The results of Britain's participation in World War II were mixed. The country retained its independence and made a significant contribution to the victory over fascism, at the same time it lost its role as a world leader and came close to losing its colonial status.
Political games
British military historiography often likes to remind us that the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 actually gave the German military machine a free hand. At the same time, the Munich Agreement, signed by England together with France, Italy and Germany a year earlier, is being ignored in Foggy Albion. The result of this conspiracy was the division of Czechoslovakia, which, according to many researchers, was the prelude to World War II.
On September 30, 1938, in Munich, Great Britain and Germany signed another agreement - a declaration of mutual non-aggression - which was the culmination of the British “policy of appeasement”. Hitler quite easily managed to convince British Prime Minister Arthur Chamberlain that the Munich Agreements would be a guarantee of security in Europe.
Historians believe that Britain had high hopes for diplomacy, with the help of which it hoped to rebuild the Versailles system in crisis, although already in 1938 many politicians warned peacemakers: “Concessions to Germany will only embolden the aggressor!”
Chamberlain, returning to London, said at the plane's steps: “I brought peace to our generation,” to which Winston Churchill, then a parliamentarian, prophetically remarked: “England was offered a choice between war and dishonor. She chose dishonor and will get war.”
"Strange War"
On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. On the same day, Chamberlain's government sent a note of protest to Berlin, and on September 3, Great Britain, as the guarantor of Poland's independence, declared war on Germany. Over the next ten days, the entire British Commonwealth will join it.
By mid-October, the British transported four divisions to the continent and took up positions along the Franco-Belgian border. Odanko, the section between the cities of Mold and Bayel, which is a continuation of the Maginot Line, was located far from the epicenter of hostilities. Here the Allies created more than 40 airfields, but instead of bombing German positions, British aviation began scattering propaganda leaflets appealing to the morality of the Germans.
In the following months, six more British divisions arrived in France, but neither the British nor the French were in a hurry to take active action. This is how the “strange war” was waged. Chief of the British General Staff Edmund Ironside described the situation as follows: “Passive waiting with all the worries and anxieties that follow from this.”
French writer Roland Dorgeles recalled how the Allies calmly watched the movement of German ammunition trains: “Obviously, the main concern of the high command was not to disturb the enemy.”
Historians have no doubt that the “Phantom War” is explained by the wait-and-see attitude of the Allies. Both Great Britain and France had to understand where German aggression would turn after the capture of Poland. It is possible that if the Wehrmacht had immediately launched an invasion of the USSR after the Polish campaign, the Allies could have supported Hitler.
Miracle at Dunkirk
On May 10, 1940, according to Plan Gelb, Germany launched an invasion of Holland, Belgium and France. The political games are over. Churchill, who took office as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, soberly assessed the enemy’s forces. As soon as German troops took control of Boulogne and Calais, he decided to evacuate parts of the British Expeditionary Force that were trapped in the pocket at Dunkirk, and with them the remnants of the French and Belgian divisions. 693 British and about 250 French ships under the command of English Rear Admiral Bertram Ramsay planned to transport about 350,000 coalition troops across the English Channel.
Military experts had little faith in the success of the operation under the sonorous name “Dynamo”. The advance detachment of the 19th Panzer Corps under the command of Colonel General of the German troops Heinz Guderian was located a few kilometers from Dunkirk and, if desired, could easily defeat the demoralized allies. But a miracle happened: 337,131 soldiers, most of whom were British, reached the opposite bank almost without interference.
Hitler unexpectedly stopped the advance of the German troops. Guderian called this decision purely political. Historians differ in their assessment of the controversial episode of the war. Some believe that the Fuhrer wanted to save his strength, but others are confident in a secret agreement between the British and German governments.
One way or another, after the Dunkirk disaster, Britain remained the only country that avoided complete defeat and was able to resist the seemingly invincible German machine. On June 10, 1940, England's position became threatening when fascist Italy entered the war on the side of Nazi Germany.
Battle of Britain
Germany's plans to force Great Britain to surrender have not been canceled. In July 1940, British coastal convoys and naval bases were subjected to massive bombing by the German Air Force. In August, the Luftwaffe switched to airfields and aircraft factories.
On August 24, German aircraft carried out their first bombing attack on central London. According to some, it is wrong. The retaliatory attack was not long in coming. A day later, 81 RAF bombers flew to Berlin. No more than a dozen reached the target, but this was enough to infuriate Hitler. At a meeting of the German command in Holland, it was decided to unleash the full power of the Luftwaffe on the British Isles.
Within weeks, the skies over British cities turned into a boiling cauldron. Birmingham, Liverpool, Bristol, Cardiff, Coventry, Belfast got it. During the whole of August, at least a thousand British citizens died. However, from mid-September the intensity of the bombing began to decrease due to the effective counteraction of British fighter aircraft.
The Battle of Britain is better characterized by numbers. In total, 2,913 British Air Force aircraft and 4,549 Luftwaffe aircraft were involved in air battles. Historians estimate the losses of both sides at 1,547 Royal Air Force fighters and 1,887 German aircraft shot down.
Lady of the Seas
It is known that after the successful bombing of England, Hitler intended to launch Operation Sea Lion to invade the British Isles. However, the desired air superiority was not achieved. In turn, the Reich military command was skeptical about the landing operation. According to German generals, the strength of the German army lay precisely on land, and not at sea.
Military experts were confident that Britain's ground army was no stronger than the broken Armed Forces of France and Germany had every chance of defeating the United Kingdom's troops in a ground operation. The English military historian Liddell Hart noted that England managed to hold out only due to the water barrier.
In Berlin they realized that the German fleet was noticeably inferior to the English. For example, by the beginning of the war, the British Navy had seven operational aircraft carriers and six more on the slipway, while Germany was never able to equip at least one of its aircraft carriers. In the open seas, the presence of carrier-based aircraft could predetermine the outcome of any battle.
The German submarine fleet was only able to inflict serious damage on British merchant ships. However, by sinking 783 German submarines with US support, the British Navy won the Battle of the Atlantic. Until February 1942, the Fuhrer hoped to conquer England from the sea, until the commander of the Kriegsmarine (German Navy), Admiral Erich Raeder, finally convinced him to abandon this idea.
Colonial interests
At the beginning of 1939, the British Chiefs of Staff recognized the defense of Egypt with its Suez Canal as one of the most important strategic tasks. Hence the special attention of the Kingdom's Armed Forces to the Mediterranean theater of operations.
Unfortunately, the British had to fight not at sea, but in the desert. May-June 1942 turned out for England, according to historians, as a “shameful defeat” near Tobruk from Erwin Rommel’s Afrika Korps. And this despite the British having twice the superiority in strength and technology!
The British were able to turn the tide of the North African campaign only in October 1942 at the Battle of El Alamein. Again having a significant advantage (for example, in aviation 1200:120), the British Expeditionary Force of General Montgomery managed to defeat a group of 4 German and 8 Italian divisions under the command of Rommel.
Churchill remarked about this battle: “Before El Alamein we did not win a single victory. We haven't suffered a single defeat since El Alamein." By May 1943, British and American troops forced the 250,000-strong Italian-German group in Tunisia to capitulate, which opened the way for the Allies to Italy. In North Africa, the British lost about 220 thousand soldiers and officers.
And again Europe
On June 6, 1944, with the opening of the Second Front, British troops had the opportunity to rehabilitate themselves for their shameful flight from the continent four years earlier. The overall leadership of the allied ground forces was entrusted to the experienced Montgomery. By the end of August, the total superiority of the Allies had crushed German resistance in France.
Events unfolded in a different vein in December 1944 near the Ardennes, when a German armored group literally pushed through the lines of American troops. In the Ardennes meat grinder, the US Army lost over 19 thousand soldiers, the British - no more than two hundred.
This ratio of losses led to disagreements in the Allied camp. American generals Bradley and Patton threatened to resign if Montgomery did not leave leadership of the army. Montgomery's self-confident statement at a press conference on January 7, 1945, that it was British troops who saved the Americans from the prospect of encirclement, jeopardized the further joint operation. Only thanks to the intervention of the commander in chief of the allied forces, Dwight Eisenhower, was the conflict resolved.
By the end of 1944, the Soviet Union had liberated large parts of the Balkan Peninsula, which caused serious concern in Britain. Churchill, who did not want to lose control over the important Mediterranean region, proposed to Stalin a division of the sphere of influence, as a result of which Moscow got Romania, London - Greece.
In fact, with the tacit consent of the USSR and the USA, Great Britain suppressed the resistance of the Greek communist forces and on January 11, 1945, established complete control over Attica. It was then that a new enemy clearly loomed on the horizon of British foreign policy. “In my eyes, the Soviet threat had already replaced the Nazi enemy,” Churchill recalled in his memoirs.
According to the 12-volume History of the Second World War, Great Britain and its colonies lost 450,000 people in World War II. Britain's expenses for waging the war amounted to more than half of foreign investment, and the Kingdom's external debt reached 3 billion pounds sterling by the end of the war. The UK paid off all its debts only by 2006.
Text of the presentation “USA and Great Britain during the Second World War”
The war ended many years ago, but the memory of this great victory will be eternal. Many books have been written dedicated to the events of the Second World War, films have been and continue to be made about significant battles and legendary heroes. But the most important thing that prevents us from forgetting the names of those who fought against Nazi Germany is, of course, the monuments. Almost every city, every village in our country has an “eternal flame”. It has continued to burn since the war ended, in memory of the soldiers who gave their lives for the future of their country, for the future of its inhabitants, for our future. Monuments to the heroes of the Second World War are erected in every country that took part in it. Today I would like to talk to you about the participation of the USA and Great Britain in the events of those years, and of course talk about the monuments that exist in these countries.
Presentation
On the morning of December 7, 1941441 Japanese aircraft, taking off from six aircraft carriers, attacked the American military base at Pearl Harbor, located on the island of Oahu in the Hawaiian Island chain. As a result of the Japanese attack, the American battle fleet was sunk. The result of the attack was, on the one hand, the Japanese gaining supremacy at sea; on the other hand, the entry of the United States into World War II. The Americans lost 2,403 people. Six hours after the attack, American warships and submarineswas ordered to begin military operations in the ocean against Japan. President Rooseveltmade a speech to Congress and declared war on Japan.
- On December 10, 1941, the Japanese launched an invasion of the Philippines, and captured them by April 1942, most of the American and Philippine troops were captured.
- 1942-1943 Americans liberate the Solomon Islands, New Britain, and Marshall Islands from Japanese occupation.
- During the spring of 1944Americans liberated most of New Guinea
- June 15, 1944 Americans landed on the island of Saipan. The Japanese put up fierce resistance, but by July 9 they were defeated. During the summer of 1944, the Mariana Islands were completely captured and bombing of Japan itself began from their airfields, since the distance was already sufficient for the operation of American B-29 bombers Superfortress.
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- In 1945 US Marines landed on Iwo Jima, where the Japanese put up very strong resistance. Island by March 26, 1945was captured. On April 1, American troops landed on the island of Okinawa.. The battles on both islands ended with the almost complete destruction of Japanese troops.
- In July 1945 The Allies presented an ultimatum to Japan, but it refused to capitulate. August 6, 1945American B-29 bomberThe Superfortress dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, and on August 9 on Nagasaki, causing enormous destruction - and on August 15, Emperor Hirohito announced Japan's unconditional surrender.
USA…They have a lot of successful operations under their belt. But they fought on foreign territories. Not a single German soldier set foot on their soil. Not a single bomb fell on their territory. However, Americans sincerely believe that it was their country, the United States, that defeated Germany. And they do not know that the military operation in the Ardennes, which was very poorly prepared, would have failed if not for the offensive operation of the Soviet troops. Here Roosevelt was helped by Stalin - the USSR.
During the entire Second World War, the United States, England, and France destroyed only 14% of the armed forces of Nazi Germany and its satellites. Thus, the combat losses of Germany and its satellites amount to 7 million 51 thousand people, i.e. 86% of the losses of Germany and its satellites occur on the Eastern Front.
7. Great Britain participated in World War IIfrom its very beginning on September 1, 1939 ( September 3, 1939 Great Britain declared war) and until its very end ( September 2, 1945 year), until the day of signing the surrender Japan.
Great Britain At first it very successfully resisted Hitler, especially in the air. The German Air Force suffered heavy losses. However, today “for some reason” few people remember and few people know that already at the end of May 1940, Great Britain was on the verge of surrender.
This was one of Hitler's most brilliant operations. On May 21, the Germans reached the shores of the English Channel, cutting off the main forces of the British and French and preparing for their complete destruction. And suddenly on May 24, when Guderian’s tanks were already rushing towards Dunkirk - the last port remaining in the hands of the Allies, a strange order from Hitler, still not explained by historians, came to the troops: “Stop the attack on Dunkirk. Hold the English Channel coast." Guderian and his officers were speechless. Hitler himself stopped the hammer that was supposed to crush the British who found themselves on the Dunkirk anvil. Meanwhile, the British, taking advantage of the unexpected respite, began to hastily evacuate from Dunkirk, using hundreds of large and small ships, including yachts and boats. Only on May 26, Hitler allowed the offensive to continue, but it was too late - the British dug in, prepared for defense, and held Dunkirk until the morning of June 4, giving almost 340 thousand British and French the opportunity to escape. Hitler himself inadvertently prevented the inevitable surrender of Great Britain and allowed it to continue the war until May 8, 1945, when the Third Reich fell, without using his chance to destroy the British army at Dunkirk in May 1940.
8. Results of the war
Now about the price that each country paid for the general and “its” share of the Victory.
The United States suffered relatively small casualties, and its material losses included only military equipment. During the 6 years of World War II, the United States lost 259 thousand people killed (according to other sources - 322 thousand), 800 thousand wounded, captured and missing. The United States was the only belligerent country that profited from the war: its annual income increased compared to the pre-war level (in comparable prices) by 1.5 times. During the war, they expanded their production base, created a powerful military-industrial complex and an extensive military intelligence service (CIA) that was not constrained by funds. And no losses from destruction during the war. The United States was the only country that, as a result of the war, strengthened its economic, political and military positions in the world. The index of industrial production in 1944 reached 235 (in 1935–1939 - 100). In 1946, the United States provided 62% of all industrial output of the capitalist world, compared to 36% in 1938. The profits of American corporations during the war years increased 3.5 times.
The international prestige of the United States also increased qualitatively, however, not due to brilliant military victories, but due to the sale of weapons and the demonstration in the last days of the war of the effect of new barbaric weapons (two bombs - and there are no two cities with a population of 0.5 million people), there was no longer any military need to use it.
Great Britain lost 386 thousand people killed. The cost of destruction is $6.8 billion.
The international prestige of England and France has declined significantly. They lost their colonial possessions, fell into debt bondage to the United States, and England suffered significant damage from German bombing and rocket attacks, and France was devastated by the German occupation. Essentially, they have lost their status as great powers.
All European countries, except England and those that declared themselves supposedly neutral, were occupied by Germany with all the ensuing consequences.
In every country there were people whose exploits we still remember, people who single-handedly made a tangible contribution to the victory over Germany and its allies. In our country, everyone knows the name of the Soviet pilot Alexei Maresyev.
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Maresyev Alexey Petrovich (Hero of the Soviet Union) 20.5.1916 - 18.5.2001
Maresyev Alexey Petrovichfighter pilot. Born on May 20, 1916 in the city of Kamyshin, Volgograd Region, into a working-class family. Russian by nationality. At the age of three he was left without a father, who died shortly after returning from the First World War. After graduating from the 8th grade of high school, Alexey entered the federal educational institution, where he received a specialty as a mechanic. Then he applied to the Moscow Aviation Institute, but instead of the institute, he went on a Komsomol voucher to build Komsomolsk-on-Amur. There he sawed wood in the taiga, built barracks, and then the first residential areas. At the same time he studied at the flying club. He was drafted into the Soviet army in 1937.
He made his first combat mission on August 23, 1941 in the Krivoy Rog area. Lieutenant Maresyev opened his combat account at the beginning of 1942 - he shot down a Ju-52. By the end of March 1942, he brought the number of downed fascist planes to four. On April 4, in an air battle over the Demyansk bridgehead (Novgorod region), Maresyev’s fighter was shot down. He attempted to land on the ice of a frozen lake, but released his landing gear early. The plane began to quickly lose altitude and fell into the forest. For 18 days, Maresyev crawled to reach his own people. His feet were frostbitten and they had to be amputated. However, the pilot decided not to give up. When he received prosthetics, he trained long and hard and got permission to return to duty. I learned to fly again in the 11th reserve air brigade in Ivanovo.
In June 1943, Maresyev returned to duty. He fought on the Kursk Bulge as part of the 63rd Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment and was deputy squadron commander. In August 1943, during one battle, Alexey Maresyev shot down three enemy FW-190 fighters at once.
On August 24, 1943, by Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, Guard Senior Lieutenant Maresyev was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.
Later he fought in the Baltic states and became a regiment navigator. In 1944 he joined the CPSU. In total, he made 86 combat missions and shot down 11 enemy aircraft. In June 1944, Guard Major Maresyev became an inspector-pilot of the Air Force Office of Higher Educational Institutions.
In July 1946, Maresyev was honorably discharged from the Air Force. In 1952, he graduated from the Higher Party School under the CPSU Central Committee, in 1956, he completed graduate school at the Academy of Social Sciences under the CPSU Central Committee, and received the title of Candidate of Historical Sciences. In the same year, he became the executive secretary of the Soviet War Veterans Committee, and in 1983 - first deputy chairman of the committee. He worked in this position until the last day of his life.
Retired Colonel A.P. Maresyev was awarded two Orders of Lenin, Orders of the October Revolution, Red Banner, Patriotic War 1st degree, two Orders of the Red Banner of Labor, Orders of Friendship of Peoples, Red Star, Badge of Honor, "For Services to the Fatherland" 3rd degree, medals, foreign orders. He was an honorary soldier of a military unit, an honorary citizen of the cities of Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Kamyshin, and Orel. A minor planet of the solar system, a public foundation, and youth patriotic clubs are named after him. He was elected as a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
Even during the war, Boris Polevoy’s book “The Tale of a Real Man” was published, the prototype of which was Maresyev (the author changed only one letter in his last name). In 1948, based on the book at Mosfilm, director Alexander Stolper made a film of the same name. Maresyev was even offered to play the main role himself, but he refused and this role was played by professional actor Pavel Kadochnikov.
On May 18, 2001, a gala evening was planned at the Russian Army Theater to mark Maresyev’s 85th birthday, but an hour before the start, Alexei Petrovich suffered a heart attack. He was taken to the intensive care unit of one of the Moscow clinics, where he died without regaining consciousness. The gala evening still took place, but it began with a minute of silence.
11. A monument to him was erected in Maresyev’s hometown.
12. Little known in Russia is the fact that in the ranks of the Royal Air Force (RAF) a pilot fought with a fate similar to that of the Soviet pilot Alexei Maresyev - Douglas Robert Stewart Bader did not have both legs. Douglas Bader was born on February 10, 1910 in London. The disaster occurred on December 14, 1931. While demonstrating aerobatics at extremely low altitude, Bader crashed into the ground. As a result of his injuries, his right leg was amputated above the knee, and his left leg was amputated 6 inches below the knee. Bader recovered from severe wounds and even more severe operations, but was discharged from the Royal Air Force.
All of Bader's attempts to return to aviation before the outbreak of World War II ended in failure. He succeeded only after it began and on November 27, 1939, he made the first independent flight on a training aircraft.
Bader is not only returning to action. In a fairly short period, Bader shot down 22 German aircraft (confirmed victories), which placed him among the best British aces of the time. Lieutenant Colonel Douglas Bader becomes the commander of a fighter wing and the developer of tactics for the massive use of fighter aircraft. That is, he is not only a brilliant pilot, but also an outstanding commander.
To an outside observer it might seem that Bader was completely devoid of nerves. This man, wearing a black flight suit and a blue and white scarf, calmly climbed into the cockpit and put his pipe in his pocket, as if he was getting ready to go on a picnic.
New Spitfire Vb, received instead of the old Mark II. Vb had a higher speed and rate of climb, and most importantly, a 20-mm cannon was mounted in each wing. This delighted everyone except Bader. Quite suddenly he turned into a die-hard conservative. Bader argued that guns were a bad solution because pilots would tend to fire from a long distance instead of trying to get closer. This time he was wrong. However, nothing could convince him. Almost the entire squadron had already transferred to new aircraft, but Bader stubbornly refused to transfer to a new aircraft. The accepted distribution was absolutely correct - the commander should fly the slowest aircraft, because it is he who sets the speed of the connection, and the rest of the pilots should be able to freely stay close to him without forcing their engines. Not all wing commanders acted this way, although Bader's behavior here was absolutely correct. Finally he switched to a new plane, but... to a Spitfire Va, armed with machine guns!
In the last battle with a large group of enemy fighters, a Messer crashed into Bader’s plane and simply chopped off the tail with its propeller. Bader was captured and did not fight until the end of the war.
Having learned about the captivity, Fighter Command found an opportunity to give Bader new prosthetics - the old ones were damaged when leaving the plane.
The fighting spirit of Bader is admirable, who, after being released from captivity, is trying to get a Spitfire in order to have time to make at least a couple more sorties. Therefore, his well-deserved reward was the command of an air parade over London in honor of the victory.
In February 1946, Bader resigns and returns to work for Shell, where he continues to fly around the world. At the same time, he repeatedly visits hospitals for war veterans. In 1976, Queen Elizabeth II knighted Bader for his work on behalf of the disabled, "many of whom were inspired by his personal example." Colonel Sir Douglas Bader died on 5 September 1982 from a heart attack during a golf tournament in Ayrshire.
13. Bader’s exploits were so significant for Great Britain that a monument was erected to him in his homeland.
Monuments to war heroes exist in all countries that took part in World War II. In our country, in every city and almost every village there is an eternal flame that never goes out in memory of the soldiers who gave their lives for their country, for their Motherland.
Now I want to introduce you to the monuments that you can see in cities in the UK and the USA.
14. Opening ceremony of the monument to "Women in World War II"
The opening ceremony of the monument to “Women in the Second World War” took place in central London, which was attended by Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain, as well as Margaret Thatcher and singer Vera Lynn, July 9, 2005.
15. memorial opened on May 9, 1999. The monument itself, the work of the Russian sculptor Sergei Shcherbakov, is a three-meter bronze monument in the form of a woman bowing her head, above which there is a freely suspended bell, and at the foot of the monument there is a granite slab with words of memory. Every year, on May 9, surviving veterans, representatives of states of different countries, as well as everyone who wants to pay tribute to the memory of this Great Victory lay flowers at the monument
16. On the banks of the Thames there is a monument to the pilots who defended Britain in the Second World War.
17. Not only people, but also animals died in the war. It was impossible to do without horses and dogs at that time. And their contribution is also noted in monuments and monuments.
Here is a monument to horses carrying heavy weapons on their backs.
In November 2004, a monument to all the animals that fought alongside humans was unveiled in London.
18. “Animals at war. This monument is dedicated to all those animals who fought and died alongside British soldiers and their allies throughout time. U they had no choice."
21. Inscription on the pedestal : In memory of the men and women of the United States coast guard who served their country in the second world war."In memory of the men and women of the United States Coast Guard who served their country in World War II 1941-1945"
High CommandIn 1939 the British Army consisted of the Regular (Regular Army) and Territorial Armies (Territorial Army), in addition, the strength of the armed forces could be increased by reservists. As of April 1939, there were 224,000 people in the Regular Army, 325,000 in the Territorial Army (plus another 96,000 in the territorial air defense units). Thus, a total of 645,000 people were “under arms.” A call for recruits was issued in June, and the first civilians were drafted into the army the following month. These recruits, not yet trained, were intended to fill all three branches of the military, were called militia, and by the beginning of the war their number was about 34,000. The strength of the Territorial Army increased by 36,000, and the Army Reserve (Army Reserve) and Auxiliary Reserve (Supplementary Reserve) increased to 150,000 people. Immediately after the outbreak of war in September, the National Conscription Act was issued, according to which the strength of all ground forces (Regular and Territorial Armies, as well as militia) was to be 897,000, and all able-bodied men between the ages of 18 and 41 years old were declared subject to conscription.
Note: All data from post-war sources; the data given in pre-war sources or wartime publications is usually much higher. Data for the Metropolitan Guard are given for comparison, since from August 1940 Guard units were included in county regiments. It should be borne in mind that by 1943 the average age of soldiers of the Metropolitan Guard did not reach 30 years, which contradicts the idea of it as an “army of fathers”, consisting of old people and unfit for combat service. In fact, the Metropolitan Guard provided pre-conscription training for young people 17–18 years old.
War Cabinet (War Cabinet) formed by Prime Minister Chamberlain on September 1, 1939, became the highest governing body of the country and all three branches of the military. Three ministries of the armed forces were directly subordinate to the Prime Minister: the Admiralty, the War Ministry and the Ministry of Aviation, as well as the Minister for Defense Coordination. Winston Churchill, appointed Prime Minister on May 10, 1940, immediately formed an internal War Cabinet, appointed himself Minister of Defense and began to directly lead the commanders of the armed forces, bypassing the other War Cabinet ministers. However, the Admiralty, the War Ministry and the Air Ministry were still headed by their respective ministers. Responsibility for the British Army was given to the War Office (War Office) which, in turn, was divided into Army departments, districts and commands (Army Departments, Districts, Commands). London and Northern Ireland were allocated into districts, and the commands (Scottish, Northern, Western, Eastern, Southern, South-Eastern and Air Defense) were placed under the control of the Commander-in-Chief of Home Forces. The commands had a fractional structure, divided into regions. The Northern Irish District was under the control of the Commander-in-Chief of British Forces in Northern Ireland. By the beginning of the war or a little later, the following Commands were formed in the colonies: Middle Eastern, Maltese, West African, East African, Persia and Iraq, Supreme Headquarters of India, Western (Indian), Northern (Indian), Central (Indian), Ceylon and Malaya.
During the liberation of Europe in 1944, command was exercised by the Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Forces (SHAEF), subordinate to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was in charge of all armed forces of all national contingents. The ground forces were commanded by General Bernard Montgomery, who led the 21st Army Group. The group included the British 2nd Army and the American 1st Army. At the army group level, there were such specific units as officer uniform stores, mobile laundries and bath units, etc.: they were subordinate to the lower echelons controlled by the army group. As mentioned, as the American 3rd Army's activities developed in France, the American 1st Army was transferred to the 12th American Army Group, and its place in the 21st Army Group was taken by the 1st Canadian Army.
During the Second World War, seven British armies were formed, numbered 1st, 2nd, 8th, 9th, 10th, 12th and 14th. Of these, only the 2nd Army operated in Northwestern Europe. The 2nd Army was formed in the United Kingdom in June 1943 in preparation for the liberation of Europe. Its emblem was a blue cross on a white shield, with two golden crusader swords superimposed on the cross, hilts up. Operating under the command of Lieutenant General Sir Miles Dempsey, the 2nd Army in Normandy included the I, VIII, XII and XXX Corps.
Normandy, 1944. British tank column, possibly from the 17th Armored Division, including Cromwell and Sherman Firefly tanks. The 17-pounder guns mounted on the Firefly were the only Allied weapons that allowed them to fight on equal terms with the German Panthers and Tigers. As they arrived, these tanks were distributed one to each squadron of four vehicles. The increase in production by the end of the war led to the fact that most squadrons already had two Fireflies.
In 1944, the typical British army force consisted of four corps, each with two infantry and one armored divisions, as well as units attached to the corps. This theoretical composition often changed depending on the tasks assigned to the army. For example, during the operations in Normandy in July - August 1944, the VIII Corps was "heavily armored", including the 11th and Guards Armored Divisions, the 6th Guards Tank Brigade and only one infantry division, the 15th (Scottish).
At all higher levels (army and corps), attached units could include independent infantry or armored brigades; units of field, medium, heavy, anti-aircraft and anti-tank artillery; The Royal Engineers, the Royal Signalmen, the Royal Army Artillery Corps, the Royal Army Auxiliary Corps, the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, and the Royal Army Medical Corps all provided support to lower formations and units when required.
Infantry DivisionNumbered infantry divisions (later sometimes they were designated by names based on the name of a particular locality, although this practice did not have much significance) were the main combat formation at the disposal of the corps commander. In 1939, the nominal strength of the division was 13,863 military personnel of all ranks; by 1944 it had increased to 18,348. A typical division united three numbered infantry brigades of three battalions.
The division headquarters was assigned divisional units, which operated in the same way as at the corps level. These included various units, such as Military Police companies, the Royal Engineers Postal Service, etc. Also directly subordinate to the division command was either a medium machine gun battalion or a support battalion, equipped with both machine guns and heavy mortars (usually these battalions were distributed among infantry brigades). For example, in the 15th (Scottish) Division, the 1st Battalion of the Middlesex Regiment from October 1943 to March 1944 included support units and was therefore called a machine gun battalion.
The reconnaissance units of the division successively changed several names. At the beginning of the war they were called divisional cavalry regiments, but from January 1944 they received the designation of reconnaissance regiments of the Royal Armored Corps, which had divisional numbering. Thus, the 15th (Scottish) Division had the 15th Reconnaissance Regiment of the Royal Armored Corps. It will be recalled that in the British Army the term "regiment" had at least three different meanings. In cavalry (and the armored forces that arose from it) and artillery, a “regiment” was understood as a military unit numerically equal to an infantry battalion - that is, under the command of a lieutenant colonel there were from 700 to 800 military personnel in three or four units designated by numbers or letters (“squadrons”) "or "batteries"), divided into numbered cavalry platoons (troops).
Somewhere on the Western Front in 1939 or 1940, a crew of a 40mm Bofors anti-aircraft gun awaits a Luftwaffe raid. New uniforms and equipment were being supplied to Royal Artillery units on a second basis, but the service uniform shown here will soon be replaced here too. The excellent Bofors automatic guns, loaded with clips of four shells weighing 0.9 kg, could provide a rate of fire of up to 120 rounds per minute and a fire distance of up to 10,000 meters. They were in large numbers in service with light anti-aircraft regiments of infantry and armored divisions - nine squadrons of six guns.
Divisional artillery typically included three Royal Artillery field regiments (eighteen 25-pounder guns), an anti-tank regiment (forty-eight 6- or 17-pounder guns) and a light anti-aircraft regiment (fifty-four 40 mm guns). For example, in 1944 the 15th (Scottish) Division had the 131st, 181st and 190th Field, 97th Anti-Tank and 119th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiments of the Royal Artillery.
Although initially the infantry brigades were numbered sequentially, the realities of the war required the transfer of brigades from one division to another. As a result, in 1944 the same 15th (Scottish) Division included the 44th, 46th and 227th Infantry Brigades. The brigade structure was based on three infantry battalions, to which the divisional headquarters attached a medium machine gun company, an anti-tank battery, a field regiment of the Royal Artillery, a field company of the Royal Engineers, a transport company of the Royal Military Auxiliary Corps, a field hospital of the Royal Medical Corps and a field workshop of the Royal Mechanical Engineers and electricians. When carrying out major offensive operations, infantry divisions were assigned separate tank brigades of three regiments; one tank squadron of each regiment was assigned to infantry battalions.
Infantry battalionBritish infantry regiment (eg His Majesty's Own Scottish Borderers - The King's Own Scottish Borderers) had mainly “tribal” rather than tactical significance. The history of the regiment could be long, usually reaching 250 years. The regiment was an administrative unit that ensured the replenishment of personnel and property of numbered battalions. The soldiers of each regiment were distinguished by specific elements of their uniform. Individual numbered battalions of a regiment were combined (as a rule, separately) with battalions of other regiments into tactical brigades. So, in 1944, the 44th Infantry Brigade of the 15th (Scottish) Division consisted of the 8th Battalion of the Royal Scots (8th Ch Royal Scots), 6th Battalion His Majesty's Own Scottish Borderers and 6th Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers (6th Ch Royal Scots Fusiliers). The battalion could be distinguished by its own pennant or identification mark (see also the “Infantry” section in the chapter “Branches and Services”).
During Homeland exercises, the 52nd (Lowland) Division's 25-pounder guns and limbers rotate positions, towed by Morris Quad artillery tractors. The white number 43 in a red and blue square designates the second (middle seniority) field artillery regiment of the division: in the 52nd Division until June 1942 it was the 79th Field Artillery Regiment, Royal Artillery (then the 80th). The excellent 25-pounder 87.6mm guns, with a range of up to 10,000 meters, were the workhorse of British field artillery and were used on all fronts. It took less than two minutes to bring the gun into firing position, and the rate of fire reached five rounds per minute. In 1944–1945 The Royal Artillery was completely superior to the Germans, playing a prominent role in the defeat of the Wehrmacht in the West.
The battalion was the minimum tactical unit and consisted of a headquarters, a headquarters company, a support company and four rifle companies. The headquarters company included a headquarters, a communications platoon and an administrative platoon. The support company consisted of a headquarters, a platoon of three-inch mortars, a platoon of universal tractors, an anti-tank and a pioneer platoon. Each rifle company had a headquarters and three rifle platoons, which were numbered through the battalion. At the platoon level, the headquarters (with a two-inch mortar and anti-tank weapons) commanded three rifle squads. Each squad of seven people was assigned a machine gun group: three people with a Bren machine gun.
Armored DivisionIn 1940, most armies continued to work out the optimal composition of new armored units, many focusing on “heavy tank” divisions with a clearly insufficient number of infantry and artillery units. The British 1st Armored Division was conceived as having two armored brigades (three armored regiments each) and one motorized infantry battalion, as well as a supporting force consisting of an infantry battalion and field, anti-tank and anti-aircraft artillery regiments. This division contributed one of its tank regiments, all its infantry and field artillery, and a combined anti-tank and anti-aircraft regiment to support the very heterogeneous tank units of the British Expeditionary Force (which had predominantly light tanks).
During the course of the war, many structural changes took place before it was possible to find the most effective ratio of the various types of troops in the division. The 1944 armored division had only one armored brigade of three regiments (the regiment had 78 tanks, divided between headquarters and three combat squadrons), and one mechanized ("motor") infantry battalion, usually from a rifle regiment (usually equipped with American half-track armored personnel carriers). In addition, the division had a three-battalion infantry brigade, whose personnel moved on trucks; an armored reconnaissance regiment, which was often armed with cruiser tanks rather than armored vehicles; a separate medium machine gun company and a divisional artillery of two Royal Field Artillery or Royal Horse Artillery regiments, and one anti-tank and one air defense artillery regiment. Divisional units also included the usual units of engineers, signalmen, doctors, support personnel and tradesmen.
The 5-pounder guns were mounted on tank chassis: these self-propelled guns were called Sexton (Sexton SPgun) and were allocated to one of the two field artillery regiments of each armored division. In addition, the British also used similar American M7 Priest SP self-propelled guns armed with 105 mm howitzers. This camouflaged Priest gun was photographed at Lyon-sur-Mer, a short distance from the British landing site on 6 June 1944. The gun's crew awaits orders to fire in support of elements of the 3rd Division. These American guns were supplied with a full set of equipment - an American tank helmet is visible on the fender. The artilleryman is dressed in a standard collarless shirt and field uniform trousers with white suspenders (IWM 3502).
In an armored regiment, each squadron had a headquarters and administrative unit, as well as five units of three tanks (in some units, four units of four tanks). Taking into account the tanks assigned to the headquarters (10 in the division, 18 in the brigade), the total number of tanks in the division reached 343.
The Second World War was for England, as for most countries of the world, a great historical test. In the mortal battle with fascism, everything was tested - the positions of classes and parties, the viability of ideologies and political doctrines, economic structures, the social systems themselves.
War 1939-1945
took place in an immeasurably more complex situation than the First World War. Subjectively, the ruling circles of England sought in this war only to defeat a dangerous competitor and to expand their world positions. But still it was a war against fascist states, against the most monstrous reaction that capitalism has ever generated. The contradiction between the liberation goals and the purely imperialist plans of the ruling circles of England, which was objectively generated by the very fact of the war against fascism, affected the entire duration of the war.
During the first year of hostilities, the reactionary maneuvers of the ruling elite clearly prevailed, and from the summer of 1941, when a military alliance between the USSR, England and the USA began to take shape, the war on the part of England finally acquired an anti-fascist liberation character.
When Hitler's troops invaded Poland (September 1, 1939), Chamberlain was still hesitant to declare war, despite the guarantees given in March and the mutual assistance pact concluded with Poland on August 24, 1939. The masses were so outraged by the government's inaction that even the Labor Party leadership strongly demanded an immediate declaration of war. As a result of pressure outside and inside the House, Chamberlain declared war on September 3. Following this, the dominions - Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa - declared war.
318 Kan Union. Chamberlain managed to “pacify” the opposition in the ranks of his own party by giving the portfolio of Minister of Navy to W. Churchill, and the Minister of Dominion Affairs to A. Eden.
The Munich people, who had a huge majority in the government, still dreamed of an actual alliance with Germany against the USSR even after the declaration of war on Germany. Poland was sacrificed to these plans, to which England did not provide any real assistance. A “strange war” began: England and France undertook almost no operations either on land or in the air; Only at sea there were several battles that did not affect the balance of forces: preparations for future battles with Germany proceeded extremely slowly. Some military measures were nevertheless taken - both for reinsurance and to calm public opinion. Slowly, military leaders mobilized and transferred expeditionary troops to France; arms production increased; arms purchases expanded in the United States, where the “neutrality law” was revised, and the evacuation of women and children from big cities began. But compared to the frantic pace of preparation of the German armies for operations in the West, all these measures were very insignificant.
Retribution soon came.
On April 9, 1940, German troops occupied Denmark and began the occupation of Norway. This defeat was the fruit not only of Munich’s policy in the pre-war period, but also of Chamberlain’s policy during the “Phantom War”. But the war has already lost its “strange” character. It was no longer possible to leave power in the hands of people who had absolutely failed both in the days of peace and in the days of war.
The mood in the country found a response in parliament. On May 7-8, 1940, the long-overdue explosion occurred. Labour, Liberals and even some Conservatives attacked the government, demanding its resignation. L. Emery, addressing Chamberlain, repeated the words that Cromwell had once spoken: “In the name of God, leave!” Lloyd George said that the prime minister's best contribution to victory would be "if he sacrificed the office he now occupies."
On May 10, Chamberley resigned. Labour's tactics, however, meant that power effectively remained in the hands of the Conservatives, although the new cabinet was a coalition one. Winston Churchill became the head of the government. Clement Attlee took over as his deputy. Many Munich residents remained in the new cabinet, including Chamberlain himself and Halifax. But the balance of power between them and the supporters of decisive resistance to the aggressor has now changed towards the latter.
At the same time that Churchill was selecting ministers for his government, Hitler's troops launched a gigantic offensive on the Western Front. Having invaded neutral Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg, the German army rushed to the coast and to the borders of France. The Dutch army has already capitulated
$31 May 14. On the same day, the Germans broke through the front at Sedan and in five days, having passed through the entire north of France, they reached the Atlantic Ocean. Thus, they cut off the French troops who were fighting in Belgium from Central and Southern France. The threat of defeat loomed over Belgium and over France itself.
The British command, violating the plan developed by the joint headquarters of the Allies to encircle the German group that had broken through to the sea, suddenly ordered its troops to retreat to the ports for evacuation to England. Not only French patriots, but also some English officers and soldiers, this decision was perceived as a betrayal. Nevertheless, the operation to withdraw English and some French units to the British Isles was accompanied by a long-unprecedented patriotic upsurge in England. The masses did not understand the intricacies of strategy; they knew that on the other side of the English Channel, in the Dunkirk area, hundreds of thousands of “our guys” could die or be captured, and they rushed to the rescue. A wide variety of watercraft were used in the operation - from large merchant fleet vessels to pleasure yachts and fishing schooners. The heroism of ordinary people shown during the days of evacuation (May 26 - June 4, 1940) is beyond doubt, but this does not give grounds to interpret the defeat of the English expeditionary force as a victory, and this is exactly the legend about Dunkirk that many English memoirists create. and historians.
The new powerful offensive of the German armies, which began on June 5, ended with the surrender of France. England lost an ally, having acquired another enemy during this time: on June 10, fascist Italy entered the war. During the entire period of the Second World War, England did not experience a more tense and dangerous period than the summer and early autumn of 1940. German naval bases and airfields appeared in the immediate vicinity of the British Isles.
Dunkirk marked the beginning of a new stage in the anti-fascist rise. The English working class understood the need to repel the aggressor both before the war and at its early stage, when Chamberlain's government was still looking for ways to reconcile with Hitler. The slogan put forward by the CPV is “The Munich people must leave!” - was taken up by mass organizations of the working class. Although the hardships of the war fell specifically on the working class (12-hour working day with a 7-day working week, falling real wages, etc.), it did not even think about “peace without victory.” Thanks to the labor enthusiasm of the workers, military production grew rapidly: by July 1940 it had more than doubled compared to September 1939.
In preparation for the invasion, as well as for psychological pressure, Hitler ordered increased bombing of English cities. Massive German air raids began in August 1940 and caused enormous damage to London, Birmingham, Liverpool, and Glasgow. November 15, 500 German bombs
320 bardiers destroyed a large part of the small town of Coveptree. Despite the courageous resistance of British fighter aircraft, air superiority at this stage of the war was clearly on the side of Germany. But the psychological effect of the aerial “Battle of Britain” was exactly the opposite of what was expected in Berlin. Hatred of the Nazis, who killed women and children, only strengthened the will of the English people to resist.
The impending danger of freedom and the very existence of the nation naturally aroused a high intensity of civic feelings, and the drama of historical battles gave rise to a thirst for true art. The leading actors of the English stage - John Gielgud, Laurence Olivier, Sybille Thorndike and others - found their way to an audience they had never met before. On their own initiative and on the instructions of the Arts Council of Great Britain, created in early 1940, they traveled with small but artistically valuable troupes to industrial cities and mining villages, where they had never seen real theater. And now, before people whose spiritual needs had recently been tried to be satisfied by low-grade variety revues, Sybil Thorndike appeared in the roles of Medea and Lady Macbeth...
The Unity Theater was especially active, which did not stop working even during the most brutal bombings. In 1941, the theater staged a new play by Sean O'Casey, "The Star Turns Red" - a play, according to the author's definition, "about tomorrow or the day after tomorrow." The theme of the play is the future uprising of the working class, a direct clash between communists and fascists. Consonant with the whole spirit of the theater “Unity,” a work by a first-class playwright, made it possible to create a performance that became an event in the theatrical life of the capital.
In general, however, English drama, like the prose of the war period, did not satisfy the needs of viewers and readers for works saturated with the pathos of the anti-fascist struggle, posing the most pressing social and ethical problems of our time. Moreover, there was great interest in Soviet literature. The works of M. Sholokhov, A. Tolstoy, I. Ereiburg, K. Simonov were widely translated and published in England at the second stage of the war, when the anti-Hitler coalition took shape. "Unity" staged K. Simonov's play "Russian People", and in other theaters productions of plays from the Russian classical repertoire became more frequent.
The reaction was not averse to giving the patriotic upsurge a nationalistic character. Turning to history, bourgeois ideologists highlighted events in which purely military traditions were manifested. Let the people compare the fight against Hitler and the fight against Napoleon - despite all the senselessness of this analogy between the situations of the early 19th century. and the 40s of the XX century. there was some resemblance! The ongoing war was seen as another battle with a contender for the European hege- 11-127
321 monium, and not as a fight against fascist reaction. In essence, this is exactly how the upper bourgeoisie viewed the war.
This was understood by the famous film director and producer A. Korda back in the 30s. Having settled in Hollywood, he decided to make a film about Admiral Nelson, a national hero and winner of the Battle of Trafalgar. However, this was a very unique Nelson - a knight without fear or reproach, very little like the historical Nelson. The image of Emma Hamilton, an international intelligence officer and intriguer, turned by the screenwriter into a loving and virtuous woman, devoted to Nelson, and even more so to her homeland, was even less consistent with historical truth. This is how Korda’s pseudo-historical action movie “Lady Hamilton” arose, which was a huge success. At that time, the viewer was attracted by the shallow resonance with modern events. Of course, the sentimental love line that was brought to the fore also played a role. But the main advantage of this shallow film was determined by the names of the leading actors - Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh.
The leftward movement of the masses, expressed in the growth of anti-fascist demands, in the struggle against the remnants of the Munich policy, in the growing influence of the communists, caused considerable concern in the ruling circles of England. The emergency legislation carried out by the Churchill government was used not only to organize resistance to Germany, but also to attack the working class and limit its rights. Labor minister Ernst Bevin issued Regulation 1305, which effectively nullified the right to strike. The persecution of communists continued in the trade unions.
Despite these measures, the struggle of the English people against internal reaction continued. On the initiative of left-wing trade union and Labor leaders, as well as prominent representatives of the left-wing intelligentsia, including communists, the People's Convention met in London on January 12, 1941. The delegates to the convention represented 1,200 thousand workers. The main slogan was "the creation of a people's government truly representing the working class." The convention demanded the implementation of a consistent democratic policy within the country and in the colonies, as well as the establishment of friendly relations with the Soviet Union. The government responded to these decisions with new repressions. On January 21, 1941, the Daily Worker newspaper was closed by order of Home Secretary Herbert Morrison.
In the most difficult days, immediately after Dunkirk, Churchill declared in Parliament that England would continue to fight “until, in the time appointed by Providence, the New World, with all its strength and might, comes forward for the salvation and liberation of the Old.” Indeed, in September 1940, a special agreement was concluded under which the United States transferred to England 50 old destroyers necessary for convoying military and food cargo. In return, England granted the United States the right to create
322 to build naval and air bases on a number of British-owned islands: the American imperialists, taking advantage of the situation, strengthened their positions at the expense of England. And in March 1941, Roosevelt's supporters managed to pass a law in the US Congress, according to which American supplies were provided to England for rent or loan (Lend-Lease).
Making extensive use of the resources of the dominions and colonies, England achieved the creation of significant armed forces that conducted operations in Africa and other areas. The campaign in Africa (against Italy) went with varying degrees of success, but by the spring of 1941 the British managed not only to drive the Italians out of their colonies, but also to seize a number of Italian colonies and oust the Italians from Ethiopia. Only in North Africa, where Hitler sent the army of General Rommel to help the Italians, did the British troops retreat; the northwestern part of Egypt was occupied by the enemy.
But no matter how significant the colonial problems were from the point of view of the imperialist interests of England and its opponents, the African fronts, like the front in the Middle East, were of secondary importance. In Europe, Germany continued to strengthen. Completing preparations for the attack on the USSR, Hitler subjugated Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Greece. Now his plan was to achieve peace in the West and avoid a war on two fronts. For this purpose, Hitler's deputy for leadership of the Nazi Party, R. Hess, was sent to England. In correspondence with prominent Munich residents, he gradually prepared his secret visit to the most reactionary group of British politicians, hoping that they would help convince the government in one form or another to join the anti-Soviet campaign. We must not forget that the very parliament that voted for Munich was in power. But the impudent proposals of Hess, who demanded peace on the basis of freedom of hands for Germany in Europe (in exchange for freedom of hands of England... in the British Empire), were rejected. The English people, after Dunkirk and the “Battle of England,” would not have allowed anyone to make this shameful deal, and the government itself was well aware that in the event of the defeat of the USSR, England would not be able to withstand an even stronger fascist bloc.
The German attack on the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941 marked the beginning of a new stage of the Second World War. From that day until the final defeat of Germany, the center of world history was on the Soviet-German front; it was there that the outcome of the war was decided and the fate of humanity was determined.
Since the beginning of the Patriotic War, the situation in England has changed dramatically. Hitler's huge war machine was moving to the East, meeting heroic resistance, and the immediate danger of an invasion of the British Isles by German armies no longer hung over England. Air raids also fell sharply. But the main thing is that England was no longer alone in the war against Germany; she had an ally who took the brunt of U*
323 fight against a common enemy. While remaining an implacable enemy of socialism, Churchill considered it advantageous to choose the path of cooperation with the Soviet Union.
Already on June 22, 1941, Churchill made a statement about his readiness to provide “Russia and the Russian people with all the assistance that we are capable of.” In other words, the British government agreed to an alliance with the USSR, which was formalized by an agreement signed in Moscow on July 12, 1941. This was the beginning of the anti-Hitler coalition.
The English working class made great sacrifices to increase military output, especially in cases where Soviet orders were being carried out. The mood of the masses also influenced the trade union leadership. Even the leaders of the Trade Union Congress were forced to establish close ties with Soviet trade unions.
In wide circles of the English people, interest in life in the Soviet Union and the social conditions that fostered mass heroism, perseverance, and selflessness in the Soviet people has increased unusually. At the same time, interest in Russian and Soviet culture and the history of Russia increased. Books by Russian and Soviet writers published in England were sold out in great demand. War and Peace was read by all levels of society - from the worker or clerk snatching a free minute, to Mrs. Churchill.
From the very first days of the existence of the Anglo-Soviet union, the Soviet government raised the question of creating a second front in Europe before Churchill's cabinet. A large English landing in France, Belgium, and Holland would have pulled several dozen divisions from the Soviet-German front. This would be truly effective help to the Red Army during the most difficult period of the war. The ruling circles of England preferred to avoid this operation under any pretext, shifting the entire burden of the war onto the shoulders of the Soviet people.
The question of a second front not only took a central place in the relationship between members of the anti-Hitler coalition, but also became the subject of an acute internal political struggle in ENGLAND. Communists, left-wing Laborites, some liberals and even some conservatives openly demanded the creation of a second front in Europe. However, Churchill's government, true to the long-standing tradition of fighting by proxy, failed to fulfill its most important allied duty for three years.
The pressure of democratic forces on the issue of supplying the Soviet Union with weapons turned out to be more effective. England, and after it the United States, agreed to provide weapons on the basis of Lend-Lease and provide escort for transport ships by the British and American navies. In September - October 1941, a meeting of representatives of the three powers was held in Moscow, at which the scale of supplies of aircraft, tanks and other weapons, as well as strategic raw materials, was determined. At
324 In this case, the British and American representatives agreed to satisfy the Soviet demand only 50%, and for some requests - even 10%. Subsequently, supplies increased, but still the assistance with weapons was significantly lower than the needs of the Red Army and the capabilities of industry in England and, especially, the United States.
The war economy was brought under state control, which led to a sharp leap in the development of state-monopoly capitalism. Ministries created to manage various sectors of the economy - aviation industry, fuel and energy, food, supplies, etc. - became new links between the state and monopolies. Government control of the economy played a positive role in England's war effort, but at the same time it was exploited by monopolists, who either personally headed the new departments or sent their employees to them. By fettering to a certain extent the arbitrariness of individual monopolies, this system ensured the interests of monopoly capital as a whole.
During the war years, British industry produced 130 thousand aircraft, 25 thousand tanks and many other types of weapons and equipment. The Dominions and India produced 10% of all weapons available to the Imperial military. Dominions and colonies played an even greater role in mobilizing human resources. Of the 9.5 million people under the command of British generals and admirals during the war, over 4 million were part of the Indian, Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and South African divisions.
From the above data it is clear what enormous capabilities England had during the war and how little of it it used to help its Soviet ally. And yet, the very logic of joint struggle with the enemy, the efforts of Soviet foreign policy, and pressure from the British people led to the strengthening of the anti-Hitler coalition.
A new stage in the development of the Anglo-Soviet alliance and the entire anti-Hitler coalition began at the end of 1941. The victory of the Soviet armed forces in the Battle of Moscow unusually raised the international prestige of the Soviet Union. The positions of England and the United States were also significantly influenced by the attack on them by imperialist Japan (December 7, 1941) and the outbreak of the war in the Pacific Ocean. Now that a new front has emerged, the interest of England and the United States in an alliance with the USSR has increased even more.
Japan's attack on the United States led to the further formation of the Anglo-American bloc. Now that the United States has become a belligerent power, not only with Japan, but also with Germany and Italy, concrete coordination of military-strategic plans has become possible. This issue was considered at the Washington Conference, which lasted about a month - from December 22
323 1941 to January 14, 1942 England and the USA agreed on the creation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of both countries.
Soviet-British negotiations continued, and in May 1942 England made a commitment, which was formulated in a communiqué as follows: “Full agreement has been reached regarding the urgent tasks of creating a second front in Europe in 1942.” There was similar wording in the communiqué on the Soviet-American negotiations. If the statement about the second front did not acquire practical significance, since it was not opened not only in 1942 but also in 1943, then the conclusion of the Anglo-Soviet “Treaty of Alliance in the War against Nazi Germany and its accomplices” was truly outstanding. in Europe and about cooperation and mutual assistance after the war."
However, immediately after the conclusion of the treaty and the solemn commitment to open a second front, Churchill began to prepare to abandon the plan to invade Europe. Instead of landing in France, the Anglo-American headquarters agreed to prepare for an invasion of North Africa. The talk was about conquering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and in the future, the entire Mediterranean basin. In addition to the fact that this operation could be presented to the public as a “second front,” it suited England because it strengthened its position on the most important imperial communications.
In order to calm British public opinion and create the impression that the Soviet Union did not object to the strategy of the Western powers, Churchill went to Moscow in August 1942. He tried to prove to Soviet leaders that the operation in North Africa would be essential to the defeat of Hitler. At the same time, on behalf of England and the United States, a promise was made to open a second front in 1943. Most of all, Churchill wanted to make sure that the Soviet Union would continue the war under any circumstances. It is not for nothing that in a telegram sent from Moscow to the military cabinet, he considered it necessary to emphasize: “Throughout all the negotiations there was not a single, even the slightest hint that they could end the war.” And if so, then, according to Churchill’s logic, it was possible to continue to build up military power and conduct operations on fronts that were important for British imperialism, but of secondary importance for the overall course of the war.
Since the spring of 1941, when Italo-German troops invaded Egypt, there have been no significant operations in Africa. In May 1942, General Rommel's army went on the offensive and in June ousted the British from Libya. On June 21, 1942, Tobruk fell, the last stronghold in Libya covering the approaches to Egypt. Pursuing the rapidly retreating British, Rommel's army invaded Egypt and rushed to the Suez Canal. Only on the defensive line south of El Alamein did British troops manage to stop the enemy - only 100 km from Cairo. The Suez Canal was under immediate threat. Rommel failed
326 in these days it was possible to build on the success and completely expel the British from Egypt only because a gigantic battle had already unfolded on the Soviet-German front and Hitler could not send even those relatively insignificant reinforcements to Africa that could solve the matter.
Having received a respite, the British command strengthened its troops in Egypt, fully provided them with weapons and equipment, and also reorganized the administration. All units were consolidated into the 8th Army under the command of General Montgomery. At the same time, preparations for the landing of Anglo-American troops in North-West Africa were completed. Having launched an offensive in the El Alamein area on October 23, the British reoccupied Tobruk on November 13. Over the next months, just at the time when the Red Army, having surrounded Paulus' 300,000-strong army, was waging offensive battles, British troops completely occupied Libya and approached (February 1943) the Tunisian border.
Successful operations in Northeast Africa were accompanied by active operations in Morocco and Algeria. On November 8, six American and one British division landed simultaneously in the ports of Algiers, Oran and Casablanca and launched an offensive to the east. Trying to maintain their positions in Africa, the Germans urgently transferred several divisions from Italy to Tunisia, and already in December 1942 they managed to stop the offensive from the West. The Anglo-American command had a huge superiority of forces, but it preferred to thoroughly prepare the decisive blow; this again made it possible for Hitler to transfer divisions to the Soviet-German front. Only in March - April 1943 did major battles break out in Tunisia. The 8th British Army - from the east, American divisions - from the south and west, broke through the defenses of the Italo-German troops, occupied the cities of Tunis and Bizerta, which were of great strategic importance, in early May, and on May 13 accepted the surrender of the 250,000-strong enemy army.
The great victory at Stalingrad, which marked the beginning of a radical change in the course of the war, created excellent preconditions for delivering decisive blows against the common enemy. The summer and autumn offensives of the Red Army in 1943, and then the access to the state border, finally sealed the turning point in the war and created a completely new situation. The victory in the Battle of Stalingrad gave a powerful impetus to the rise of the Resistance movement in the occupied countries, and this caused considerable concern among British and world reaction. During the Resistance, peoples fought not only against invaders. There was a mature understanding among the masses that after the war there should be no return to the old reactionary regimes, which were responsible for national catastrophes in France, Poland, Yugoslavia and a number of other countries. The authority of the communist parties, which acted during the war as selfless fighters for the national interests of the peoples of their countries, increased enormously.
327 This new situation significantly influenced relations within the anti-Hitler coalition, and in particular the policy of the British government. It became clear to Churchill and his advisers that the Soviet armed forces were powerful enough to achieve complete victory in the war and liberate Europe without any participation from Britain and the United States. In addition, the West was interested in the Soviet Union's help to defeat imperialist Japan.
At numerous meetings of British and American statesmen, diplomats and generals that took place during 1943, the question of a second front continued to occupy a central place. Hypocritically assuring the Soviet side that the opening of a second front would occur in 1943, Churchill and his American colleagues decided to postpone this operation to 1944. Under such conditions, the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers of the USSR, USA and England took place (October 1943), and a month later - Tehran Conference of Heads of Government - J.V. Stalin, F. Roosevelt and W. Churchill. Here, under the influence of the firm position of the USSR, an agreed decision was made on the invasion of Anglo-American troops into France in May 1944.
While preparing for the invasion of France, Anglo-American troops at the same time continued operations in the Mediterranean. The defeats of the Nazis on the Soviet-German front, where the 8th Italian Army was defeated, the growing internal crisis in Italy, and the dominance of the Anglo-American fleet in the Mediterranean Sea made the capture of the island relatively easy. Sicily.
The further Allied offensive in Italy took place with their absolute superiority, especially at sea and in the air. The powerful blows that the Red Army delivered in the winter and spring of 1944 distracted more and more enemy divisions. Hitler had to send a lot of troops against the partisan armies and formations that operated in the occupied countries. Nevertheless, in the spring of 1944, the Anglo-American troops moved forward extremely slowly. Only by the end of May did they manage to oust the enemy from Central Italy. On June 4, the Allies entered Rome, abandoned by the German command, without a fight.
And two days later, on June 6, 1944, the second front finally opened in Europe. The British and American command prepared this complex operation perfectly, and the soldiers of the allied armies, who had long been eager to fight the fascists, showed steadfastness and courage. England and the United States were able to superbly arm and train their armies solely due to the fact that for three years the Soviet Union, at the cost of the greatest effort and unprecedented sacrifices, withstood the full brunt of the war.
The invasion forces included 20 American divisions, 14 British, 3 Canadian, and one each French and Polish. The Allies had absolute superiority in naval
328 sky forces. American General D. Eisenhower was appointed commander-in-chief of the expeditionary forces, and British General B. Montgomery was appointed commander of the ground forces. The fleet and air force were also commanded by the British.
The Allies managed to create a bridgehead between Cherbourg and Le Havre. By the end of June, about a million soldiers and officers were already concentrated on the slowly expanding bridgehead. The German command transferred divisions from other regions of France, Belgium, and Holland to this area, but did not dare to withdraw troops from the Soviet-German front: just at this time the offensive of the Soviet armies began in Karelia and Belarus. The advance of the expeditionary forces across French territory was ensured by the actions of combat detachments of the French Resistance, which not only disorganized the fascist rear, but also liberated cities and entire departments with their own forces. By August 24, the rebel Parisians liberated the capital of France with their own forces. By autumn, all of France, Belgium and part of Holland were almost completely liberated from the enemy. Anglo-American troops reached the German border.
In December 1944, Hitler's command launched an offensive in the Ardennes, where he managed to secretly concentrate large forces. On a relatively narrow front, the Germans threw into battle 25 of the 39 divisions they had at their disposal on the Western Front. Having broken through the Allied defenses, by the beginning of January they advanced 90 km, trying to cut off the northern group of the Allied armies. There were English troops here, and the threat of a “second Dunkirk” loomed over them. The reinforcements sent by Eisenhower slowed down the German advance, but they failed to push back the armies that had broken through. On January 6, 1945, Churchill asked the Soviet government to launch “a major Russian offensive on the Vistula front or somewhere else,” as “very heavy fighting is taking place in the West.” The Red Army, which in bloody battles in the fall of 1944 brought liberation to the peoples of Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Hungary, was preparing for a new offensive, but it was planned a little later. However, given the position of the Allies, the Supreme High Command accelerated preparations, and on January 12, the Soviet Armed Forces went on the offensive on a huge front from the Danube to the Baltic Sea. This dramatically improved the position of the Anglo-American troops, who managed to force the Germans to retreat by the end of January. In this situation, a new meeting of heads of government was required to resolve urgent military issues and especially post-war problems that had become urgent.
In Berlin they were already fully aware that the war was lost. The only hope that remained for Hitler was connected with plans for a separate peace in the West.
The Yalta Conference of the Heads of Government of the USSR, USA and England, held on February 4-11, 1945, convincingly promoted democracy.
329 demonstrated the entire groundlessness of Hitler’s calculations. Churchill had long been making plans for the post-war encirclement of the Soviet Union with a new “cordon sanitaire”, planned the restoration of Germany as a potential ally in the fight against the USSR, ordered his troops to suppress democratic forces on the continent, but neither Churchill would have allowed him to enter into an open conspiracy with the Hitler regime , nor any other statesman, the English working class, the entire British people, could not help but take into account the real balance of forces in Europe, as well as the role that the Soviet Union had to play in the defeat of Japanese imperialism.
The war in the Pacific was approaching its decisive stage. During its first months, Japan, through surprise attacks and the slow deployment of Anglo-American forces, achieved dominance in the Western Pacific and Indian Ocean. Having destroyed the main forces of the American Pacific squadron in the harbor of Pearl Harbor (Hawaii Islands) with a treacherous strike and sank the English battleship Prince of Wales, the Japanese captured the most important American possessions in the Pacific Ocean, including Philippine, and at the same time attacked British bases and colonies. Soon the most important strongholds of British imperialism in the Far East - Hong Kong and Singapore - fell. Malaya and Burma were almost completely in enemy hands. By entering the borders of India, Japan threatened this “jewel of the British crown.” Therefore, the British command concentrated a large group of troops in the northeastern part of India under the command of Admiral L. Mountbatten. For more than two years it was inactive, and only in the summer of 1944, when the military-political position of Japan was greatly shaken due to the approaching collapse of German fascism and the successes of the American armed forces in the Pacific, Mountbatten invaded Burma and by the spring of 1945 cleared it of Japanese troops .
In addition to the agreed decisions on the final operations in the European war and in the war with Japan, the Yalta Conference adopted an extensive program for the destruction of “German militarism and Nazism”; it was a truly democratic program corresponding to the interests of all peoples of the world, including the German people.
Protecting the independence of the liberated peoples of Europe and their right "to establish democratic institutions of their own choice" was declared one of the goals of the three powers. Only the enormous power and authority of the Soviet Union, only the mighty rise of democratic forces throughout the world could force the imperialist governments of England and the United States to sign documents establishing the just, liberating nature of the war.
At the final stage of the war in Europe, as at all its stages, the Soviet Armed Forces delivered the main blows to the enemy.
330 Strength. Breaking the resistance of Nazi troops, Soviet troops reached the last line before the assault on Berlin. Under these conditions, the offensive of the Anglo-American troops was not associated with great difficulties, especially since Hitler deliberately opened the front in the West, still hoping that a clash between the USSR and the Western powers would occur on German territory. Anglo-American troops, having launched an offensive on February 8, 1945, crossed the Rhine only at the end of March. The offensive was accompanied by massive air raids on German cities.
On May 2, Berlin was captured by Soviet troops, and on May 8, Germany capitulated. This was a great historical victory of peoples over fascism, in which the Soviet Union played a decisive role*
The victory of the Soviet Union undermined the forces of world reaction, destroyed its strike force, and defeated its main headquarters. In the anti-fascist Resistance in the countries of Europe and Asia, the unity of the working class and democratic forces took shape. The communist and workers' parties grew into a powerful force, accumulated vast experience and called the people to radical social and political changes. In the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, liberated by the Soviet Armed Forces, people's democratic revolutions had already begun. The crisis of the world system of capitalism entered the second stage, and through all the variety of processes taking place in various countries, the contours of the future world system of socialism were already visible.
The English people did not experience the horrors of the German occupation during the war, but they also suffered considerable hardships. The class struggle in England did not acquire such severity as in the continental continent. No matter how insidious the plans of the British reaction were, ~ no matter how indignant the unjustified passivity of the English command caused, England nevertheless fought as part of the anti-Hitler coalition and the English bourgeoisie did not compromise itself in the eyes of the people by direct collaboration with fascism, as was the case in the countries of the continent . But a serious shift in the alignment of class and political forces also occurred in England.
Throughout the war, the British working class put pressure on the government, demanding stronger cooperation with the Soviet Union and effective operations against the fascist states. While making a major contribution to the victory over the main centers of reaction on a world scale, the advanced workers of England did not forget about their own internal reaction.
It is not surprising that in this situation the authority of the CPV increased sharply. By the end of 1942, the party consisted of 60 thousand people - more than 3 times more than on the eve of the war. The party's position in trade unions has strengthened. Communists were often elected to the executive committees of trade unions and secretaries of local organizations. At the Trade Union Congress of 1944, a prominent figure in the trade union movement, communist A. Papworth, was elected to the General Council.
The masses of the working class forced the government to cancel the
331 decisions of the CPV body - the Daily Worker newspaper; in August 1942, publication of this popular newspaper resumed.
The struggle of currents within the Labor Party has intensified, and its left wing has strengthened. The anti-communists in the party leadership were defeated. But they took revenge when discussing the old issue of admitting the CPV to the Labor Party. Twice the CPV made a corresponding request, and in 1943 it was supported by such mass organizations as the British Coal Miners Federation, the Builders' Union, etc. But the more influential the CPV became, the more right-wing Labor leaders feared the role it could play in the Labor Party , - the role of ideological leader and center of gravity of all leftist forces. The Executive Committee therefore rejected the Communists' proposal and thereby once again damaged the cause of working class unity.
The most pressing issues in the internal party struggle were issues of a programmatic nature. What social changes should victory in the anti-fascist war bring? What tasks should a party that calls itself socialist set for itself? What plan of change should voters be offered when the war is over? On all these problems, the positions of the right-wing Labor leadership and the left wing of the party diverged throughout the years of the war, but especially during its last stage.
The matter was complicated by the fact that even at the top of the bourgeois political hierarchy they thought a lot about complex issues related to the transition from war to peace. The main idea that Conservative leaders wanted to instill in the masses was that social change was not needed in England, even within the narrow framework of Labor “socialism.” The government itself intends to carry out a “reconstruction” that will supposedly satisfy all segments of society. To study the problems of reconstruction, a committee was created back in 1941, headed by the Labor minister A. Greywood; this appointment was supposed to give reconstruction plans a bipartisan, coalition character. In 1943, Churchill's government adopted the Beveridge Plan, a liberal reformer who proposed a radical overhaul of the entire social security system. This plan did not touch the foundations of the capitalist system, but it could form the basis of truly progressive reform. It is no coincidence that the CPV and other progressive forces spoke out for the implementation of the “Beveridge Plan”. The law on public education adopted in 1944 and some other measures were progressive in nature.
The Labor Party Executive Committee, for its part, also put forward various reconstruction projects. His plans involved maintaining the state control over the economy that had developed during the war. The Labor right did not intend to include the nationalization of industry in its post-war reconstruction program - a policy provision that has appeared in the party charter since 1918. When in December 1944
332 the executive committee presented a detailed resolution to the party conference; the concept of “socialization of the means of production” or “nationalization” was absent from it1. It was only about “control over the economy.” In other words, Labor leaders once again came to the defense of the capitalist system.
In England, which was approaching the end of the war in the camp of the winners, there was no immediate revolutionary situation. But here objective prerequisites have arisen for carrying out such fundamental changes that could undermine the omnipotence of the monopolies. Taking this into account, the Communist Party adopted at its XVII Congress in October 1944 the “Victory, Peace, Security” program, which, along with foreign policy objectives, indicated the paths of social progress: the nationalization of leading sectors of the economy and the participation of the working class in their management. The masses of the working class, the trade unions, in which the influence of the communists was great, achieved the inclusion of the demand for nationalization in the decisions of the trade union congress of 1944. Relying on this mass support, the left-wing Laborites at the party conference fought against the resolution of the executive committee. They managed to pass an amendment to “transfer into public ownership land, large construction companies, heavy industry and all banks, transport and the entire fuel and energy industry.”
The Labor leadership was defeated and, in the atmosphere of the rise of democratic forces in England and throughout the world, did not dare to completely ignore the will of the masses. At a conference in April 1945, when things were already heading towards parliamentary elections, the “Facing the Future” program proposed by the executive committee was adopted. After general declarations about the socialist character of the party, voters were promised the nationalization of those industries that were “ripe for transfer to public ownership.”
After the victory over Germany, on May 18, 1945, Churchill proposed that Labor maintain the coalition at least until the victory over Japan, but mass protests thwarted this plan. Now Churchill preferred to rush through the elections, hoping to use his popularity as a military leader.
During the election campaign, Labor strongly emphasized the “socialist” nature of its program, and this made a considerable impression on the masses who sincerely strived for socialism. The people did not want a return to the past, to the reactionary Conservative government. Churchill’s personal popularity was still very great, but, as his English biographer figuratively writes, the Conservatives had nothing in their arsenal during the election campaign “except Churchill’s photo card.”
The elections took place on July 5 and brought a brutal defeat to the Conservative Party. She lost about half of her parliamentary seats; now she had only 209 mandates, while
333 Labor won an absolute and solid majority; they had 393 seats - 146 more than all other parties combined. 2 seats were received by the communists - W. Gallagher and F. Piretin.
The election results stunned the Labor leaders themselves as much as the Conservatives. Considering that Labour's election campaign was carried out under "socialist" slogans, the voting results could be seen as a decisive verdict on the capitalist system, pronounced by the majority of the English people. Now the right-wing Laborites saw their task as gradually real and imaginary concessions, pseudo-socialist reforms, propaganda of anti-communism, etc. - to change the public mood, save capitalism, and suppress leftist forces.
Party leader Clement Attlee, having become head of government, appointed Herbert Morrison as his deputy, Ernst Bevin as foreign minister, and equally well-known right-wing politicians to other posts. The bourgeois press welcomed the new composition of the government - it served as a reliable guarantee of the preservation of bourgeois rule.
The new cabinet had to take its first steps in the field of foreign policy. From July 17 to August 2, a conference of heads of government of the USSR, USA and England was held in Potsdam. Although the conference began after the elections in England, the counting of votes was not yet completed. The British delegation was headed by Churchill, who prudently invited Attlee with him as a potential prime minister in the event of a Conservative defeat in the elections. For two days - July 26-27 - the conference took a break, since it was on these days that the cabinet was changed in London. Having left for his capital, Churchill never returned to Potsdam; Attlee became the head of the delegation.
Both Churchill and Eden, and Attlee and Bevin, in contact with the American delegation, tried to use the Potsdam Conference to undermine the position of the Soviet Union in Europe, as well as to interfere in the internal affairs of the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe in order to disrupt the process of democratic transformation in these countries .
The British and American delegates in Potsdam were inspired by the first successful test of the atomic bomb, which was carried out in the United States the day before the opening of the conference. Churchill even said that the bomb would help “straighten the balance of power with Russia.” But the very first attempts at disguised blackmail were decisively suppressed by the Soviet delegation. The decisions taken in Potsdam were generally consistent with the objectives of a democratic solution to post-war problems. In the spirit of the Yalta decisions, detailed resolutions were developed on the governance of Germany, on preparations for concluding peace treaties with its former satellites, on the status of Berlin, and on the trial of the main military
334 criminals. The Soviet delegation rejected attempts by England and the United States to interfere in the internal affairs of Bulgaria and Romania. The Soviet Union confirmed its intention to enter the war against Japan. Under these conditions, for the final victory over Japan there was no need at all to use the atomic bomb. Nevertheless, on August 6, by order of US President Henry Truman, an atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, and on August 9, on Nagasaki. The calculation of the American imperialists was simple: to intimidate the people with weapons of unprecedented power, to prepare the ground for “nuclear diplomacy” towards the Soviet Union, to take a step towards achieving US world domination. Although British scientists also participated in the production of the atomic bomb, the emergence of new weapons made England even more dependent on the United States.
However, Japan, despite the death of almost 250 thousand people, was not going to capitulate. Only a powerful blow by the Soviet Army against the Japanese armed forces in Manchuria (against the Kwaptung Army) and their complete defeat forced Japan to capitulate. On September 2, 1945, the Second World War ended. Like other countries, England entered a new period in its history.
1. The beginning of the Second World War and England. "Strange War". "Battle of England".
2. The role of Great Britain in the victory over the Nazi coalition during the war.
1. Great Britain can be considered one of the initiators of the Second World War. Firstly, this is due to the fact that already in the mid-30s. The struggle for dominance in the world is again being revived between Great Britain and France, on the one hand, and Germany, Italy and Japan, on the other. Secondly, Great Britain at the same time passively watches as Germany violates the terms of the Versailles Peace. The ruling circles of Great Britain, as well as some other Western countries, hoped that German aggression would be directed against the USSR. This is evidenced by the participation of Great Britain, together with France, Germany and Italy, in the Munich Conference of 1938, at which a treaty was signed aimed at the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia by Germany. And only after Germany violated this treaty in the spring of 1939, the ruling circles of Great Britain were forced to negotiate with the USSR regarding the creation of an anti-Hitler alliance. But the position of both the leadership of the USSR and Great Britain did not allow this task to be completed.
On September 1, 1939, World War II began with the German attack on Poland. Great Britain was an ally of Poland and the latter, naturally, expected help from it. But the British government was still trying to resolve the problem with Germany diplomatically. And only on September 3, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Following her, her dominions Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the Union of South Africa did the same.
Despite the fact that Great Britain and France could curb the aggressor at that moment, they did not go further than declaring war. Until the spring of 1940, there were practically no military operations on this front, so these events were called the “Phantom War” in historiography. At this time, mobilization was just taking place, expeditionary troops were being transferred to France.
In April 1940, Germany launched an offensive in Western Europe, and in May German troops entered French territory. The offensive was rapid and British troops, after the defeat at Dunkirk, were forced to evacuate to the British Isles.
From this moment the so-called “Battle of England” begins. In Germany, the landing operation on the British Isles (“Seelewe”) was developed, but it was never carried out. The reason for this can be considered that Great Britain was in more favorable conditions than France: its geographical location, the presence of a strong navy, and a high ability to resist. In addition, the new government of W. Churchill took decisive measures to organize the country's defense: the volume of military production increased, volunteer civil defense units were created, which were later transformed into a people's militia.
The “Battle of England” took on the character of massive bombing strikes. At first they were sent to naval bases and airfields, and from September 1940 - to the cities: London, Coventry, Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow, etc. The goal of Germany was the destruction or significant weakening of the British navy and aviation, disorganization of the military industry, suppression of the population's desire for resistance. But this goal was not fulfilled. The German air force suffered heavy losses. It failed to destroy British industry and undermine the morale of the population. On November 3, 1940, the intensity of the raids began to weaken. The last massive air strikes on London were carried out at the end of April - beginning of May 1941. At the same time, the reorientation of military production and the distribution of material resources for the war against the USSR began in Germany, i.e. to develop its armed forces in a “land” rather than a “sea” version, which meant abandoning the invasion of the British Isles.
At the same time, Great Britain carried out military operations in Africa and other areas. The campaign in Africa (against Italy) took place with varying degrees of success, but nevertheless, by the spring of 1941, the British managed not only to drive the Italians out of their colonies, but also to oust the Italians from Ethiopia. Only in North Africa, where Germany provided assistance to Italy, did British troops retreat and the northwestern part of Egypt was occupied by the enemy.
2. The situation during the Second World War changed radically after Germany attacked the USSR on June 22, 1941. Since that time, the main events of the war took place on the Soviet-German front. The invasion of the British Isles by German armies no longer threatened Great Britain. Air raids also fell sharply.
Great Britain switched to the path of cooperation with the Soviet Union. Already on June 22, 1941, British Prime Minister W. Churchill made a statement about his readiness to provide “Russia and the Russian people with all the help that we are capable of.” In other words, the British government agreed to an alliance with the USSR, which was formalized in Moscow on July 12, 1941. This was the beginning of the creation of the anti-Hitler coalition.
Almost immediately, the Soviet Union began to insist on opening a second front in Western Europe, but this problem was resolved only in 1944. Until that time, the main theater of action for British troops was North Africa. Until the autumn of 1942, events took place here with varying degrees of success. After the American-British troops landed in Morocco and Algeria on November 8, 1942, the situation changed in favor of the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition, which led to the enemy’s surrender in Africa on May 13, 1943. In July 1943, the American-British troops landed on the island of Sicily and launched an offensive in Italy, which led to Italy's withdrawal from the war on the side of Germany. And on June 6, 1944, a second front was finally opened in Europe with the landing of Allied troops in Normandy (France).
British troops also took part in the war against Japan. After Japan's attack on the American base of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, it captured many territories in a short time, including British possessions: Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaya, Burma. By approaching the borders of India, Japan created a threat to this “jewel of the British crown.” Therefore, the British command concentrated a large group of troops in the northeastern part of India. It was inactive for more than two years, and only in the summer of 1944, when Japan’s position was shaken due to the successes of the anti-Hitler coalition, did British troops invade Burma and clear it of Japanese troops by the spring of 1945.
In Europe, the Allied offensive from the west and east in 1944-1945. led to the defeat of Nazi Germany, and on September 2, 1945, the Second World War ended with the surrender of Japan.
Thus, Great Britain took an active part in the creation of the anti-Hitler coalition, in military operations and emerged from the war as one of the winners, and Prime Minister W. Churchill, who led the country during the war, was recognized as a national hero.
