Believing the oaths of a traitor is the same as believing the piety of the devil

Elizabeth 1

The fifties of the 18th century brought changes in the political situation in Europe. Austria has lost its position. England and France were in a state of conflict in the struggle for dominance on the American continent. The German army developed at a rapid pace and was considered invincible in Europe.

Causes of the war

By 1756, two coalitions had emerged in Europe. As mentioned above, England and France determined who would dominate the American continent. The British secured the support of the Germans. The French won over Austria, Saxony and Russia.

The course of the war - the basis of the event

The war was started by the German king Frederick II. He struck Saxony and in August 1756 completely destroyed its army. Russia, fulfilling its allied duty, sends an army led by General Apraksin to help. The Russians were given the task of capturing Konigsberg, which was guarded by a forty thousand-strong German army. A major battle between the Russian and German armies took place near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf. On August 19, 1757, the Russians defeated the German troops, forcing them to flee. The myth of the invincibility of the German army was dispelled. A key role in this victory was played by P.A. Rumyantsev, who connected reserves in time and dealt a terrible blow to the Germans. The commander of the Russian army, Apraksin S.F., knowing that Empress Elizabeth was sick and her heir Peter sympathized with the Germans, ordered the Russian army not to pursue the Germans. This step allowed the Germans to calmly retreat and quickly gather their strength again.

Empress Elizabeth recovered and removed Apraksin from command of the army. Seven Years' War 1757-1762 continued. Fermor V.V. began to control the Russian army. Soon after his appointment, in 1757 Fermor took possession of Koenisberg. Empress Elizabeth was pleased with this conquest and in January 1578 signed a decree according to which the lands of East Prussia were transferred to Russia.

In 1758, a new major battle took place between the Russian and German armies. It happened near the village of Zorndorf. The Germans attacked fiercely, they had the advantage. Fermor shamefully fled from the battlefield, but the Russian army survived, again defeating the Germans.

In 1759, P.S. Saltykov was appointed commander of the Russian army, who in the first year inflicted a severe defeat on the Germans near Kunersdorf. After this, the Russian army continued its advance to the west and captured Berlin in September 1760. In 1761, the large German fortress of Kolberg fell.

End of hostilities

Allied troops did not help either Russia or Prussia. Drawn into this war by France on the one hand and England on the other, the Russians and Germans exterminated each other while the British and French decided on their world domination.

After the fall of Kohlberg, the Prussian king Frederick II was in despair. German history says that he tried to abdicate the throne several times. There are cases when at the same time Frederick II tried to commit suicide. When it seemed that the situation was hopeless, the unexpected happened. Elizabeth died in Russia. Her successor was Peter 3, married to a German princess and with a love for everything German. This emperor shamefully signed an alliance treaty with Prussia, as a result of which Russia received absolutely nothing. For seven years, Russians shed blood in Europe, but this did not produce any results for the country. The traitor emperor, as Peter 3 was called in the Russian army, saved Germany from destruction by signing an alliance. For this he paid with his life.

An alliance treaty with Prussia was signed in 1761. After Catherine 2 came to power in 1762, this agreement was terminated, however, the empress did not risk sending Russian troops to Europe again.

Key events:

• 1756 - Defeat of France by England. The beginning of Russia's war against Prussia.
• 1757 - Russian victory in the battle of Groß-Jägersdorf. Prussian victory in France and Austria at Rosbach.
• 1758 - Russian troops took Konigsberg
• 1759 - Victory of the Russian army in the battle of Kunersdorf
• 1760 - Capture of Berlin by the Russian army
• 1761 - Victory in the battle of Kolberg fortress
• 1762 - Peace Treaty between Prussia and Russia. Return to Frederick 2 of all lands lost during the war
• 1763 - The Seven Years' War ended

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) got its name from its length in time. This was the largest conflict of the 18th century. It took place not only in Europe, but also in North America, India, and the Caribbean. At one time, Churchill called it the “First World War.” In history, this conflict is referred to as the third Silesian, Pomeranian, Carnatic, French-Indian, and Recent War.

Causes

The main reasons for the Seven Years' War were hidden behind the confrontation between world powers over colonies in North America. Military clashes there began two years before the declaration of war. The main rivals were England and France. Colonists from these countries started an armed conflict. Allied Indians also took part in it. Another reason was the strengthening of Prussia in Europe. Many developed countries did not like this.

Other countries joined coalitions for their own benefit:

• Austria wanted to return Silesia.
• Prussia hoped to capture Saxony.
• Sweden sought to reconquer Stettin and a number of other lands.
• Russia fought for East Prussia.

Countries united in coalitions. One included England, Prussia, Hanover, the other - France, Austria, Russia, Spain. This was quite unusual, since France and Austria had been fighting each other for hegemony in Europe for a long time.

Opponents

The main states that participated in the Seven Years' War (opponents) and their commanders-in-chief:

• Prussia was ruled by Frederick II. He was the emperor and commander-in-chief rolled into one, so he didn't have to answer to anyone.
• England - King George II was the king.
• Austria - Maria Theresa was at the head of the state, Karl Alexander was appointed commander. But after the unsuccessful Battle of Leuthen, he resigned and command passed to Leopold Joseph.
• Russia - Elizaveta Petrovna ruled the country, the commander-in-chief was first Apraksin, he was replaced by Fermor, then Saltykov and Buturlin. They were subordinate to the St. Petersburg Conference. Later Peter the Third became emperor.
• France - Louis the Fifteenth was the emperor, commanders replaced each other as a result of intrigues and frequent defeats. Le Tellier was appointed first, then Richelieu, de Bourbon-Condé, Erasmus, Victor-François, de Rohan.

Invasion of Saxony

Officially, the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) began with the Prussian invasion of Saxony. Frederick II entered its territory on August 28, 1756. A couple of days later, Russia declared war on Prussia.

The thirty-three thousand army of Austria came to the aid of Saxony. But she was broken. Saxony had only eighteen thousand soldiers. They could not resist the two hundred thousand Prussian army, so they capitulated. Frederick II forced the Saxons into his army, and in vain. Throughout the war they ran over to the enemy in battalions.

It was important for Frederick the Second to capture these lands in order to transfer the fighting to the enemy’s side. He was also able to use the human and material resources of wealthy Saxony.

Major battles in Europe

During such a long period of the war, many battles were fought. Main battles of the Seven Years' War:

• Under Colin - took place on June 18, 1757. The battle lasted six hours. Austria had fifty-four thousand troops, and Prussia had thirty-five thousand. Frederick II was intoxicated by success, but miscalculated his strength and lost.
• Under Leuthen - happened on December 5, 1757. Thirty-two thousand soldiers came from Prussia, and Austria had eighty thousand soldiers. Despite this numerical superiority, the army under the command of Prince Charles Alexander lost.
• Under Rosbach - took place on November 5, 1757. French troops of forty-three thousand people were unable to invade Prussia, because they were defeated by twenty-two thousand soldiers of Frederick the Second.
• Zorndorf - occurred on August 25, 1758. Russian forces (forty-two thousand soldiers) clashed with Frederick the Second (thirty-three thousand). The battle was bloody. Russian troops lost sixteen thousand, and Prussian troops lost eleven thousand. The battle ended in nothing.
• Kunersdorf - took place on August 12, 1759. Frederick II with thirty-five thousand troops marched against forty-one thousand Russian soldiers under the command of Semenovich. The Prussian army was defeated.
• Under Torgai - happened on November 3, 1760. It is considered the last major battle of the war. The forces of Prussia (forty-four thousand) and Austria (fifty-three thousand) collided. The losses of both sides were colossal - sixteen thousand soldiers on each side. Victory was for Frederick the Second.

Having lost a significant part of his army in battles, the Prussian ruler began to protect it from bloody battles. The war continued for another three years, but everything was limited to maneuvers and marches. The main battles of the Seven Years' War were fought only in the first years.

North American Front

Events in North America began back in 1754, when a skirmish occurred at Great Meadows between colonists from England and France. At first the French lost ground, but united with the Indians and were able to win the Battle of Monongahela in 1755. After a series of battles on May 17, 1756, England declared war on Louis the Fifteenth.

The decisive battle took place in 1759 near Quebec. The French outnumbered the British. The difference was four thousand soldiers. However, the English subjects were better prepared and won. Quebec was taken, and a year later Montreal was captured. The result of the Seven Years' War was the ousting of the French from Canada.

Asian front

In 1757, the British and French captured land from each other in Bengal and India. There was also a struggle for dominance in the Indian Ocean between the two fleets. In 1759, French ships left the Indian coast.

The ground forces of Louis the Fifteenth were also not up to par. In 1760 they were defeated at Vandivash, and a year later the British achieved the surrender of the enemy from the capital of French India. Such results of the Seven Years' War suited George II quite well.

The British carried out military operations in the Philippines in 1762 against Spain. However, they could not stay there for long and in 1765 they completed the evacuation from the islands. The result of the Seven Years' War in the Philippines was the impetus for new anti-Spanish uprisings of the local population. However, they cannot be called successful. The Philippines remained under Spanish rule until 1898, when it was ceded to the United States.

Losses

Losses among the warring states:

• Austria - four hundred thousand soldiers;
• Prussia - about two hundred thousand;
• France - up to two hundred thousand;
• Russia – about one hundred and forty thousand;
• England - twenty thousand.

No one can name the number of indigenous people killed in North America, India and other colonies for which the war was fought. What were the results of the Seven Years' War? Were they worth such sacrifices? Did the war resolve the contradictions between the strongest powers of Europe at that time?

Results of the Seven Years' War

Four peace treaties were signed between the warring countries. Each of them had its own characteristics:

• Petersburg - it was already signed by Peter the Third. According to the agreement, Russia withdrew from the conflict and voluntarily transferred its lands to Prussia, which were occupied by Russian soldiers. Subsequently, these actions of Peter the Third became one of the reasons for the coup and the accession to the throne of Catherine the Second.
• Hamburg - concluded between Sweden and Prussia. Peace was established on the terms of the withdrawal of Swedish troops from the occupied territories. The parties released prisoners without ransom.
• The Paris Agreement was concluded by four states at once. England and Portugal negotiated with France and Spain. Louis the Fifteenth renounced Canada, Nova Scotia, the Gulf of St. Lawrence Islands, and the Ohio Valley. Spain received Havana from England, but ceded Florida. England received Puerto Rico, Minorca was returned to her, but she gave Martinique and Guadeloupe to France. Spain received Louisiana, but undertook to withdraw troops from Portugal. France had to leave Hanover, Senegal. The state of Louis XV was allowed to engage in fishing near Newfoundland, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
• Hubertusburg - ended the war. Was signed between Austria, Prussia, Saxony. Maria Theresa renounced Silesia and Graudenz, and Frederick II did not demand compensation for damages. Troops were withdrawn from foreign lands, prisoners of war were freed or demobilized. By secret agreement, Prussia was going to vote for the son of Maria Theresa in the election of the head of the Holy Roman Empire.

Many contemporaries were perplexed about the peace treaty between European states. So much blood was shed, and as a result, the pre-war status quo was restored. However, this is not quite true.

Consequences

Prussia became the leading state in Europe. The preconditions were laid for the unification of German territories under Prussian hegemony.

England did not have its own regular army. To resolve military conflicts, she used mercenary troops that she had all over the world. The prolonged war doubled the national debt. To extinguish it, Great Britain began to intensively exploit its American colonies. This led to the Revolutionary War. So we can say that the consequences of the Seven Years' War for England were extremely negative.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 was provoked by a clash of interests between Russia, France and Austria on the one hand and Portugal, Prussia and England (in union with Hanover) on the other. Each of the states that entered the war, of course, pursued its own goals. Thus, Russia tried to strengthen its influence in the West.

The war began with the battle of the fleets of England and France near the Balearic Islands on May 19, 1756. It ended in victory for the French. Ground operations began later - on August 28. An army under the command of the Prussian king Frederick 2 invaded the lands of Saxony, and later began the siege of Prague. At the same time, the French army occupied Hanover.

Russia entered the war in 1757. In August, the Russian army suffered heavy losses, but won the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf, opening the way to East Prussia. However, Field Marshal General Apraksin, who commanded the troops, learned about the illness of Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. Believing that her heir, Pyotr Fedorovich, would soon take the throne, he began withdrawing troops to the Russian border. Later, declaring such actions treason, the empress brought Apraksin to trial. Fremor took his place as commander. In 1758, the territory of East Prussia was annexed into Russia.

Further events of the Seven Years' War are brief: the victories won in 1757 by the Prussian army under the command of Frederick 2 in 1769 were reduced to zero thanks to the successful actions of Russian-Austrian troops during the Battle of Kunersdorf. By 1761, Prussia was on the verge of defeat. But in 1762, Empress Elizabeth died. Peter III, who ascended the throne, was a supporter of rapprochement with Prussia. Preliminary peace negotiations held in the fall of 1762 ended with the conclusion of the Paris Peace Treaty on January 30, 1763. This day is officially considered the date of the end of the seven-year war.

With the exception of military experience, Russia gained nothing as a result of this war. France - lost Canada and most of its overseas possessions, Austria lost all rights to Silesia and the County of Galtz. The balance of power in Europe has completely changed.

Brief biography of Catherine 2

The German princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerpt was born on April 21, 1729. Her family was not rich and the princess received only a home education, which shaped the personality of Catherine 2, the future Russian empress. In 1744, an event occurred that determined not only the further biography of Catherine 2, but also, in many ways, the fate of Russia. Princess Sophia Augusta was chosen as the bride of the heir to the Russian throne, Peter III. By invitation Elizaveta Petrovna she arrived at the court. And, treating Russia as her second homeland, she actively engaged in self-education, studying the language, culture, and history of the country in which she was to live.

In 1744, on June 24, she was baptized into Orthodoxy under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Wedding ceremony with Peter 3 took place on August 21, 1745. But the husband did not pay much attention to his young wife. And Catherine’s only entertainment was balls, masquerades and hunting. In 1754, on September 20, Catherine gave birth to a son, the future emperor Pavel 1, but the child was immediately taken away from her. Relations with the Empress and Peter 3 deteriorated noticeably. Peter 3 had mistresses, and Catherine herself entered into a relationship with the future Polish king Stanislav Poniatowski.

Daughter Anna, born on December 9, 1758, was not accepted by her husband, since Peter 3 had serious doubts about the paternity of the child. By that time, Empress Elizabeth had become seriously ill. Catherine’s secret correspondence with the Austrian ambassador was also revealed. The fate of Catherine the Great could have turned out completely differently if not for the support of her associates and favorites with whom the wife of Peter 3 surrounded herself.

Peter 3 ascended the throne in 1761 after the death of Elizabeth. Catherine was immediately moved away from the marital quarters, which were occupied by her mistress. Having become pregnant by G. Orlov, she was forced to hide her situation. Her son Alexei was born in the strictest secrecy.

The domestic and foreign policies of Peter 3 caused growing discontent. Intelligent and active Catherine looked much more profitable against the background of such “deeds” of Peter as the return of lands seized during the Seven Years' War to Prussia. A conspiracy formed in the circle of Peter 3. Catherine's supporters persuaded the guards units to take part in the conspiracy. They took the oath to the future empress in St. Petersburg on June 28, 1762. The next day, Peter 3 was forced to abdicate in favor of his wife and was arrested. Soon after this he was killed. Thus began the reign of Catherine 2, called by historians the Golden Age of the Russian Empire.

The domestic policy of Catherine II was determined by the Russian Empress's commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment. It was during the period called the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II that the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the management system was unified, and the autocracy was strengthened. In order to carry out comprehensive and useful reforms for the country, Catherine 2 convened the Statutory Commission, which included deputies from the nobility, townspeople and rural population. But it was not possible to avoid internal political problems, and the largest of them was the peasant war led by Emelyan Pugacheva 1773 – 1775.

The foreign policy of Catherine 2 was quite energetic and very successful. The Empress sought to secure the southern borders of the country from the claims of Turkey. Perhaps it was in Turkish companies that the interests of the Russian Empire clashed most sharply with the interests of France and England. The second most important task for Tsarina Catherine 2 was the annexation of the lands of Belarus and Ukraine to the territory of the empire, which she achieved with the help of the divisions of Poland, carried out jointly by both Austria and Prussia. It is also worth noting the decree of Catherine 2 on the liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich.

The period of reign of Empress Catherine 2 the Great was long and lasted from 1762 to 1796. It was based on the philosophy of the Enlightenment. There is information that Catherine was thinking about the abolition of serfdom, but she never decided on such large-scale changes. During the era of Catherine 2, the Hermitage and the Public Library, the Smolny Institute and pedagogical schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg were created. It was during this period that the foundations of civil society in Russia were laid. The death of Catherine 2 occurred from a cerebral hemorrhage that occurred on November 5, 1796. The Empress died the next day, November 6. Her son, Paul 1, ascended the Russian throne.

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a war between two coalitions for hegemony in Europe, as well as for colonial possessions in North America and India.
General political situation. Causes
One coalition included England and Prussia, the other included France, Austria and Russia. There was a struggle between England and France for colonies in North America. Clashes there began as early as 1754, and in 1756 England declared war on France. 1756, January - the Anglo-Prussian alliance was concluded. In response, Prussia's main rival, Austria, decided to make peace with its longtime enemy France.
The Austrians wanted to regain Silesia, while the Prussians hoped to conquer Saxony. Sweden joined the Austro-French defensive alliance, hoping to recapture Stettin and other territories that were lost during the Great Northern War from Prussia. By the end of the year, Russia joined the Anglo-French coalition, hoping to conquer East Prussia in order to later transfer it to Poland in exchange for Courland and Zemgale. Prussia was supported by Hanover and several small North German states.
Progress of hostilities
1756 - invasion of Saxony
King Frederick II the Great of Prussia had a well-trained army of 150 thousand, at that time the best in Europe. 1756, August - he invaded Saxony with an army of 95 thousand people and inflicted a series of defeats on the Austrian army, which came to the aid of the Saxon elector. On October 15, the 20,000-strong Saxon army capitulated at Pirna, and its soldiers joined the ranks of the Prussian army. After this, the 50 thousand Austrian army left Saxony.
Attack on Bohemia, Silesia
1757, spring - the Prussian king invaded Bohemia with an army of 121.5 thousand people. At this time, the Russian army had not yet begun its invasion of East Prussia, and France was about to act against Magdeburg and Hanover. On May 6, near Prague, 64 thousand Prussians defeated 61 thousand Austrians. Both sides in this battle lost 31.5 thousand killed and wounded, and the Austrian troops also lost 60 guns. As a result, 50 thousand Austrians were blocked in the capital of the Czech Republic by the 60 thousand Prussian army. To relieve the blockade of Prague, the Austrians gathered from Colin a 54,000-strong army of General Down with 60 guns. She moved towards Prague. Frederick fielded 33 thousand people with 28 heavy guns against the Austrian troops.
Battles of Kolin, Rosbach and Leuthen
1757, June 17 - Prussian troops began to bypass the right flank of the Austrian position at Kolin from the north, but Daun was able to notice this maneuver in a timely manner and deployed his forces to the north. When the next day the Prussians launched an attack, delivering the main blow against the enemy's right flank, they were met with heavy fire. General Gülsen's Prussian infantry was able to occupy the village of Krzegory, but the tactically important oak grove behind it remained in Austrian hands.
Daun moved his reserve here. Finally, the main forces of the Prussians, concentrated on the left flank, could not withstand the rapid fire of enemy artillery, which fired grapeshot, and fled. Here the Austrian troops of the left flank went on the attack. Daun's cavalry pursued the defeated enemy for several kilometers. The remnants of the Prussian army retreated to Nimburg.
Down's victory was the result of a one-and-a-half-fold superiority of the Austrians in men and a two-fold superiority in artillery. Frederick's army lost 14 thousand killed, wounded and prisoners and almost all artillery, and the Austrians lost 8 thousand people. The Prussian king was forced to lift the siege of Prague and retreat to the Prussian border.

Prussia's strategic position seemed critical. Allied forces of up to 300 thousand people were deployed against the Prussian army. Frederick 2 decided to first defeat the French army, reinforced by the troops of the principalities allied with Austria, and then again invade Silesia.
The 45,000-strong Allied army took a position at Mücheln. Frederick, who had only 24 thousand soldiers, was able to lure the enemy out of the fortifications with a false retreat to the village of Rosbach. The French hoped to cut off the Prussian army from crossing the Saale River and defeat it.
1757, November 5, morning - the allies set out in three columns to bypass the enemy left flank. This maneuver was covered by an 8,000-strong detachment, which began a firefight with the Prussian vanguard. Frederick was able to unravel the enemy's plan and at half past three in the afternoon he ordered to break camp and simulate a retreat to Merseburg. The Allies attempted to intercept the escape route by sending their cavalry around Janus Hill. But it was unexpectedly attacked and defeated by the Prussian cavalry under the command of General Seydlitz.
At this time, under the cover of heavy fire from 18 artillery batteries, the Prussian infantry went on the offensive. The Allied infantry had to line up in battle formation under the enemy cannonballs. Soon she found herself under the threat of a flank attack from Seydlitz's squadrons, she wavered and ran. The French and their allies lost 7 thousand killed, wounded and prisoners and all their artillery - 67 guns and a convoy. The losses of the Prussian army were insignificant - only 540 killed and wounded. This affected both the qualitative superiority of the Prussian cavalry and artillery, as well as the mistakes of the allied command. The French commander-in-chief started a complex maneuver; as a result, most of the army was in marching columns and did not have the opportunity to take part in the battle. Frederick got the opportunity to beat the enemy piece by piece.
Meanwhile, the Prussian army in Silesia was defeated. Frederick rushed to their aid with 21 thousand infantry, 11 thousand cavalry and 167 guns. The Austrians settled near the village of Leuthen on the banks of the Weistrica River. They had 59 thousand infantry, 15 thousand cavalry and 300 guns. 1757, December 5, morning - the Prussian cavalry drove back the Austrian vanguard, depriving the enemy of the opportunity to observe Frederick's army. Therefore, the attack by the main forces of the Prussian army came as a complete surprise to the Austrian commander-in-chief, Duke Charles of Lorraine.
The Prussian king, as always, delivered the main blow on his right flank, but by the actions of the vanguard he attracted the enemy’s attention to the opposite wing. When Charles realized his true intentions and began to rebuild his army, the Austrian battle order was disrupted. Friedrich took advantage of this for a flank attack. The Prussian cavalry defeated the Austrian cavalry on the right flank and put it to flight. Seydlitz then attacked the Austrian infantry, which had previously been pushed back beyond Leuthen by the Prussian infantry. Only darkness saved the remnants of the Austrian army from complete destruction. The Austrians lost 6.5 thousand people killed and wounded and 21.5 thousand prisoners, as well as all the artillery and convoys. The losses of the Prussian army did not exceed 6 thousand people. Silesia was again under Prussian control.

East Prussia
Meanwhile, Russian troops began active hostilities. Back in the summer of 1757, a 65,000-strong Russian army under the command of Field Marshal S.F. Apraksin moved to Lithuania, intending to capture East Prussia. In August, the Russian army approached Koenigsberg.
On August 19, a 22,000-strong detachment of the Prussian general Lewald attacked the Russian army near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf, having no idea about the true number of the enemy, who was almost three times larger than him, or about his location. Instead of the left flank, Lewald found himself in front of the center of the Russian position. The regrouping of Prussian forces during the battle only worsened the situation. Lewald's right flank was overturned, which could not be compensated by the success of the left-flank Prussian troops, who captured the enemy battery, but did not have the opportunity to build on the success. Prussian losses amounted to 5 thousand killed and wounded and 29 guns, Russian losses reached 5.5 thousand people. Russian troops did not pursue the retreating enemy, and the battle at Gross-Jägersdorf was not decisive.
Unexpectedly, Apraksin gave the order to retreat, citing a lack of supplies and the separation of the army from its bases. The field marshal was accused of treason and put on trial. The only success was the capture of Memel by 9,000 Russian troops. This port was turned into the main base of the Russian fleet during the war.
1758 - the new commander-in-chief, Count V.V. Fermor, with an army of 70 thousand and 245 guns, was able to easily occupy East Prussia, captured Koenigsberg and continued the offensive to the west.
Battle of Zorndorf
In August, a general battle between Russian and Prussian troops took place near the village of Zorndorf. On the 14th, the Prussian king, who had 32 thousand soldiers and 116 guns, attacked Fermor’s army here, which had 42 thousand people and 240 guns. The Prussians managed to push back the Russian army, which retreated to Kalisz. Fermor lost 7 thousand killed, 10 thousand wounded, 2 thousand prisoners and 60 guns. Frederick's losses reached 4 thousand killed, more than 6 thousand wounded, 1.5 thousand prisoners. Frederick did not pursue Fermor's defeated army, but headed to Saxony.

1759 - Battle of Kunersdorf
1759 - Fermor was replaced by Field Marshal General Count P.S. Saltykov. By this time, the Allies had fielded 440 thousand people against Prussia, whom the Prussian king could oppose only 220 thousand. On June 26, the Russian army set out from Poznan to the Oder River. On July 23, in Frankfurt an der Oder, she united with the Austrian army. On July 31, the King of Prussia with a 48,000-strong army took a position near the village of Kunersdorf, expecting to meet here the combined Austro-Russian forces, which largely outnumbered his troops.
Saltykov's army numbered 41 thousand people, and the Austrian army of General Down - 18.5 thousand people. On August 1, the Prussians attacked the left flank of the Allied forces. Prussian troops managed to capture an important height here and set up a battery there, which rained fire on the center of the Russian army. The Prussians pressed the center and right flank of the Russians. But Saltykov was able to create a new front and launch a general counteroffensive. After a 7-hour battle, the Prussian army retreated across the Oder in disarray. Immediately after the battle, Frederick had only 3 thousand soldiers at hand, since the rest were scattered in the surrounding villages, and they had to be collected under the banners over the course of several days.
Frederick's army lost 18 thousand people killed and wounded, the Russians - 13 thousand, and the Austrians - 2 thousand. Due to large losses and fatigue of the soldiers, the Allies were unable to organize pursuit, which saved the Prussians from final defeat. After Kunersdorf, the Russian army, at the request of the Austrian emperor, was transferred to Silesia, where the Prussian army also suffered a number of defeats.
1760-1761
The campaign of 1760 proceeded sluggishly. It was not until the end of September that the raid on Berlin was launched. The first assault on the city, undertaken on the 22nd-23rd of the 5th thousand. by the detachment of General Totleben, ended in failure. Only with the approach of the 12 thousandth corps of General Chernyshev and the detachment of the Austrian General Lassi to the city, the Prussian capital was besieged by the 38 thousandth allied army (of which 24 thousand were Russian), which was 2.5 times larger than the number of the Prussian army concentrated near Berlin. The Prussians chose to leave the city without a fight. On September 28, the 4,000-strong garrison covering the retreat capitulated. In the city, 57 guns were captured and gunpowder factories and an arsenal were blown up. Because Frederick was in a hurry to Berlin with the main forces of the army, Field Marshal Saltykov gave the order to Chernyshev’s corps and other detachments to retreat. Berlin itself had no strategic significance.
The campaign of 1761 proceeded just as sluggishly as the previous one. In December, Rumyantsev's corps was captured by Kolberg.
The final stage. Results
The position of the Prussian king seemed hopeless, but Emperor Peter III, who replaced Empress Elizabeth Petrovna on the Russian throne at the beginning of 1762, admired the military genius of Frederick II, stopped the war and even concluded an alliance with Prussia on May 5. At the same time, after the destruction of its fleet by the British, France withdrew from the war, having suffered a number of defeats from the British in North America and India. True, in July 1762 Peter was overthrown on the orders of his wife Catherine II. She terminated the Russian-Prussian alliance, but did not continue the war. Excessive weakening of Prussia was not in Russia's interests, as it could lead to Austrian hegemony in Central Europe.
Austria was forced to conclude peace with Prussia on February 15, 1763. The King of Prussia was forced to renounce his claims to Saxony, but retained Silesia. Five days earlier, peace was concluded in Paris between England and France. The French lost their possessions in Canada and India, retaining only 5 Indian cities in their hands. The left bank of the Mississippi also passed from France to England, and the French were forced to cede the right bank of this river to the Spaniards, and they also had to pay compensation to the latter for Florida ceded to the British.
B. Sokolov

Progress of the Seven Years' War

The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a war between two coalitions for hegemony in Europe, as well as for colonial possessions in North America and India.

General political situation. Causes

One coalition included England and Prussia, the other included France, Austria and Russia. There was a struggle between England and France for colonies in North America. Clashes there began as early as 1754, and in 1756 England declared war on France. 1756, January - the Anglo-Prussian alliance was concluded. In response, Prussia's main rival, Austria, decided to make peace with its longtime enemy France.

The Austrians wanted to regain Silesia, while the Prussians hoped to conquer Saxony. Sweden joined the Austro-French defensive alliance, hoping to recapture Stettin and other territories that were lost during the Great Northern War from Prussia. By the end of the year, Russia joined the Anglo-French coalition, hoping to conquer East Prussia in order to later transfer it to Poland in exchange for Courland and Zemgale. Prussia was supported by Hanover and several small North German states.

Progress of hostilities

1756 - invasion of Saxony

The King of Prussia had a well-trained army of 150 thousand, at that time the best in Europe. 1756, August - he invaded Saxony with an army of 95 thousand people and inflicted a series of defeats on the Austrian army, which came to the aid of the Saxon elector. On October 15, the 20,000-strong Saxon army capitulated at Pirna, and its soldiers joined the ranks of the Prussian army. After this, the 50 thousand Austrian army left Saxony.

Attack on Bohemia, Silesia

1757, spring - the Prussian king invaded Bohemia with an army of 121.5 thousand people. At this time, the Russian army had not yet begun its invasion of East Prussia, and France was about to act against Magdeburg and Hanover. On May 6, near Prague, 64 thousand Prussians defeated 61 thousand Austrians. Both sides in this battle lost 31.5 thousand killed and wounded, and the Austrian troops also lost 60 guns. As a result, 50 thousand Austrians were blocked in the capital of the Czech Republic by the 60 thousand Prussian army. To relieve the blockade of Prague, the Austrians gathered from Colin a 54,000-strong army of General Down with 60 guns. She moved towards Prague. Frederick fielded 33 thousand people with 28 heavy guns against the Austrian troops.

Battles of Kolin, Rosbach and Leuthen

1757, June 17 - Prussian troops began to bypass the right flank of the Austrian position at Kolin from the north, but Daun was able to notice this maneuver in a timely manner and deployed his forces to the north. When the next day the Prussians launched an attack, delivering the main blow against the enemy's right flank, they were met with heavy fire. General Gülsen's Prussian infantry was able to occupy the village of Krzegory, but the tactically important oak grove behind it remained in Austrian hands.

Daun moved his reserve here. Finally, the main forces of the Prussians, concentrated on the left flank, could not withstand the rapid fire of enemy artillery, which fired grapeshot, and fled. Here the Austrian troops of the left flank went on the attack. Daun's cavalry pursued the defeated enemy for several kilometers. The remnants of the Prussian army retreated to Nimburg.

Down's victory was the result of a one-and-a-half-fold superiority of the Austrians in men and a two-fold superiority in artillery. Frederick's army lost 14 thousand killed, wounded and prisoners and almost all artillery, and the Austrians - 8 thousand people. The Prussian king was forced to lift the siege of Prague and retreat to the Prussian border.

Clockwise from top left: Battle of Plasse (23 June 1757); Battle of Carillon (July 6-8, 1758); Battle of Zorndorf (25 August 1758); Battle of Kunersdorf (12 August 1759)

Prussia's strategic position seemed critical. Allied forces of up to 300 thousand people were deployed against the Prussian army. Frederick 2 decided to first defeat the French army, reinforced by the troops of the principalities allied with Austria, and then again invade Silesia.

The 45,000-strong Allied army took a position at Mücheln. Frederick, who had only 24 thousand soldiers, was able to lure the enemy out of the fortifications with a false retreat to the village of Rosbach. The French hoped to cut off the Prussian army from crossing the Saale River and defeat it.

1757, November 5, morning - the allies set out in three columns to bypass the enemy left flank. This maneuver was covered by an 8,000-strong detachment, which began a firefight with the Prussian vanguard. Frederick was able to unravel the enemy's plan and at half past three in the afternoon he ordered to break camp and simulate a retreat to Merseburg. The Allies attempted to intercept the escape route by sending their cavalry around Janus Hill. But it was unexpectedly attacked and defeated by the Prussian cavalry under the command of General Seydlitz.

At this time, under the cover of heavy fire from 18 artillery batteries, the Prussian infantry went on the offensive. The Allied infantry had to line up in battle formation under the enemy cannonballs. Soon she found herself under the threat of a flank attack from Seydlitz's squadrons, she wavered and ran. The French and their allies lost 7 thousand killed, wounded and prisoners and all their artillery - 67 guns and a convoy. The losses of the Prussian army were insignificant - only 540 killed and wounded. This affected both the qualitative superiority of the Prussian cavalry and artillery, as well as the mistakes of the allied command. The French commander-in-chief started a complex maneuver; as a result, most of the army was in marching columns and did not have the opportunity to take part in the battle. Frederick got the opportunity to beat the enemy piece by piece.

Meanwhile, the Prussian army in Silesia was defeated. Frederick rushed to their aid with 21 thousand infantry, 11 thousand cavalry and 167 guns. The Austrians settled near the village of Leuthen on the banks of the Weistrica River. They had 59 thousand infantry, 15 thousand cavalry and 300 guns. 1757, December 5, morning - the Prussian cavalry drove back the Austrian vanguard, depriving the enemy of the opportunity to observe Frederick's army. Therefore, the attack by the main forces of the Prussian army came as a complete surprise to the Austrian commander-in-chief, Duke Charles of Lorraine.

The Prussian king, as always, delivered the main blow on his right flank, but by the actions of the vanguard he attracted the enemy’s attention to the opposite wing. When Charles realized his true intentions and began to rebuild his army, the Austrian battle order was disrupted. Friedrich took advantage of this for a flank attack. The Prussian cavalry defeated the Austrian cavalry on the right flank and put it to flight. Seydlitz then attacked the Austrian infantry, which had previously been pushed back beyond Leuthen by the Prussian infantry. Only darkness saved the remnants of the Austrian army from complete destruction. The Austrians lost 6.5 thousand people killed and wounded and 21.5 thousand prisoners, as well as all the artillery and convoys. The losses of the Prussian army did not exceed 6 thousand people. Silesia was again under Prussian control.

Frederick II the Great

East Prussia

Meanwhile, Russian troops began active hostilities. Back in the summer of 1757, a 65,000-strong Russian army under the command of Field Marshal S.F. Apraksin moved to Lithuania, intending to capture East Prussia. In August, the Russian army approached Koenigsberg.

On August 19, a 22,000-strong detachment of the Prussian general Lewald attacked the Russian army near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf, having no idea about the true number of the enemy, who was almost three times larger than him, or about his location. Instead of the left flank, Lewald found himself in front of the center of the Russian position. The regrouping of Prussian forces during the battle only worsened the situation. Lewald's right flank was overturned, which could not be compensated by the success of the left-flank Prussian troops, who captured the enemy battery, but did not have the opportunity to build on the success. Prussian losses amounted to 5 thousand killed and wounded and 29 guns, Russian losses reached 5.5 thousand people. Russian troops did not pursue the retreating enemy, and the battle at Gross-Jägersdorf was not decisive.

Unexpectedly, Apraksin gave the order to retreat, citing a lack of supplies and the separation of the army from its bases. The field marshal was accused of treason and put on trial. The only success was the capture of Memel by 9,000 Russian troops. This port was turned into the main base of the Russian fleet during the war.

1758 - the new commander-in-chief, Count V.V. Fermor, with an army of 70 thousand and 245 guns, was able to easily occupy East Prussia, captured Koenigsberg and continued the offensive to the west.

Battle of Zorndorf

In August, a general battle between Russian and Prussian troops took place near the village of Zorndorf. On the 14th, the Prussian king, who had 32 thousand soldiers and 116 guns, attacked Fermor’s army here, which had 42 thousand people and 240 guns. The Prussians managed to push back the Russian army, which retreated to Kalisz. Fermor lost 7 thousand killed, 10 thousand wounded, 2 thousand prisoners and 60 guns. Frederick's losses reached 4 thousand killed, more than 6 thousand wounded, 1.5 thousand prisoners. Frederick did not pursue Fermor's defeated army, but headed to Saxony.

Map of the Seven Years' War

1759 - Battle of Kunersdorf

1759 - Fermor was replaced by Field Marshal General Count P.S. Saltykov. By this time, the Allies had fielded 440 thousand people against Prussia, whom the Prussian king could oppose only 220 thousand. On June 26, the Russian army set out from Poznan to the Oder River. On July 23, in Frankfurt an der Oder, she united with the Austrian army. On July 31, the King of Prussia with a 48,000-strong army took a position near the village of Kunersdorf, expecting to meet here the combined Austro-Russian forces, which largely outnumbered his troops.

Saltykov's army numbered 41 thousand people, and the Austrian army of General Down - 18.5 thousand people. On August 1, the Prussians attacked the left flank of the Allied forces. Prussian troops managed to capture an important height here and set up a battery there, which rained fire on the center of the Russian army. The Prussians pressed the center and right flank of the Russians. But Saltykov was able to create a new front and launch a general counteroffensive. After a 7-hour battle, the Prussian army retreated across the Oder in disarray. Immediately after the battle, Frederick had only 3 thousand soldiers at hand, since the rest were scattered in the surrounding villages, and they had to be collected under the banners over the course of several days.

Frederick's army lost 18 thousand people killed and wounded, the Russians - 13 thousand, and the Austrians - 2 thousand. Due to large losses and fatigue of the soldiers, the Allies were unable to organize pursuit, which saved the Prussians from final defeat. After Kunersdorf, the Russian army, at the request of the Austrian emperor, was transferred to Silesia, where the Prussian army also suffered a number of defeats.

1760-1761

The campaign of 1760 proceeded sluggishly. It was not until the end of September that the raid on Berlin was launched. The first assault on the city, undertaken on the 22nd–23rd of the 5th thousand. by the detachment of General Totleben, ended in failure. Only with the approach of the 12 thousandth corps of General Chernyshev and the detachment of the Austrian General Lassi to the city, the Prussian capital was besieged by the 38 thousandth allied army (of which 24 thousand were Russian), which was 2.5 times larger than the number of the Prussian army concentrated near Berlin. The Prussians chose to leave the city without a fight. On September 28, the 4,000-strong garrison covering the retreat capitulated. In the city, 57 guns were captured and gunpowder factories and an arsenal were blown up. Because Frederick was in a hurry to Berlin with the main forces of the army, Field Marshal Saltykov gave the order to Chernyshev’s corps and other detachments to retreat. Berlin itself had no strategic significance.

The campaign of 1761 proceeded just as sluggishly as the previous one. In December, Rumyantsev's corps was captured by Kolberg.

The final stage. Results

The position of the Prussian king seemed hopeless, but the emperor who replaced the Russian throne at the beginning of 1762, who admired the military genius of Frederick II, stopped the war and even concluded an alliance with Prussia on May 5. At the same time, after the destruction of its fleet by the British, France withdrew from the war, having suffered a number of defeats from the British in North America and India. True, in July 1762 Peter was overthrown on the orders of his wife. She terminated the Russian-Prussian alliance, but did not continue the war. Excessive weakening of Prussia was not in Russia's interests, as it could lead to Austrian hegemony in Central Europe.

Austria was forced to conclude peace with Prussia on February 15, 1763. The King of Prussia was forced to renounce his claims to Saxony, but retained Silesia. Five days earlier, peace was concluded in Paris between England and France. The French lost their possessions in Canada and India, retaining only 5 Indian cities in their hands. The left bank of the Mississippi also passed from France to England, and the French were forced to cede the right bank of this river to the Spaniards, and they also had to pay compensation to the latter for Florida ceded to the British.