude again speeds up the clock. Since the planes were flying at approximately the same altitude in both directions, this effect has little effect on the difference in the speed of the two "traveling" clocks, but it does cause them to drift away from the clocks on the surface of the earth.
        
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        What are we talking about here? - “after which they compared the “traveling” watches with the watches that remained at the US Naval Observatory.” Who compared? Who wrote the article? The one who flew on the plane or the one who remained on the ground? It’s just that these comrades’ results should be completely different. If the guy who stayed at the base was comparing, then Keating’s and Hafel’s clocks should have been set for him. If, say, Keating compared, then the clock should have fallen behind already at the base (and Havel too, even more). Well, in Hafel’s opinion, the clock was behind, on the contrary, Keating’s (and at the base, but less)).
        Those:
        - Havel will write in his observation diary "Keating's clock has fallen behind."
        - Keating will write in his diary: “Hafel’s clock has fallen behind.”
        - Keating will look at Havel’s diary and see there “Keating’s clock has moved forward.”
        Those. since then, according to the dude at the base, Keating and Hafele will NEVER be able to produce ONE result because there are THREE of them! According to the number, respectively, of observer-experimenters. And for each observer, his colleagues will confirm his personal result, which differs from others.
        Well, I, as a reader of the article, get the fourth result, this time relative to me. Accordingly, if Keating and Havel moved relative to ME, the reader of the article, then their clocks fell behind. And, accordingly, I will read about this in the article. In that article that only I and almost everyone else on Earth will see...
        But personally, neither Keating nor Havel will ever know that they wrote it and what the inhabitants of the earth will see - they, personally, had completely different results... And the publication of these results around the world will be seen by 20 people. Of those that were on board with them...
        This is how the g... turns out according to your favorite theory. How can you believe in this bullshit? No wonder Einstein stuck out his tongue at you...
        
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        And anyway, why fly? Tickets for a business trip report can be obtained from arriving passengers near the baggage claim area.
        I understand that you wanted to direct people to look for errors in reasoning. But nowadays the public will simply echo, “Einstein is a fool,” and won’t dig into it. It was necessary to make at least a hint about the non-inertiality of all three reference systems...
        
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        > It was necessary to make at least a hint about the non-inertiality of all three reference systems...
        Why do you think this “non-inertiality” should somehow influence the results of this logical calculation of mine? After all, the authors of the experiment carried out measurements with “purely” non-inertial reference systems (airplanes flying in and out, changing gravitational field back and forth, etc.). And this circumstance did not bother the authors at all - they measured, looked, announced - yeah, there seems to be a slowdown! After all, then it turns out that if they have this slowdown, then the savagery I described is reality? Or is there some third option?
        
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Please explain how these experiments can confirm or refute the second postulate of STR? How do the requirements for the inertiality of the reference system relate to the accelerated motion of electrons?

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For that fought for it and ran...
arXiv:1109.4897v1
Abstract: The OPERA neutrino experiment at the underground Gran Sasso Laboratory has measured the velocity of neutrinos from the CERN CNGS beam over a baseline of about 730 km with much higher accuracy than previous studies conducted with accelerator neutrinos. The measurement is based on high-statistics data taken by OPERA in the years 2009, 2010 and 2011. Dedicated upgrades of the CNGS timing system and of the OPERA detector, as well as a high precision geodesy campaign for the measurement of the neutrino baseline, allowed reaching comparable systematic and statistical accuracies. An early arrival time of CNGS muon neutrinos with respect to the one computed assuming the speed of light in vacuum of (60.7 \pm 6.9 (stat.) \pm 7.4 (sys.)) ns was measured. This anomaly corresponds to a relative difference of the muon neutrino velocity with respect to the speed of light (v-c)/c = (2.48 \pm 0.28 (stat.) \pm 0.30 (sys.)) \times 10-5.

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Interesting... MEASUREMENT OF MOTION PARAMETERS OF THE EARTH AND SOLAR SYSTEM

Kazan Institute of Physics and Technology, KSC RAS, 420029,
Kazan, Sibirsky tract, 10/7, Russia, [email protected]

When tracking a geostationary satellite, the influence of the uniform motion of the Earth on the aberration of electromagnetic waves from a source installed on the satellite was discovered. At the same time, the parameters of the Earth's orbital motion were measured for the first time without the use of astronomical observations of stars. The average annual speed of the found orbital component of motion turned out to be equal to 29.4 km/sec, which practically coincides with the value of the Earth’s orbital speed known in astronomy of 29.765 km/sec. The parameters of the galactic motion of the Solar System were also measured. The obtained values are equal to: 270o - for the right ascension of the apex of the Sun (the value known in astronomy is 269.75o), 89.5o - for its declination (in astronomy 51.5o, and 600 km/sec for the speed of movement of the Solar system. Thus, it is proved that the speed a uniformly moving laboratory coordinate system (in our case, the Earth) can actually be measured using a device in which the radiation source and receiver are at rest relative to each other and the same coordinate system. This is the basis for revising the statement of the special theory of relativity about the independence of speed. light from the movement of the observer.

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Thank you for a very interesting message. I immediately re-read everything that came my way on the topic of aberration. Consequently, it is now possible to determine the speed of motion of the galaxy in accordance with the theory of the expansion of the universe. Or disprove this theory.

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- Perhaps this will be useful for your reference (C) ....1926 E. Hubble discovered that nearby galaxies statistically fit on a regression line, which in terms of the Doppler shift of the spectrum can be characterized by an almost constant parameter
  H=VD/R,
  where VD is the spectrum shift converted to Doppler velocity, R is the distance from the Earth to the galaxy
  In reality, E. Hubble himself did not assert the Doppler nature of these displacements, and the discoverer of “novae and supernovae” stars, Fritz Zwicky, back in 1929, associated these displacements with the loss of energy by light quanta at cosmogonic distances. Moreover, in 1936, based on a study of the distribution of galaxies, E. Hubble came to the conclusion that it cannot be explained by the Doppler effect.
  However, absurdity triumphed. Galaxies with high redshifts are assigned almost light speed in the direction away from Earth.
  By analyzing the redshifts of various objects and calculating the “Hubble constant”, you can see that the closer the object is, the more this parameter differs from the asymptotic value of 73 km/(s Mps).
  In reality, for each order of distances there is a different value for this parameter. Taking the redshift from the nearest bright stars VD = 5, and dividing it by the standard relativistic value, we get the absurd value of the distances to the nearest bright stars R = 5 / 73 = 68493
  Sorry, I can’t present the table here))
  
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  - - - Regarding Ballistics and other things, I found an interesting judgment on this topic on the net... The fact is that Galileo’s deeply physical law of inertia, which states (in modern formulation):
        “Any physical body at rest or moving in a physical medium at a constant speed in a straight line or in a circle around the center of inertia will continue this motion forever, unless other physical bodies or the medium provide resistance to this motion. Such movement is movement by inertia,”
        Was transformed by Newton, 1687, into the formulation:
        "Corpus omne perseverare in statu suo quiescendi vel movendi uniformiter in directum, nisi quatenus illud a viribus impressis cogitur statum suum mutare"
        “Every body continues to be maintained in its state of rest or uniform and rectilinear motion until and unless it is forced by applied forces to change this state.”
        In its modern formulation, the so-called “Newton’s first law” is even worse:
        “Every material point maintains a state of rest or uniform and rectilinear motion until the influence of other bodies takes it out of this state.”
        At the same time, a purely experimental physical law, found by Galileo in 1612 - 1638, refined by 1644 by Rene Descartes and Christian Huygens, and widely known by the time Isaac Newton transitioned from alchemical to physical and mathematical activity, turned into philosophical nonsense for the latter - the movement of abstract “material” point in emptiness. The 3 rotational degrees of freedom of inertial motion and the carrier medium were excluded.
        I understand how difficult it is for a modern person, into whose consciousness movement in the void was introduced at the level of instinct, dogmatic faith, to realize the illogicality of this, the inconsistency of the Newtonian interpretation with the realities of Nature. However, without losing hope of understanding, I will try to convey my point of view to the reader.
        If the movement of any physical system occurred in absolute (abstract) emptiness, then it would be impossible even logically to distinguish this movement from rest, since emptiness does not have distinctive signs (marks) by which this movement could be determined. This “mathematical property” was used as a justification for relativism, although this “property” exists only in theory, in the minds of relativists, but not in Nature.
        It should be noted here that Galileo’s phenomenological principle of relativity, if we do not focus on the trivial mathematical side - the Cartesian transformation of coordinates, states only that at the usual low speeds with which people deal in everyday life, the difference between inertial frames of reference is not felt. For the ethereal medium, these speeds are so insignificant that physical phenomena proceed in the same way.
        On the other hand, linear motion measured in emptiness relative to other bodies cannot be an objective unambiguous measure of motion, since it depends on the arbitrariness of the observer, that is, the choice of the reference system. In terms of linear motion, the speed of a stone lying on the ground can be considered equal to zero if we take the Earth as the reference frame, and equal to 30 km/s if we take the Sun as the reference frame.
        Rotational motion, declared a special case and thrown out by Newton from the formulation of the law of inertia, in contrast to translational motion, is absolute and unambiguous, since the Universe certainly does not revolve around any stone.
        Thus, Galileo’s initially purely phenomenological law was cut off by three degrees of freedom, deprived of a physical environment and turned into a kind of abstract dogma that stopped the development of mechanics and physics as a whole, closing the thoughts of physicists only on linear relative motion.
        
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        That is, there are no problems participating in several types of movement at the same time? And the reasons for this movement may be different? Then why attribute motion to a single star _only_ as a result of the expansion of the Universe?
        Hubble constant ~70 km/s per _megaparsec_. Those. at the distance of the nearest stars, several parsecs, the expansion contribution is a million times less, about 10 cm/s
        
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        ))) the reason for the movement or the reverse, in general, is a big mystery, about the expansion... here you go from an apologist for ethereal physics (c) ... Secondly, this is a mythical expansion of the Universe, contrary to facts and logic. Relative to what is the Universe expanding, where is the benchmark? Why is the insignificant Earth the center of expansion? As the living classic of astrophysics Dr. Arp quite correctly writes, the red shift has nothing to do with the expansion of space or the “scattering” of galaxies.
        Thirdly, in the actually observable Universe we see objects much older than the age of the Big Bang, for example, galaxy clusters. Where did they come from? Isn't it easier to ask yourself the question: where did the deceiver come from who writes fables about the "Big Bang"?
        
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        >Why is the insignificant Earth the center of expansion?
        This center was given to you! Hubble's Law V = H * R (for Earth)
        Take another point and recalculate the speeds for it, in a simple way, according to Galileo. The same thing will happen: V1 = H * R1
        And which one is the center?
        >red shift has nothing to do with the expansion of space or the “scattering” of galaxies.
        Fine. What is it connected with?
        >Thirdly, in the actually observable Universe we see objects much older than the age of the Big Bang, for example, galaxy clusters.
        How is their age estimated? Zeldovich also modeled the gravitational compression of matter after BV, and he succeeded quite well in clusters (the so-called “pancakes”)
        > where did the deceiver come from, inventing tales about the "Big Bang"?
        Lemaitre? From Charleroi. And what?
        
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        Regarding Zeldovich and the cosmic microwave background It was theoretically predicted at the beginning of the twentieth century by the classics of physics Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev, Walter Nernst and others, and experimentally measured with high accuracy by Prof. Erich Regener in 1933 (Stuttgart, Germany). His result of 2.8°K is practically no different from the modern value. And the explanation of its origin BV is not proof itself... modeling, as practice shows)) ... is not the final authority due to its subjectivity in relation to the object...
        
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        >As the living classic of astrophysics Dr. Arp writes quite correctly,
        >redshift has nothing to do with the expansion of space
        >or the “scattering” of galaxies.
        It's not a question. This statement. Having said “A”, you must say “B” - what then is the red shift associated with. I'd love to hear it.
        
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        Now the question is specific.... a) In the theory of relativity, the Doppler Redshift is considered as a result of a slowdown in the flow of time in a moving reference frame (the effect of the special theory of relativity). b) The Hubble red shift is the result of dissipation of the energy of light quanta in the ether; its parameter “Hubble constant” changes depending on the temperature of the ether. Two mutually exclusive statements... and the answer lies in one of them...
        
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        Temperature, ether? ....all that is known for certain is the temperature of the cosmic microwave background 2.7ºK. And why should this temperature rise...?! And if we talk about the ethereal theory, it would be correct to talk not about the theory but about ethereal hypotheses and theories.. Regarding the current state of temperature)) I hope that nothing has changed... Regarding time... if you follow some hypotheses... eternity)) in both directions...
        
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        >Temperature, ether?
        I'm just using your terminology:
        “its parameter “Hubble constant” changes depending on the temperature of the ether”
        >And why should this temperature rise...?!
        Because “The Hubble red shift is the result of the dissipation of the energy of light quanta in the ether.”
        Energy is such a thing, it tends to be conserved. There are quite a sufficient number of phenomenological observations on this score. And dissipation is not a loss of energy, but its transition into an indigestible form of chaotic motion, i.e. warm. And if we have eternity left (at least in one direction, back), then the temperature of the ether should become infinitely large.
        
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        That's what you're talking about... this is a quote from a work... I found on the net)) ... "the Hubble constant changes depending on the temperature of the ether" ... in space, conditions arise for changes in both the density and the temperature of the ether, these conditions are created by powerful radiation from stars... and the temperature of the ether is constant 2.723...))) it can’t be lower. And dissipation in this case is the absorption of energy by the ether; the ether, in turn, gives its energy to moving particles of matter, the more intense the faster the particle moves. Thus, stars containing masses of heated gas are absorbers of ether energy, which is then emitted by them into space in the form of quanta of electromagnetic radiation.
        
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        >the ether, in turn, gives its energy to moving particles of matter,
        >the more intense the faster the particle moves
        The effect would be noticeable at particle accelerators, such as the LHC, which is not observed.
        
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        )) And it is not surprising that this was “undetected” on existing accelerators; the opposite would be even more surprising; for the sake of fairness, all this can also be attributed to the Hicks boson. Even putting aside all subjective factors, the question arises: is it even possible from a technical point of view, hypothetically, to detect that energy process with the help of accelerators and how to calculate it? After all, if you follow some ethereal theories... the very phenomenon of gravity is the process of “energy cycle in nature” between matter and non-substance, or rather non-substance, that is, ether”...
        
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        “Is it even possible from a technical point of view, hypothetically, to detect that energy process with the help of accelerators and how to calculate it?”
        Elementary. Read the description of the accelerator sections of the collider in the "Posters" section of I. Ivanov, and you will immediately understand why it is easy.
        Now, if they switch to laser overclocking methods, they can write off some interest. But also not so much that the stars glow due to this.
        
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        ))Has a way been found to simultaneously measure the momentum and coordinates of a particle at accelerators....and without this it is impossible to observe such a process)) or its absence is impossible... Planck metric, you know...
        
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        It is enough to know the energy of the particle, and it is known quite accurately from calorimetric measurements. At a speed of ~c, the process of transferring the energy of the ether will be a thousand times stronger than in the Sun.
        
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        Still, I should explain the essence of the transfer of ether energies to matter within the framework of one of the ether theories... to the extent possible in this format... The structure and parameters of the ether. The ether is a hierarchical structure consisting of corpuscular and phase ethers.
        Elements of the corpuscular ether are spherical particles of Planck radius 1.6·10-35 [m] and inertia numerically equal to Planck mass 2.18·10-8 or, which is the same, Planck energy 1.96·109 [J]. They are under the influence of a monstrous pressure of 2.1·1081. The array of particles of the corpuscular ether is integrally, that is, statistically, in a state of rest and represents the main energy of the Universe with a density of 1.13·10113. The temperature of the corpuscular ether is absolutely constant 2.723 0K. It cannot be changed by anything.
        The solar system moves relative to the corpuscular ether at Marinov speed (360± 30 km/s). This is observed as the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background and the sidereal dependence of the speed of light, established by prof. Art. Marinov in 1974 - 1979. However, the microwave background is not radiation from the corpuscular ether. This is the radiation of the “superstructure” above the corpuscular ether – the phase ether.
        The phase ether consists of the same corpuscles (amers, in the terminology of Democritus) as the corpuscular ether. The difference is in their phase state. If the corpuscular ether is a superfluid liquid similar to solid helium, that is, in fact, a kind of quicksand without any friction between particles, then the phase ether mass is similar to saturated steam interspersed in the corpuscular ether mass.
        The main part of the phase ether binds the corpuscular ether into ethereal domains, the linear dimensions of which are 1021 times larger than the particles of the corpuscular ether. Particles of the bound phase ether are quasi-spherical nets-string bags, each of which has 1 ethereal domain of ~1063 particles of corpuscular ether. Etheric domains are empty blanks of elementary particles - electrons, protons, mesons... They are seen by modern physicists as virtual particles that seem to not exist and which seem to exist at the same time.
        When elementary particles are bombarded, particles of the phase ether connecting them are momentarily observed, which physicists consider quarks, attributing to them a fractional charge.
        In the Universe, there is 1063 times less bound ether than corpuscular ether, but 1063 times more than matter. The temperature of the bound ether is also constant and is in strict balance with the temperature of the corpuscular ether. The energy capacity of the bound ether ~3·1049 and its density ~3·1032 are also so high that its temperature and these parameters cannot be changed.
        However, there is another type of ether - free phase ether, freely wandering through space (along the boundaries of ethereal domains) and accumulating in matter in a proportion of 5.1·1070, creating the phenomena of gravity and gravitational mass.
        Gravity is the process of phase transition of this type of ether into corpuscular ether, during which an ether pressure gradient arises around the substance. This gradient is the force of gravity.
        Being elementary electric dipoles, that is, “violators” of the pressure balance in the phase ether (at the boundaries of domains, which does not affect the pressure of the corpuscular ether), amers of the phase ether are the cause of the occurrence of polarization phenomena (anisotropy of dipole distribution), electric field and charges (pressure deviation in the phase ether up or down) and electromagnetic field (light).
        Since the energy density of free ether 2.54·1017 is not so high that it cannot be changed, in some cases this change can actually be observed in the form of a change in the speed of light and red shift.
        And following further, in the data coming from the detectors there is information about the transfer of energy by the ether to matter, but it is impossible to isolate it at the moment... this exchange is the very essence of the existence of matter, the presence of mass and motion, hypothetical in my opinion of course... If you If you're curious about the details, you can find it by typing part of the text I quoted into a search engine. This is one of the works of Karim Khaidarov.
        
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The experiment to verify the second postulate of STR can not be complicated, but take and verify an equivalent statement: in a transparent body, both moving and at rest, the speed of light is the same and depends on the refractive index of the medium. Moreover, this has already been done by Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau, as E. Alexandrov recalled.
In the experiment of 1851, the light source was at rest, and the medium (water in parallel pipes) moved counter- and parallel to the beam. And it turned out that the water seems to add some speed to the light when moving in the same direction and takes away the same amount when moving in the opposite direction. But at the same time, the addition of the velocities of water and light turned out to be non-classical: the experimental data were exactly two times less than those calculated according to Galileo’s principle of relativity. At the same time, the predictions of the Fresnel theory (the prototype of STR) differed from the measured values by 13%.
The intrigue is that any experiment of the Fizeau type (for example, a multiparametric one, when different liquids are involved in the experiment, different flow rates are used, and in a laboratory setup the length of the pipes and the frequency of the light used are changed) will give a result exactly half that calculated according to the classical law of addition of speeds. Why? Yes, because the speed of light is not a speed and adding it to the speed of water, for example, is not correct both metrologically and semantically. After all, speeds and their squares are defined in relation to different units of measurement. You can find out more about this by searching for links to “quad speed” in a search engine. We have the Earth, whose orbital speed (30 km/s) is only an order of magnitude less than the speed of thermal motion of the particles of the Sun.
The sun receives and emits 2e-5 W/kg (I will write in exponential notation, 3.14e+2=3.14×10²=314).
Then for the Earth it will be 1e-6 W/kg, i.e. Every kilogram of earthly matter will receive 1e-6 J of kinetic energy every second.
All speeds are far from light speeds, so purely school physics.
∆E = mV²/2 - mV˳²/2 = (m/2)×(V²-V˳²)≈ m×∆V×V
∆V = ∆E/mV, m=1kg V=3e+4 m/s ∆V≈3e-11 m/s per second
This, of course, is very short and completely imperceptible, but how many seconds do we have?
There are approximately 3e+7 in a year, i.e. over a year the speed will increase by 1e-3 m/s, by 1 mm/s
For a thousand years 1 m/s For a million 1 km/s For a billion years...
Are you ready to join the Young Earth creationists? Me not.
Do these calculations cover the transfer of energy from the ether? No. But they set the upper limit for this transmission such that weather does not make an ethereal contribution to the heat release of the Sun.
We have to return to thermonuclear.
“And it seems to me that nuclear reactions are fundamentally unstable in the absence of artificial feedback, and once the reaction of the main substance of the sun, protium, had occurred, it would not have occurred smoothly and stably, but would have exploded the sun like a hydrogen bomb.”
Firstly, there is feedback; the explosion scatters the unreacted substance to the sides, reducing its concentration. Somewhere I came across a figure that approximately 10% of plutonium reacts in a nuclear bomb. The infamous Chernobyl reactor exploded, but not in the same way as in Hiroshima.
Secondly, kinetics is a complex thing, and, for all its energetic benefits, some processes proceed slowly. Otherwise we would not be able to use metals in our oxygen atmosphere.

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Yes, there’s no need to waste time on trifles))) 30 km/s, ...and the galactic 220 km/s? Plus its own rotation around its axis? My God, how much energy should there be... where is it?! But it was not for nothing that I mentioned in the previous post about MASS and the gravitating free phase ether, or do you think gravity does not require energy, so to speak, a “cost-free method”?! The phase transition of the ether, that is, the free phase ether condensing or gravitating when interacting with matter turns into corpuscular ether, in this case the phase transition occurs spherically symmetrically, the “collapses” of amers are compensated without producing Brownian motion of particles.
as a result of this transformation, a spherically symmetrical pressure difference is created around the gravitating substance, which determines the gradient of the gravitational field, and where there is force, there is energy... So creationists can rest, although they should have been given a couple of poultices)). And I must note, for me personally, the above is still a hypothesis. Regarding the sun...at one time it was assumed that the basis of nuclear fusion is the proton - a proton fusion reaction as a result of which heavier chemical elements appear and the energy and duration of such a hypothetical combustion would be sufficient for 10 (to the tenth power) years of existence the sun, but the earth, terrestrial planets, asteroids have existed for 4.56 billion years, and during this time the sun should have used up up to half of its hydrogen, and research has confirmed that the chemical composition of the sun and the interstellar medium is almost identical, and it turns out that for all time During the “burning” of the Sun, hydrogen was practically not consumed. And the neutrino flux comes not from the internal high-temperature parts of the Sun, but from the equatorial surface layers and is subject to seasonal fluctuations of daily, 27-day, annual and 11-year, and the neutrinos themselves are several times less than what is necessary to state the presence of pp- on the sun reactions, a lot of questions in general.... Z.Y. There are more difficult and interesting questions. Please advise where to ask them.

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Sorry,
For some reason, Academician Aleksandrov proved for the first time in a million times “the independence of the speed of light from the speed of the source.”
Where is at least one single proof of the “independence of the speed of light from the speed of the receiver”?
The speed of a wave on water does not depend on the speed of the wave source - a motor boat. But it DEPENDS on the speed of the receivers - swimmers. A swimmer swimming towards a wave will register a higher wave speed than a swimmer swimming away from the wave.
If the independence of the speed of the sea wave from the speed of the source does not prove the independence of the speed of the sea wave from the speed of the receiver, then the independence of the speed of the light wave from the speed of the source in no way proves the independence of the speed of the light wave from the speed of the receiver.
Therefore, Academician Alexandrov really did not prove anything. What a pity.
And the existence of laser gyroscopes refutes the idea that the speed of light is invariant. They really exist and they really work. And they work on the principle that the speed of light is different for different receivers.
My condolences to the relativists.

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It seems to me that the speed of light is not a constant. A constant is its increment, i.e. the magnitude of the acceleration of the process of light propagation in space, which is numerically equal to the Hubble constant, if in the dimension of the last megaparsec of distance the distance is converted into seconds of time and the numerical value of the constant is divided by the number of seconds in megaparsecs. In this case, Hubble's law will determine not the speed of removal of the extragalactic objects we observe from the Earth depending on the distance to these objects, expressed in the time of passage of the light signal with speed c, but the difference in the speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves between the modern era and the time when the measured radiation has left this or that object. For more details, see http://www.dmitrenkogg.narod.ru/effectd.pdf.
The speed of light is constant (for different ISOs) FOR ENTIRELY DIFFERENT reasons.
The transition between the states of an abstract atom - from the "ground" state to the "glow" state - is characterized by a restructuring of the atom's configuration. The elements of this configuration are massive, i.e. this transition takes time.
Abstract charge, as a component of this transition, has its own field. This field is not massive (inertia-free), i.e. repeats the movement of its charge simultaneously with it throughout space.
During the interaction of a source atom and a receiver atom, oscillations in the fields of the charges of the source atom act on the charges of the receiver atom instantly (“immediately”), regardless of the distance.
Those. The “speed of light” has two components - the infinite speed of (field) interaction and the speed of transition of the receiver to the “glow” state.
In fact, this is a qualitatively completely different theory - field oscillatory.
In the general case, for “constancy of the speed of light” an infinite speed of interaction is required.

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Last spring, scientific and popular science magazines around the world reported sensational news. American physicists conducted a unique experiment: they managed to reduce the speed of light to 17 meters per second.

Everyone knows that light travels at enormous speed - almost 300 thousand kilometers per second. The exact value of its value in vacuum = 299792458 m/s is a fundamental physical constant. According to the theory of relativity, this is the maximum possible signal transmission speed.

In any transparent medium, light travels more slowly. Its speed v depends on the refractive index of the medium n: v = c/n. The refractive index of air is 1.0003, of water - 1.33, of various types of glass - from 1.5 to 1.8. Diamond has one of the highest refractive index values - 2.42. Thus, the speed of light in ordinary substances will decrease by no more than 2.5 times.

In early 1999, a group of physicists from the Rowland Institute for Scientific Research at Harvard University (Massachusetts, USA) and Stanford University (California) studied the macroscopic quantum effect - the so-called self-induced transparency, passing laser pulses through a medium that is normally opaque. This medium was sodium atoms in a special state called the Bose-Einstein condensate. When irradiated with a laser pulse, it acquires optical properties that reduce the group velocity of the pulse by 20 million times compared to the speed in vacuum. Experimenters managed to increase the speed of light to 17 m/s!

Before describing the essence of this unique experiment, let us recall the meaning of some physical concepts.

Group speed. When light propagates through a medium, two velocities are distinguished: phase and group. Phase velocity vf characterizes the movement of the phase of an ideal monochromatic wave - an infinite sine wave of strictly one frequency and determines the direction of light propagation. The phase velocity in the medium corresponds to the phase refractive index - the same one whose values are measured for various substances. The phase refractive index, and therefore the phase velocity, depends on the wavelength. This dependence is called dispersion; it leads, in particular, to the decomposition of white light passing through a prism into a spectrum.

But a real light wave consists of a set of waves of different frequencies, grouped in a certain spectral interval. Such a set is called a group of waves, a wave packet or a light pulse. These waves propagate through the medium at different phase velocities due to dispersion. In this case, the impulse is stretched and its shape changes. Therefore, to describe the movement of an impulse, a group of waves as a whole, the concept of group velocity is introduced. It makes sense only in the case of a narrow spectrum and in a medium with weak dispersion, when the difference in the phase velocities of the individual components is small. To better understand the situation, we can give a clear analogy.

Let's imagine that seven athletes lined up on the starting line, dressed in different colored jerseys according to the colors of the spectrum: red, orange, yellow, etc. At the signal of the starting pistol, they simultaneously start running, but the “red” athlete runs faster than the “orange” one. , "orange" is faster than "yellow", etc., so that they stretch into a chain, the length of which continuously increases. Now imagine that we are looking at them from above from such a height that we cannot distinguish individual runners, but just see a motley spot. Is it possible to talk about the speed of movement of this spot as a whole? It is possible, but only if it is not very blurry, when the difference in the speeds of different colored runners is small. Otherwise, the spot may stretch over the entire length of the route, and the question of its speed will lose meaning. This corresponds to strong dispersion - a large spread of speeds. If runners are dressed in jerseys of almost the same color, differing only in shades (say, from dark red to light red), this becomes consistent with the case of a narrow spectrum. Then the speeds of the runners will not differ much; the group will remain quite compact when moving and can be characterized by a very definite value of speed, which is called group speed.

Bose-Einstein statistics. This is one of the types of so-called quantum statistics - a theory that describes the state of systems containing a very large number of particles that obey the laws of quantum mechanics.

All particles - both those contained in an atom and free ones - are divided into two classes. For one of them, the Pauli exclusion principle is valid, according to which there cannot be more than one particle at each energy level. Particles of this class are called fermions (these are electrons, protons and neutrons; the same class includes particles consisting of an odd number of fermions), and the law of their distribution is called Fermi-Dirac statistics. Particles of another class are called bosons and do not obey the Pauli principle: an unlimited number of bosons can accumulate at one energy level. In this case we talk about Bose-Einstein statistics. Bosons include photons, some short-lived elementary particles (for example, pi-mesons), as well as atoms consisting of an even number of fermions. At very low temperatures, bosons congregate at their lowest—basic—energy level; then they say that Bose-Einstein condensation occurs. The condensate atoms lose their individual properties, and several millions of them begin to behave as one, their wave functions merge, and their behavior is described by a single equation. This makes it possible to say that the atoms of the condensate have become coherent, like photons in laser radiation. Researchers from the American National Institute of Standards and Technology used this property of the Bose-Einstein condensate to create an “atomic laser” (see Science and Life No. 10, 1997).

Self-induced transparency. This is one of the effects of nonlinear optics - the optics of powerful light fields. It consists in the fact that a very short and powerful light pulse passes without attenuation through a medium that absorbs continuous radiation or long pulses: an opaque medium becomes transparent to it. Self-induced transparency is observed in rarefied gases with a pulse duration of the order of 10-7 - 10-8 s and in condensed media - less than 10-11 s. In this case, a delay of the pulse occurs - its group velocity decreases greatly. This effect was first demonstrated by McCall and Khan in 1967 on ruby at a temperature of 4 K. In 1970, delays corresponding to pulse velocities three orders of magnitude (1000 times) less than the speed of light in vacuum were obtained in rubidium vapor.

Let us now turn to the unique experiment of 1999. It was carried out by Len Westergaard Howe, Zachary Dutton, Cyrus Berusi (Rowland Institute) and Steve Harris (Stanford University). They cooled a dense, magnetically held cloud of sodium atoms until they returned to the ground state, the lowest energy level. In this case, only those atoms were isolated whose magnetic dipole moment was directed opposite to the direction of the magnetic field. The researchers then cooled the cloud to less than 435 nK (nanokelvins, or 0.000000435 K, almost absolute zero).

After this, the condensate was illuminated with a “coupling beam” of linearly polarized laser light with a frequency corresponding to its weak excitation energy. The atoms moved to a higher energy level and stopped absorbing light. As a result, the condensate became transparent to the following laser radiation. And here very strange and unusual effects appeared. The measurements showed that, under certain conditions, a pulse passing through a Bose-Einstein condensate experiences a delay corresponding to the slowing of light by more than seven orders of magnitude - a factor of 20 million. The speed of the light pulse slowed down to 17 m/s, and its length decreased several times - to 43 micrometers.

The researchers believe that by avoiding laser heating of the condensate, they will be able to slow down the light even further - perhaps to a speed of several centimeters per second.

A system with such unusual characteristics will make it possible to study the quantum optical properties of matter, as well as create various devices for quantum computers of the future, for example, single-photon switches.

Many people have known about the existence of such a concept as “the speed of light” since early childhood. Most people know that light moves very quickly. But not everyone knows in detail about the phenomenon.

Many people have noticed that during a thunderstorm there is a delay between the flash of lightning and the sound of thunder. The outbreak usually gets to us faster. This means that it has greater speed than sound. What is this connected with? What is the speed of light and how is it measured?

What is the speed of light?

Let's first understand what the speed of light is. Scientifically, this is a value that shows how fast rays move in a vacuum or in air. You also need to know what light is. This is radiation that is perceived by the human eye. The speed, as well as other properties, such as refraction, depend on the environmental conditions.

Interesting fact: Light takes 1.25 seconds to travel from the Earth to its satellite, the Moon.

What is the speed of light in your own words?

To explain in simple words, the speed of light is the time period during which a light ray travels some distance. Time is usually measured in seconds. However, some scientists use other units of measurement. Distance is also measured differently. Basically it's a meter. That is, this value is calculated in m/s. Physics explains it this way: a phenomenon that moves at a certain speed (constant).

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Eratosthenes and the circumference of the Earth

To make it easier to understand, let's look at the following example. A cyclist moves at a speed of 20 km/h. He wants to catch up with the driver of a car whose speed is 25 km/h. If you do the math, the car travels 5 km/h faster than the cyclist. With rays of light things are different. No matter how fast the first and second person move, the light, relative to them, moves at constant speed.

What is the speed of light?

When not in a vacuum, the light is affected by various conditions. The substance through which the rays pass, including. If without oxygen access the number of meters per second does not change, then in an environment with air access the value changes.

Light travels more slowly through various materials such as glass, water and air. These phenomena are given a refractive index to describe how much they slow down the movement of light. Glass has a refractive index of 1.5, which means that light passes through it at a speed of about 200 thousand kilometers per second. The refractive index of water is 1.3, while the refractive index of air is slightly greater than 1, meaning that air slows down light only slightly.

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At what speed does the Earth move around its axis and the Sun?

Consequently, after passing through air or liquid, the speed slows down, becoming less than in a vacuum. For example, in various bodies of water, the speed of movement of rays is 0.75 of the speed in space. Also, at a standard pressure of 1.01 bar, the indicator slows down by 1.5-2%. That is, under terrestrial conditions, the speed of light varies depending on environmental conditions.

For this phenomenon, a special concept was invented - refraction. That is, the refraction of light. It is widely used in various inventions. For example, a refractor is a telescope with an optical system. This is also used to create binoculars and other equipment, the essence of which is the use of optics.

Refractor telescope - diagram

In general, a beam is least susceptible to refraction when passing through ordinary air. When passing through specially created optical glass, the speed is approximately 195 thousand kilometers per second. This is almost 105 km/sec less than the constant.

The most accurate value of the speed of light

Over the years, physicists have accumulated experience in researching the speed of light rays. Currently, the most accurate value for the speed of light is 299,792 kilometers per second. The constant was established in 1933. The number is still relevant today.

However, later difficulties arose with determining the indicator. This was due to errors in the measurement of the meter. Now the very value of the meter directly depends on the speed of light. It is equal to the distance that the rays travel in a certain number of seconds - 1/the speed of light.

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How do we study the Sun?

What is the speed of light in a vacuum?

Since light in a vacuum is not affected by various conditions, its speed does not change as much as on Earth. The speed of light in a vacuum is 299,792 kilometers per second. This figure is the limit. It is believed that nothing in the world can move faster, even cosmic bodies that move quite quickly.

For example, a fighter plane, the Boeing X-43, which exceeds the speed of sound almost 10 times (more than 11 thousand km/h), flies slower than the beam. The latter moves more than 96 thousand kilometers per hour faster.

How was the speed of light measured?

The very first scientists tried to measure this value. Various methods were used. In the period of antiquity, people of science believed that it was infinite, therefore it was impossible to measure it. This opinion remained for a long time, until the 16-17th century. At that time, other scientists appeared who suggested that the beam had an end and that the speed could be measured.

The famous Danish astronomer Olaf Roemer brought knowledge about the speed of light to a new level. He noticed that the eclipse of Jupiter's moon was late. Nobody paid attention to this before. Consequently, he decided to calculate the speed.

James Maxwell's equations - the electromagnetic nature of light

Michelson experiment - the absoluteness of the speed of light

Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity

Paradox of the relativity of simultaneity of SRT

How is the speed of light measured?

Observations by Olaf Roemer

Observations by James Bradley

The Louis Fizeau Experience

Further measurements

Let's sum it up

What is the speed of light?

What is the speed of light in your own words?

What is the speed of light?

The most accurate value of the speed of light

What is the speed of light in a vacuum?

How was the speed of light measured?

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