Sack of Jerusalem, relief on the Arch of Titus, Rome, 1st century BC
A triumph was given only at the end of the war (there were exceptions), and, moreover, one that was accompanied by a heavy defeat of the enemies. There was a rule to give a triumph only if at least five thousand enemies were killed. The commander, who sought a triumph, was waiting for a decision on whether he would be granted a triumph, being outside the city limits, in view of the fact that the entry into the city of a magistrate who had not yet laid down the imperium was not allowed. Therefore, the senate also met in such a case outside the city, on the Campus Martius, usually in the temple of Bellona or Apollo, and there they listened to the commander. By virtue of a special law, victors received an imperium in the city on the day of their triumph. On the day appointed for the triumph, those who participated in it gathered early in the morning on the Champ de Mars, where in a public building (lat. villa publica) was at that time a victor. The latter dressed in a special luxurious costume, similar to the attire of the statue of Capitoline Jupiter. He wore a tunic embroidered with palm branches (lat. tunica palmata), a purple toga decorated with gold stars (lat. toga picta), gilded shoes, in one hand he took a laurel branch, in the other he held a richly decorated scepter from Ivory with the image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.
The victor rode, standing on a round gilded chariot harnessed by four horses. When Camillus harnessed white horses for the first time during his triumph, this was met with a murmur in the public, but subsequently white horses during the triumph became ordinary. Instead of horses, elephants, deer and other animals were sometimes harnessed. The triumphal chariot formed the center of the whole procession, which was opened by senators and magistrates. Musicians (trumpeters) walked behind. For the public, crowded along the entire long path of the procession in festive costumes, with wreaths of flowers and greenery in their hands, of particular interest was that part of the procession in which the winner tried to show off the large number and richness of the captured military booty.
In ancient times, while Rome was at war with her poor neighbors, booty was simple: the main part of it was weapons, cattle and captives. But when Rome began to wage wars in the rich cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought back so much booty that they had to stretch the triumph over two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, later also images of captured cities and fortresses and various symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the items carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. Often they carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.
Cultural countries, especially Greece, Macedonia and other areas where Hellenistic education was established, gave many artistic treasures, statues, paintings, etc. for the triumph. Golden wreaths were also carried, presented to the winner by different cities. During the triumph of Aemilius Paulus, there were about 400 of them, and during the triumphs of Julius Caesar over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa, about 3000. Priests and youths accompanied white sacrificial bulls with gilded horns, decorated with garlands. Especially valuable decoration of the triumph in the eyes of the Roman commanders were noble captives: defeated kings, their families and assistants, enemy commanders. Some of the captives during the triumph were killed, by order of the triumphant, in a special prison that lay on the slope of the Capitol. In ancient times, such a beating of prisoners was common and probably originally had the character of a human sacrifice, but examples from a later era can also be indicated: Jugurtha and Caesar's opponent in Gaul Vercingetorix perished in this way. In front of the triumphant were lictors with fascias entwined with laurel; buffoons amused the crowd.
The victor was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave reminded the triumphant from time to time that he was only a mortal (memento mori), and he should not be too proud. Behind the triumphant were his assistants, legates and military tribunes on horseback; sometimes they were followed by citizens liberated by the victor from captivity, soldiers marched in full dress, with all the awards that they had. They exclaimed "Jo triumphe" and sang impromptu songs, in which they sometimes ridiculed the shortcomings of the triumphant himself. Starting on the Field of Mars, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two circuses filled with people (Flaminium and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum climbed to the Capitol. There, the victor dedicated fasz laurels to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the feasting of the magistrates and senators, often of the soldiers and even of the whole public; for the latter, more games were arranged in circuses. Sometimes the commander gave the public and gifts. Gifts to soldiers were a general rule and sometimes reached significant amounts (for example, Caesar's soldiers received five thousand denarii each).
Persons who received a triumph had the right to wear triumphal attire on holidays. During the imperial period, triumphs became the exclusive property of the emperors themselves, which was explained both by the latter’s unwillingness to give their subjects this highest honor, and by the fact that the emperor was considered the commander-in-chief of all the military forces of the empire, and, consequently, the military leaders of this period lacked one of the main conditions for receiving triumph - the right to wage war "suis auspiciis". Having retained the triumph only for themselves and sometimes for their closest relatives, the emperors began to give other commanders in return for triumph only the right to wear triumphal attire (ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) on solemn occasions and put statues of victors among the statues of victors. The last triumph seems to have been won by Diocletian. A less important and solemn form of triumph was the so-called "ovation".
see also
Links
- Fasti Triumphales - Triumphant fasts (English)
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .
See what "Triumph (Ancient Rome)" is in other dictionaries:
ANCIENT ROME- Roman Forum The Roman Forum is an ancient civilization in Italy and the Mediterranean, centered in Rome. It was based on the urban community (lat. civitas) of Rome, which gradually extended its power, and then its right to the entire Mediterranean. Being… … Orthodox Encyclopedia
This term has other meanings, see Emperor (meanings). Emperor (lat. imperator lord, master, commander) is an ancient Roman honorary military title, most common during the Late Republic. Honorary title ... ... Wikipedia
This term has other meanings, see Ovation (meanings). Ovation (lat. ovatio) was a smaller form of triumph in ancient Rome. Ovations were awarded when defeating the enemy, but not in the event of a war declared at the level ... ... Wikipedia
Capital of Italy. The city is located on the river. Tiber, whose ancient name Rumo or Rumon served as the basis for the formation of the name Rome (Italian Roma). It is assumed that the name of the river is associated with the name of one of the ancient Etruscan tribes ... ... Geographic Encyclopedia - The Foundation of Rome ... Wikipedia
Mark Portia Cato Utic/Junior Lat. Marcus Porcius Cato (Minor/Uticensis) ... Wikipedia
Statue of Emperor Augustus in the Vatican Museum Octavian Augustus became the first emperor (in the modern sense) of Rome: after defeating Mark Antony and returning from ... Wikipedia
Picture 20 from the presentation "Slavery in Ancient Rome" to history lessons on the topic "Roman Republic"
Dimensions: 634 x 340 pixels, format: jpg. To download a picture for free history lesson, right-click on the image and click "Save Image As...". To show pictures in the lesson, you can also download the presentation “Slavery in Ancient Rome.ppt” for free with all the pictures in a zip archive. Archive size - 2046 KB.
Download presentationRoman Republic
"Ancient Rome MHK" - The dome and walls account for exactly half the height of the entire building, which is equal to the diameter of the base. Interior of the Pantheon. Pantheon. Materials for the MHC lesson in grade 10. Ancient Rome. Flavian Amphitheater (Coliseum - Colosseum) Reconstruction. About 125g. excavated in early XVIII century, the marble pedestal of Trajan's Column turned out to be three meters below the building level.
"Ancient Rome lesson" - What is "CIVILIZATION"? 6. The emperor who gave the name to the code of laws. New laws. Officials. Community of culture. All laws of Dr. Rome. Which state structure can be called democratic? 2.Public buildings for washing. ? For the first time… Development of the economy. Emperor. Choose the correct answer.
"Roman Republic" - Plebeians. Key milestones in the history of Rome. 3. The right of veto. Third: 149-146 AD BC. Exacerbation of contradictions in Rome. Foundation of Rome. Slaves. 1. Conquest of central Italy - 4th century BC The conquest of the Greek colonies in southern Italy - 3rd c. BC. four.
"Culture of Rome" - the Colosseum is a majestic amphitheater where gladiatorial fights took place. Triumphal arches are architectural structures erected in honor of military victories. Choose musical accompaniment. Tell about a cultural monument or an outstanding figure of the era. Baths - baths that played a significant role in the life of the Romans.
"Slavery in Rome" - Sold by slave traders. Captives. In the center of Rome. Slave children. What it's about: Study new topic. How many wars did Rome have with Carthage? What do the dates say? Sold by pirates. A. Tsar mountain country Epirus was considered the best commander of his time. Slaves for debt. 1. With what goals did Rome wage wars in the 2nd century BC?
"Roman Law" - The seller and the buyer invited five witnesses and the holder of the vault. Mancipation was carried out as follows. According to one well-known expression, the Romans "conquered the world three times." The criminal law provisions of the Laws of the XII Tables are distinguished by their extreme severity. Development. Meaning. Hence "manus". What gave Roman law to the world:
In total there are 17 presentations in the topic
So, we stopped at some very important milestone: the end of the 2nd century BC, the establishment of the Roman power, its triumph, apotheosis. Roman civitas becomes the ruler of the entire Mediterranean. But in this apotheosis there was a huge danger, a huge threat, since huge contradictions undermined this power. Before I talk about the causes of this crisis (the crisis itself will be discussed in the next lecture), it must be said that this era is not only the era of the conquest of Hellas (Greece) by Rome, but also the rapid spread of Greek influence.
At first, the Romans did not take well Greek culture. For example, there was a famous case when in the middle of the 2nd century BC. Greek policies sent to Rome an embassy of several philosophers. This embassy included philosophers, in particular the skeptic Carneades. Skepticism says that everything can be proven, everything can be refuted. And this skeptic Carneades, having arrived in Rome, spoke there as a guest performer with several philosophical speeches. Moreover, on the first day he proved something, for example, that there is justice and it must be observed, and on the second day he just as convincingly proved the opposite.
Unaccustomed to such philosophizing, the Romans were completely (to put it mildly) in general, surprised and confused. And the censor of Rome, that is, the man who oversaw morals, Mark Porcius Cato the Elder (famous) ordered the ambassadors and philosophers to be expelled from Rome as soon as possible so that there would be no damage. Mark Porcius Cato said to his son: "Greek books should be read, but not studied." He opposed the spread of Hellenic culture, and in his own way he was right. He saw in her refinement, not needed by the Romans, debauchery, etc. He said that one must stick to antiquity: agriculture, practicality, fidelity to duty. Mark Porcius Cato the Elder was a supporter of the old Roman traditions, which already needed protection at that time.
But the winner, or rather the descendant of the winner Hannibal, that same Scipio, Publius Scipio Cornelius Africanus, who was also called Scipio and who was destined to destroy Carthage and win the Third Punic War - here he was, just an ardent supporter of Greek influence, formed around him a circle of educated Romans, the historian Polybius came to him from Greece, the Stoic philosophers (Panetius, Posidonius) appeared, and with the help of this circle Greek education and culture began to spread. But I repeat, Mark Porcius Cato the Elder foresaw great trouble from this. As Horace, the great poet, later writes: “Greece, taken prisoner, captivated the wild conquerors.”
Now I would like to say, drawing a line, about the contradictions that the Roman power came to at the end of the 2nd century BC, to the moment when the total, growing crisis of the Roman civitas, the Roman polis, the Roman republic begins. This crisis will last for 100 years. And what was this crisis?
So world domination is achieved. But this victory is Pyrrhic, because the whole internal structure is being transformed, all the old structures cannot work, the old morality is changing, all the polis foundations must be changed. The factor of external danger, the struggle for survival, rallied the Romans for several centuries, now Rome has no one to fear for some time, and citizens simply stop serving in the legions. Previously, the war constantly occupied them, now they go to watch gladiator fights to have fun. Now the polis orders are beginning to crumble rapidly. I will briefly enumerate, and then specify some of the lines along which the collapse of the Roman policy (civitas) proceeded.
Baroque painting
Painting by the Seville painter Diego Velazquez “The Triumph of Bacchus”. The size of the painting is 165 x 225 cm, oil on canvas. The painting by the Spanish artist Velasquez also has another name, “Drunkens”.
From ancient history. Triumph (triumphus) in ancient rome- solemn entry into the capital of the victorious commander and his troops. The victor dressed in a special luxurious costume, similar to the attire of the statue of Capitoline Jupiter. He wore a tunic (tunica palmata) embroidered with palm branches, a purple toga (toga picta) adorned with gold stars, gilded shoes, he took a laurel branch in one hand, in the other he held a richly decorated ivory scepter with the image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath. The triumphant rode, standing on a round gilded chariot harnessed by four white horses. Instead of horses, elephants, deer and other animals were sometimes harnessed. The triumphal chariot formed the center of the entire procession, which was opened by senators and magistrates. Musicians (trumpeters) walked behind. For the public, crowded along the entire long path of the procession in festive costumes, with wreaths of flowers and greenery in their hands, of particular interest was that part of the procession in which the winner tried to show off the large number and richness of the captured military booty.
In ancient times, while Rome was at war with her poor neighbors, booty was simple: the main part of it was weapons, cattle and captives. But when Rome began to wage wars in the rich cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought back so much booty that the Triumph had to be stretched out over two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, later also images of captured cities and fortresses and various symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the items carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. Often they carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.
Cultural countries, especially Greece, Macedonia and other areas where Hellenistic education was established, provided many artistic treasures, statues, paintings, etc. for the Triumph. There were also golden wreaths presented to the winner by different cities. During the triumph of Aemilius Paul there were about 400 of them, and during the triumphs of Julius Caesar over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa - about 3000. Priests and youths accompanied white sacrificial bulls with gilded horns, decorated with garlands. Especially valuable decoration of the Triumph in the eyes of the Roman generals were noble captives: defeated kings, their families and assistants, enemy commanders. Some of the prisoners during the Triumph were killed, by order of the triumphant, in a special prison that lay on the slope of the Capitol.
In ancient times, such a beating of prisoners was common and probably originally had the character of a human sacrifice, but examples can also be given from a later era: Jugurtha and Caesar's opponent in Gaul, Vercingetorix, perished in this way. In front of the triumphant were lictors with fascias entwined with laurel; buffoons amused the crowd. The victor was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. Behind the triumphant were his assistants, legates and military tribunes on horseback; sometimes they were followed by citizens released by the victor from captivity, soldiers marched in full dress, with all the awards that they had. Starting on the Field of Mars, near the triumphal gates, the procession of the Triumph passed through two circuses filled with people (Flaminium and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along the via sacra through the forum climbed to the Capitol. There, the victor dedicated bean laurels to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the refreshment of magistrates and senators, soldiers, and even the whole public; for the latter, games in circuses were also arranged. Sometimes the victor gave gifts to the public. Gifts to soldiers were a general rule and sometimes reached significant amounts (for example, Caesar's soldiers received five thousand denarii each). Persons who received the Triumph had the right to wear triumphal attire on holidays.
Arch of Constantine It is the largest surviving Roman triumphal arch. It has come down to us almost in its original state, except for the metal parts, in particular, the four-meter quadriga on top. The history of the arch, as well as the deeds of Emperor Constantine in Rome and beyond, continue to cause controversy to this day.
In addition to arches, temples, sanctuaries, and civil buildings were built along or near the path of the triumphal procession in honor of the victory.
In order to understand the purpose for which the Romans built triumphal arches, you need to understand what the triumphal procession was.
Northern facade of the arch
Triumphal processions in Rome
Triumph was a ritual ceremonial procession with which the senate awarded Roman military leaders. It was a tradition that took shape in the 4th century BC. to demonstrate power and glorify the emperor.
Initially the triumph was a procession carrying the broken weapons of a defeated enemy. According to the Roman historian Lucius Annaeus Florus (c. 70 - 140), before the victory of Manius Curia Dentatus over the king of Epirus Pyrrhus in 275 BC. triumphal processions were not so spectacular: “up to that time, the only booty that could be seen was the cattle of the Volcinians, the herds of the Sabines, the carts of the Gauls and the broken weapons of the Samnites” (Florus, 1.13.26). After defeating Pyrrhus in triumphal processions one could see "Molossians, Thessalonians, Macedonians, Bruttians, Apulians and Lucans ... statues of gold and charming Tarentine painted panels" (Flour, 1.13.27). The more Rome conquered land, the more money, metals, jewelry, weapons, statues, paintings, rare trees, animals and captives, its generals (“triumphants”) brought to the city.
According to the historian Titus Livy, for a Roman there was no more honorable reward than a triumph. In order for the commander to be awarded a triumph, he had to meet all criteria:
- hold a certain position (dictator, consul, proconsul, praetor or propraetor);
- to defeat a foreign enemy of equal status, killing at least 5,000 people (rebellious slaves, for example, were not considered an "equal enemy");
- to be proclaimed emperor by his soldiers;
- return the army home (i.e. complete the war to the end);
- get approval from the Senate to hold a triumphal procession.
Because of the high demands, the triumph was very rare and prestigious award. Before the Punic Wars (264-146 BC), there was rarely more than one triumph in a year. During the expansion of the empire, triumphs were held more frequently, such as from 200 to 170 BC. 35 triumphal processions took place.
Approximate path of the triumphal procession in Rome
The victor was allowed distribute captured booty between the state, the army, the generals and himself at his own discretion. From his share, each commander first of all sacrificed part of the captured to Jupiter Optimus Maximus, since, going to war, he usually promised him this in exchange for support. Further, from his own part of the booty, the victor could organize special games.
The ritual nature of the triumphal procession suggested that the order of procession in it was strictly defined (at least in the Republican period). Senators and other high-ranking Romans rode at the head of each procession, followed by musicians, then they carried booty, led animals destined for sacrifice on the altar of Jupiter Optima Maximus. The captives were led before the army, which victorious. If someone from the family of the ruler of the conquered people was captured in the war, then he was led right in front of the triumphant, who was riding a quadriga. Behind him stood a slave who was supposed to hold a laurel wreath over his head and whisper throughout the procession “respice post te! Hominem te memento!" (“Look back! Remember that you are human!”).
triumphal processions never didn't walk the same path, because, firstly, the city was constantly rebuilt, and secondly, each military leader visited the altars and temples associated with the history of his family.
South facade of the arch
History of the arch and questions
After Constantine ended the civil war and went to Rome with his army, the Roman Senate ordered that a triumphal arch be built in his honor. As it is written on it, it was dedicated simultaneously to the tenth anniversary of the imperial reign of Constantine and his victory over the then reigning Emperor Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, which occurred on the year 28,312. The official opening of this triumphal arch took place on 25315. In the same year, Decennalia took place in Rome - sports games that were held in honor of the gods once every ten years of the emperor's reign.
The arch is 25.7 meters wide, 21 meters high and 7.4 meters deep. It was built from used pro-Connessian marble (the modern Turkish island of Marmara).
Because the arch is from details different periods , the history of its construction causes a lot of controversy. Many scholars believe that it was the triumphal arch of Hadrian, which was partially rebuilt under Constantine.
Others are of the opinion that the arch was built, or at least began to build, under Maxentius(306 - 312). This emperor was distinguished by the fact that, unlike his predecessors, he focused not on protecting the borders, but on restoring the city, for which he even earned the epithet “conservator urbis suae” (“guardian of his city”). Constantine, among other things, was perceived as a man who overthrew one of the greatest benefactors of Rome, because of which he had to issue a decree on the "curse of memory" ("damnatio memoriae") Maxentius, and erase his name from all monuments. Therefore, there is a possibility that initially it was a triumphal arch not of Constantine, but of Maxentius defeated by him.
In the Middle Ages, the Arch of Constantine was turned into strengthening for one of the wealthy Roman families (the same fate befell, for example, and). The first restoration work took place here in the 18th century, and the last archaeological excavations– in the late 1990s. During the 1960 Summer Olympics, the Arch of Constantine served as the finish line in the running competition.
View of the Arch of Constantine from the second level of the Colosseum
Site selection for the Arch of Constantine
Triumphal arches in Rome usually stood along the path of the triumphal procession. Before the architects of Constantine stood not an easy task: they had to put an arch in the place where the road (now called the “Triumphal Way”) entered Flavius Square, and at the same time, due to asymmetry, they had to choose between the orientation of the arch along the road or along the square. Adding to the complexity was the fact that the Meta Sudans fountain was already standing at the intersection, which had nothing to do with military victories and, with its appearance, could destroy the symbolic content of the future arch. The architects found extraordinary elegant solution all these topographic problems. They chose a place not on the road itself, but a little to the north, because of which the arch turned out to be on the square. Thanks to this, they got rid of the need to place the central span of the arch above the road and moved it two meters to the east. This was not very noticeable to contemporaries, but because of this shift, the architects were able to ensure that the high cone of the Meta Sudans fountain was almost completely hidden behind the second support of the arch. In addition, due to this shift through the central span, a giant bronze sun god statue(“Colossus”, after which the theater of Flavius received its second name), which was located 108 meters from it. The creation of an association between the god of the Sun ("Invincible Sun" or Sol Invictus) and the emperor was necessary during the period civil wars and strengthening the eastern provinces.
Arch of Constantine and round base of the Meta Sudans Fountain
Description of the arch
North facade (from the side of the Colosseum)
Northern facade of the arch dedicated to peaceful activities Emperor Constantine.
On the wide upper part of the arch above each column stands a dac sculpture, the creation of which dates back to the reign of Emperor Trajan (98 - 117). The Dacians stand on square pedestals of gray Caristian marble from the Greek island of Euboea.
Above the central part is inscription, identical from both facades. She says:
IMP CAES FL CONSTANTINO MAXIMO
P F AVGUSTO S P Q R
QVOD INSTINCTV DIVINITATIS MENTIS
MAGNITVDINE CVM EXERCITV SVO
TAM DE TYRANNO QVAM DE OMNI EIVS
FACTIONE VNO TEMPORE IVSTIS
REMPVBLICAM VLTVS EST ARMIS
ARCVM TRIVMPHIS INSIGNEM DICAVIT
"To the emperor Caesar Flavius Constantine, the great, virtuous and blessed Augustus: for being inspired higher power and with his great mind, with his army and force of arms, he freed the state from the tyrant and from all his followers, the Senate and the people of Rome dedicated this triumphal arch to him.
Inscription on the south side of the arch
This inscription was originally in bronze letters, but only well-read gaps have survived to date.
The greatest number of disputes in this inscription is caused by the expression "INSTINCTV · DIVINITATIS", i.e. " inspired by a higher power/ deity. It is considered to be a symbol of the beginning of the change in the religious preferences of Emperor Constantine. The early Christian writers Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea referred to the story that before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312, the Christian god sent a sign to Constantine in the form of a large cross in the sky (the original cross, which later became part of the labarum). From the same year, the emperor began to support Christians, although until 324, only the sun god was listed in official documents (including on coins). With the vague wording “inspired by a higher power,” the author of the inscription on the arch probably wanted to please both pagans and Christians. As was customary, the defeated enemy is not called, but simply referred to as a "tyrant", emphasizing the legitimacy of his murder.
On the sides of the inscription, above small arches, located in pairs relief panels from Carrara marble, which were taken from an unknown building erected in honor of the victory of Marcus Aurelius over the Marcomanni and Sarmatians, thanks to which he was awarded a triumph in 176. The panels show (from left to right):
- an emperor returning to Rome after a military campaign;
- the emperor leaving the city, who is greeted by the personification of the street Flaminia;
- the emperor distributing money to the people (the figure of Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius, who was punished with the "curse of memory" is erased here);
Emperor interrogating a German prisoner.
Two panels on the left and two ducks
Two panels on the right
couples circlereliefs from white Carrara marble with a diameter of about 2 meters, located above each of the two side arches, date back to the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117 - 138), since they are made in the style of the beginning - middle of the second century and in one of the scenes in the background stands a close friend of the emperor Adriana Antinous. However, their identification presents a problem because some of them are not finished.
The medallions depict scenes of hunting and sacrifices (from left to right):
- hunting for a wild boar;
- sacrifice to Apollo;
- hunting for a lion;
- Sacrifice to Hercules
The head of Emperor Hadrian was remade on all the medallions: in the scenes of the hunt for Constantine, and in the scenes of sacrifices - for Licinius or Constantius I. The space around the round reliefs was finished in porphyry, however, this decoration is preserved only around the right pair of medallions on this side.
Medallions on the left, inscription VOTIS X and panel with Constantine's address to the Romans from the rostra
Two medallions with a porphyry border on the right, the inscription VOTIS XX and a panel on which Constantine distributes money to the Romans
Above the circular reliefs on this side of the arch is inscribed " VOTISX" (left) and " VOTISXX" (on right). These inscriptions can be translated as "sacred oath for the 10th anniversary" and "sacred oath for the 20th anniversary". They refer to the 10th anniversary of the reign of Constantine, which he celebrated in Rome in the summer of 315 (according to another version, he left Rome at the beginning of 313 and returned only in 326).
Below the circular reliefs on both the long and short sides are long narrow "historical" panels created under Constantine. They illustrate his military campaign against the emperor Maxentius, in which he won the victory and for which he was granted a triumph. The western short panel depicts the departure of the troops from Milan ("profecio"). The story continues on the south façade, showing the siege of Verona (“obsidio”) on the left and the battle of the Milvian bridge (“prelium”, on the right), in which Constantine's army defeated the enemy and drove him into the Tiber. In a panel on the eastern narrow façade, Constantine's army enters Rome ("ingressus"), but not in the form of a triumphal procession, since Constantine probably did not want to display his triumph. On the northern facade, looking towards the city, his actions are depicted after he became the sole ruler: he addresses the Romans in the forum from the rostra, behind which the arches of Septimius Severus and Tiberius ("orazio", left) are visible, and distributes money to them ("liberalitas", on the right).
On each long side of the Arch of Constantine is four Corinthian columns with flutes on high bases. Seven of the columns are carved in Numidian yellow marble, and the eighth is in white marble, as the original column was moved to the Lateran Basilica (later replaced there with a yellow-purple Phrygian marble column). Bases of all columns decorated with reliefs similar to those of the Arch of Septimius Severus and the destroyed New Arch of Diocletian. On the front part, the goddess of victory Victoria is depicted, who either makes an inscription on the shield or holds palm branches, and on the sides there are reliefs in the form of captive barbarians or captive barbarians and Roman soldiers. Probably, such decorations were standard for the triumphal arches of their time. The bases of the columns were made during the reign of Emperor Constantine.
Bases (plinths) of columns on the northern side of the arch
Extreme plinth on the right on the north side
In the sinuses of the vaults of the central arch on both sides are high reliefs in the form of Victorias holding trophies. In the axils of the vaults of the side arches there are high reliefs in the form of river gods. All of them, like the bases of the columns, date from the era of Constantine.
Victoria in the axils of the arches of the central arch on the north side
River gods above the arch on the left
River gods above the right arch
South facade (from the side of the forum)
The southern facade of the arch is dedicated military activities Emperor Constantine.
On the top reliefs
- a captured enemy commander who was brought to the emperor;
- a prisoner who was brought to the emperor;
- the emperor makes a speech to the army;
- the emperor is going to sacrifice a pig, a sheep and a bull
Ducks and two panels on the left
Ducks and panels on the right
Below in round medallions above the side arches is depicted (from left to right):
- going hunting
- Sacrifice to Sylvanus;
- bear hunting;
- Sacrifice to Diana
On these medallions, the head of Hadrian was remade into Licinius or Constantius I in the hunting scenes and Constantine in the sacrificial scenes.
Medallions on the left, inscription SIC X and panel depicting the siege of Verona
Two medallions on the right, inscription SIC XX and relief panel depicting the Battle of the Milvian Bridge
Above the medallions on this side of the arch is written " SICX" (left) and " SICXX» (right), i.e. "for both the 10th and 20th anniversaries." As on the opposite side, these inscriptions are made in honor of the tenth anniversary of the reign of Constantine.
Plinth in the center
Leftmost plinth on the south side (Victoria in the center, captives on the right)
Victoria in the axils of the arch of the central arch from the south side
River gods above the left arch on the south side
River gods in the axils of the vault above the right arch on the south side
Short sides
On top short sides, as well as inside the central arch, high (3 m) panels depicting scenes of Trajan's war with the Dacians are built in. Initially, they made up a large frieze of Pentelian marble, which was located either in the forum of Trajan or in the barracks of the imperial horse guards, which stood on the Caelian hill. These panels also refer to 98-117 years.
Top panel on the west side
Top panel on the east side
Below on the short sides of the arch is by medallion with reliefs depicting rising Sun (east side) and the moon(west side). Both in the form of women on chariots. They, unlike the medallions on the long sides, were made under Constantine. Their presence on the arch is a symbol of the eternity of the capital of Rome and connects his rule with endless prosperity.
Moon medallion and panel depicting the departure of Constantine's troops from Milan
Personification of the sun and panel depicting Constantine's army entering Rome (east side)
Interior of the Arch of Constantine
Inside central arch there are two panels depicting the war of Trajan (remade into Constantine) with the Dacians. On one, he is depicted on a horse slaying enemies, and on the other, he is standing in anticipation of being crowned by Victoria in the presence of personified Honor and Virtue.
Above each of the panels of the central arch is made inscription, emphasizing that Constantine fought not for the sake of capturing anything, but for the sake of freeing Rome from a tyrant:
"LIBERATORI VRBIS" ("liberator of the city")
"FUNDATORI QVIETIS" ("founder of the world")
Panel inside the central arch with Trajan (Constantine) on horseback and the inscription "liberator of the city"
Inside side arches two busts are carved on each side (8 in total), degraded to such an extent that they cannot be identified.
Busts in the side arch
Busts in the side arch
Explanation to the description
The Arch of Constantine is an important example destruction of the classical Greek sculptural canon which took place in Rome in the 4th century. On the arch, the contrast between the panels made under Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius and the panels from the reign of Constantine is very clearly visible. For example, on medallions from the Hadrian era, hunting scenes are designed to create a sense of free space in which people can go wherever they want, while on panels from the Constantine era, people stand very close to each other, their gestures are not coordinated, and their postures are illogical. In addition, these figures have disproportionately large heads, short legs, identical cap hairstyles, and angular capes. Their rank is shown not by composition, but very roughly by changing the size of the whole body.
Why did degradation occur? both style and performance?
This question gave rise to a long discussion, which did not end with a single conclusion. Possible reasons:
- the destruction of the process of transferring skills due to the political and economic crisis of the third century;
- increased influence of oriental and other preclassical regional styles from the outskirts of the empire (unlikely);
- strengthening the influence of a simple "folk" or "Italian" style, which existed in parallel with the high Greek style for the needs of poor Romans;
- conscious rejection of the classical style.
Why were used details of other monuments?
- the placement of reliefs with the acts of Constantine next to the reliefs of the emperors of the "golden" second century symbolically equated him with them;
– the arch was under construction for only three years, and, perhaps, the masters did not have time to create from scratch required amount reliefs;
- the sculptors of the era of Constantine believed that they were not able to surpass their predecessors;
- the Romans of the 4th century lacked the skill to do the work worthy of the emperor.
Probably, to one degree or another, all these reasons together led to the use of old sculptural panels in the Arch of Constantine.
View of the northern facade of the arch from the Colosseum
Attractions nearby: Colosseum, Forum, Palatine Hill, Golden House of Nero, Ludus Magnus
Useful information about the triumphal arch of Constantine in Rome
Where is:
Between the Colosseum and the Forum
How to get there:
Colosseo metro station on line B (blue)
Colosseo tourist bus stop
