It was established by the constitution of the III year.

On July 10, 1940, the French National Assembly adopted a constitutional law transferring power to Marshal Petain ( fr.).

After the Liberation, the French Constitution of 1946 was adopted.

Today, France has the 1958 Constitution, adopted on the initiative of Charles de Gaulle and replacing the 1946 Constitution. Drafted by the young members of the Council of State under the leadership of the Minister of Justice Michel Debré, the Constitution of the Fifth Republic established the post of President, elected by direct universal suffrage, as well as a Prime Minister, who heads the Government. Thus, France evolved from a parliamentary regime with enhanced presidential power into a “semi-presidential” regime.

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An excerpt characterizing the French Constitution

“A wife is for advice, a mother-in-law is for greetings, and nothing is dearer than your own mother!” - he said. - Well, are there any children? – he continued to ask. Pierre's negative answer again apparently upset him, and he hastened to add: “Well, there will be young people, God willing.” If only I could live in the council...
“It doesn’t matter now,” Pierre said involuntarily.
“Eh, you’re a dear man,” Plato objected. - Never give up money or prison. “He sat down better and cleared his throat, apparently preparing for a long story. “So, my dear friend, I was still living at home,” he began. “Our patrimony is rich, there is a lot of land, the men live well, and our home, thank God.” The priest himself went out to mow. We lived well. They were real Christians. It happened... - And Platon Karataev told a long story about how he went to someone else’s grove behind the forest and was caught by a guard, how he was whipped, tried and handed over to the soldiers. “Well, the falcon,” he said, his voice changing with a smile, “they thought grief, but joy!” My brother should go, if it were not for my sin. And the younger brother has five boys himself - and look, I have only one soldier left. There was a girl, and God took care of her even before she became a soldier. I came on leave, I’ll tell you. I see they live better than before. The yard is full of bellies, women are at home, two brothers are at work. Only Mikhailo, the youngest, is at home. Father says: “All children are equal to me, he says: no matter what finger you bite, everything hurts. If only Plato hadn’t been shaved then, Mikhail would have gone.” He called us all - believe me - he put us in front of the image. Mikhailo, he says, come here, bow at his feet, and you, woman, bow, and your grandchildren bow. Got it? speaks. So, my dear friend. Rock is looking for his head. And we judge everything: sometimes it’s not good, sometimes it’s not okay. Our happiness, my friend, is like water in delirium: if you pull it, it swells, but if you pull it out, there’s nothing. So that. - And Plato sat down on his straw.
After being silent for some time, Plato stood up.
- Well, I have tea, do you want to sleep? - he said and quickly began to cross himself, saying:
- Lord Jesus Christ, Nikola the saint, Frola and Lavra, Lord Jesus Christ, Nikola the saint! Frol and Lavra, Lord Jesus Christ - have mercy and save us! - he concluded, bowed to the ground, stood up and, sighing, sat down on his straw. - That's it. “Put it down, God, like a pebble, lift it up like a ball,” he said and lay down, pulling on his greatcoat.
-What prayer were you reading? – asked Pierre.
- Ass? - said Plato (he was already falling asleep). - Read what? I prayed to God. Don’t you ever pray?
“No, and I pray,” said Pierre. - But what did you say: Frol and Lavra?
“But what about,” Plato quickly answered, “a horse festival.” And we must feel sorry for the livestock,” Karataev said. - Look, the rogue has curled up. She got warm, the son of a bitch,” he said, feeling the dog at his feet, and, turning around again, immediately fell asleep.
Outside, crying and screams could be heard somewhere in the distance, and fire could be seen through the cracks of the booth; but in the booth it was quiet and dark. Pierre did not sleep for a long time and, with open eyes, lay in his place in the darkness, listening to the measured snoring of Plato, who lay next to him, and felt that the previously destroyed world was now being erected in his soul with new beauty, on some new and unshakable foundations.

In the booth into which Pierre entered and in which he stayed for four weeks, there were twenty-three captured soldiers, three officers and two officials.
All of them then appeared to Pierre as if in a fog, but Platon Karataev remained forever in Pierre’s soul as the strongest and dearest memory and personification of everything Russian, kind and round. When the next day, at dawn, Pierre saw his neighbor, the first impression of something round was completely confirmed: the whole figure of Plato in his French overcoat belted with a rope, in a cap and bast shoes, was round, his head was completely round, his back, chest, shoulders, even the hands that he wore, as if always about to hug something, were round; a pleasant smile and large brown gentle eyes were round.
Platon Karataev must have been over fifty years old, judging by his stories about the campaigns in which he participated as a long-time soldier. He himself did not know and could not determine in any way how old he was; but his teeth, bright white and strong, which kept rolling out in their two semicircles when he laughed (which he often did), were all good and intact; There was not a single gray hair in his beard or hair, and his whole body had the appearance of flexibility and, especially, hardness and endurance.
His face, despite the small round wrinkles, had an expression of innocence and youth; his voice was pleasant and melodious. But the main feature of his speech was its spontaneity and argument. He apparently never thought about what he said and what he would say; and because of this, the speed and fidelity of his intonations had a special irresistible persuasiveness.
His physical strength and agility were such at first during his captivity that he seemed not to understand what fatigue and illness were. Every day, in the morning and in the evening, when he lay down, he said: “Lord, lay it down like a pebble, lift it up into a ball”; in the morning, getting up, always shrugging his shoulders in the same way, he said: “I lay down and curled up, got up and shook myself.” And indeed, as soon as he lay down, he immediately fell asleep like a stone, and as soon as he shook himself, so that he could immediately, without a second of delay, take up some task, like children, getting up, taking up their toys. He knew how to do everything, not very well, but not badly either. He baked, steamed, sewed, planed, and made boots. He was always busy and only at night allowed himself conversations, which he loved, and songs. He sang songs, not as songwriters sing, who know that they are being listened to, but he sang as birds sing, obviously because he needed to make these sounds as much as it is necessary to stretch or disperse; and these sounds were always subtle, gentle, almost feminine, mournful, and at the same time his face was very serious.
Having been captured and grown a beard, he apparently threw away everything alien and soldierly that had been imposed on him and involuntarily returned to his former, peasant, folk mindset.
“A soldier on leave is a shirt made from trousers,” he used to say. He was reluctant to talk about his time as a soldier, although he did not complain, and often repeated that he had never been beaten during his entire service. When he spoke, he mainly spoke from his old and, apparently, dear memories of “Christian”, as he pronounced it, peasant life. The sayings that filled his speech were not those, for the most part, indecent and glib sayings that soldiers say, but they were those folk sayings that seem so insignificant, taken in isolation, and which suddenly take on the meaning of deep wisdom when they are spoken opportunely.

The history of France, which is located in the very center of Europe, began long before the appearance of permanent human settlements. Convenient physical and geographical position, proximity to the seas, rich reserves of natural resources have contributed to France being the “locomotive” of the European continent throughout its history. And this is how the country remains today. Occupying leading positions in the European Union, the UN and NATO, the French Republic remains in the 21st century a state whose history is being created every day.

Location

The country of the Franks, if the name of France is translated from Latin, is located in the region of Western Europe. The neighbors of this romantic and beautiful country are Belgium, Germany, Andorra, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. The coast of France is washed by the warm Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The territory of the republic is covered with mountain peaks, plains, beaches, and forests. Hidden among the picturesque nature are numerous natural monuments, historical, architectural, cultural attractions, ruins of castles, caves, and fortresses.

Celtic period

In the 2nd millennium BC. Celtic tribes, whom the Romans called Gauls, came to the lands of the modern French Republic. These tribes became the core of the formation of the future French nation. The Romans called the territory inhabited by the Gauls or Celts Gaul, which was part of the Roman Empire as a separate province.

In the 7th-6th centuries. BC, Phoenicians and Greeks from Asia Minor sailed to Gaul on ships and founded colonies on the Mediterranean coast. Now in their place there are cities such as Nice, Antibes, Marseille.

Between 58 and 52 BC, Gaul was captured by the Roman soldiers of Julius Caesar. The result of more than 500 years of rule was the complete Romanization of the population of Gaul.

During Roman rule, other important events took place in the history of the peoples of future France:

• In the 3rd century AD, Christianity entered Gaul and began to spread.
• Invasion of the Franks, who conquered the Gauls. After the Franks came the Burgundians, Alemanni, Visigoths and Huns, who completely put an end to Roman rule.
• The Franks gave names to the peoples who lived in Gaul, created the first state here, and founded the first dynasty.

The territory of France, even before our era, became one of the centers of constant migration flows that passed from north to south, west to east. All these tribes left their mark on the development of Gaul, and the Gauls adopted elements of various cultures. But it was the Franks who had the greatest influence, who managed not only to drive out the Romans, but also to create their own kingdom in Western Europe.

The first rulers of the Frankish kingdom

The founder of the first state in the vastness of the former Gaul is King Clovis, who led the Franks during their arrival in Western Europe. Clovis was a member of the Merovingian dynasty, which was founded by the legendary Merovey. He is considered a mythical figure, since 100% evidence of his existence is not found. Clovis is considered the grandson of Merovey, and was a worthy successor to the traditions of his legendary grandfather. Clovis led the Frankish kingdom in 481, and by this time he had already become famous for his numerous military campaigns. Clovis converted to Christianity and was baptized in Reims, which happened in 496. This city became the center of baptism for the rest of the kings of France.

Clovis's wife was Queen Clotilde, who together with her husband revered Saint Genevieve. She was the patroness of the capital of France - the city of Paris. The following rulers of the state were named in honor of Clovis, only in the French version this name sounds like “Louis” or Ludovicus.

Clovis The first division of the country between his four sons, who did not leave any special traces in the history of France. After Clovis, the Merovingian dynasty began to gradually fade away, since the rulers practically did not leave the palace. Therefore, the stay in power of the descendants of the first Frankish ruler is called in historiography the period of lazy kings.

The last of the Merovingians, Childeric the Third, became the last king of his dynasty on the Frankish throne. He was replaced by Pepin the Short, so nicknamed for his small stature.

Carolingians and Capetians

Pepin came to power in the mid-8th century, and founded a new dynasty in France. It was called Carolingian, but not on behalf of Pepin the Short, but his son, Charlemagne. Pepin went down in history as a skillful manager who, before his coronation, was the mayor of Childeric the Third. Pepin actually ruled the life of the kingdom and determined the directions of the kingdom's foreign and domestic policies. Pepin also became famous as a skilled warrior, strategist, brilliant and cunning politician, who during his 17-year reign enjoyed the constant support of the Catholic Church and the Pope. Such cooperation of the ruling house of the Franks ended with the head of the Roman Catholic Church prohibiting the French from choosing representatives of other dynasties to the royal throne. So he supported the Carolingian dynasty and kingdom.

The heyday of France began under Pepin’s son, Charles, who spent most of his life on military campaigns. As a result, the territory of the state increased several times. In 800 Charlemagne became emperor. He was elevated to a new position by the Pope, who put the crown on the head of Charles, whose reforms and skillful leadership brought France to the TOP of leading medieval states. Under Charles, the centralization of the kingdom was laid and the principle of succession to the throne was defined. The next king was Louis the First the Pious, the son of Charlemagne, who successfully continued the policies of his great father.

Representatives of the Carolingian dynasty were unable to maintain a centralized unified state, therefore in the 11th century. Charlemagne's state fell apart into separate parts. The last king of the Carolingian family was Louis the Fifth; when he died, Abbot Hugo Capet ascended the throne. The nickname appeared due to the fact that he always wore a mouth guard, i.e. the mantle of a secular priest, which emphasized his ecclesiastical rank after ascending to the throne as king. The reign of representatives of the Capetian dynasty is characterized by:

• Development of feudal relations.
• The emergence of new classes of French society - lords, feudal lords, vassals, dependent peasants. Vassals were in the service of lords and feudal lords, who were obliged to protect their subjects. The latter paid them not only through military service, but also tribute in the form of food and cash rent.
• There were constant religious wars, which coincided with the period of the Crusades in Europe, which began in 1195.
• The Capetians and many French were participants in the Crusades, participating in the defense and liberation of the Holy Sepulcher.

The Capetians ruled until 1328, bringing France to a new level of development. But the heirs of Hugo Capet failed to stay in power. The Middle Ages dictated its own rules, and a stronger and more cunning politician, whose name was Philip VI from the Valois dynasty, soon came to power.

The influence of humanism and the Renaissance on the development of the kingdom

During the 16th-19th centuries. France was ruled first by the Valois and then by the Bourbons, who belonged to one of the branches of the Capetian dynasty. The Valois also belonged to this family and were in power until the end of the 16th century. After them the throne until the mid-19th century. belonged to the Bourbons. The first king of this dynasty on the French throne was Henry the Fourth, and the last was Louis Philippe, who was expelled from France during the period of change from monarchy to republic.

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, the country was ruled by Francis the First, under whom France completely emerged from the Middle Ages. His reign is characterized by:

• He made two trips to Italy to present the kingdom's claims to Milan and Naples. The first campaign was successful and France gained control of these Italian duchies for some time, but the second campaign was unsuccessful. And Francis the First lost territories on the Apennine Peninsula.
• Introduced a royal loan, which in 300 years would lead to the collapse of the monarchy and the crisis of the kingdom, which no one could overcome.
• Constantly fought with Charles the Fifth, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
• France's rival was also England, which at that time was ruled by Henry the Eighth.

Under this king of France, art, literature, architecture, science and Christianity entered a new period of development. This happened mainly due to the influence of Italian humanism.

Humanism was of particular importance for architecture, which is clearly visible in the castles built in the Loire River valley. The castles that were built in this part of the country to protect the kingdom began to turn into luxurious palaces. They were decorated with rich stucco, decor, and the interior was changed, which was distinguished by luxury.

Also, under Francis the First, book printing arose and began to develop, which had a huge influence on the formation of the French language, including the literary one.

Francis I was replaced on the throne by his son Henry II, who became the ruler of the kingdom in 1547. The policy of the new king was remembered by his contemporaries for his successful military campaigns, including against England. One of the battles, which is written about in all history textbooks dedicated to France in the 16th century, took place near Calais. No less famous are the battles of the British and French at Verdun, Toul, Metz, which Henry recaptured from the Holy Roman Empire.

Henry was married to Catherine de Medici, who belonged to the famous Italian family of bankers. The Queen ruled the country with her three sons on the throne:

• Francis II.
• Charles the Ninth.
• Henry the Third.

Francis reigned for only a year and then died of illness. He was succeeded by Charles the Ninth, who was ten years old at the time of his coronation. He was completely controlled by his mother, Catherine de Medici. Karl was remembered as a zealous champion of Catholicism. He constantly persecuted Protestants, who became known as Huguenots.

On the night of August 23-24, 1572, Charles the Ninth gave the order to purge all Huguenots in France. This event was called St. Bartholomew's Night, since the murders took place on the eve of St. Bartholomew. Two years after the massacre, Charles died and Henry III became king. His opponent for the throne was Henry of Navarre, but he was not chosen because he was a Huguenot, which did not suit most of the nobles and nobility.

France in the 17th-19th centuries.

These centuries were very turbulent for the kingdom. The main events include:

• In 1598, the Edict of Nantes, which was issued by Henry the Fourth, ended the religious wars in France. Huguenots became full members of French society.
• France took an active part in the first international conflict - the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1638.
• The kingdom experienced its "golden age" in the 17th century. under the reign of Louis the Thirteenth and Louis the Fourteenth, as well as the “gray” cardinals – Richelieu and Mazarin.
• The nobles constantly fought with the royal power to expand their rights.
• France 17th century constantly faced dynastic strife and internecine wars, which undermined the state from within.
• Louis the Fourteenth dragged the state into the War of the Spanish Succession, which caused the invasion of foreign countries into French territory.
• Kings Louis the Fourteenth and his great-grandson Louis the Fifteenth devoted enormous influence to the creation of a strong army, which made it possible to conduct successful military campaigns against Spain, Prussia and Austria.
• At the end of the 18th century, the Great French Revolution began in France, which caused the liquidation of the monarchy and the establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon.
• At the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon declared France an empire.
• In the 1830s. An attempt was made to restore the monarchy, which lasted until 1848.

In 1848, a revolution called the Spring of Nations broke out in France, as in other countries of Western and Central Europe. The consequence of the revolutionary 19th century was the establishment of the Second Republic in France, which lasted until 1852.

Second half of the 19th century. was no less exciting than the first. The Republic was overthrown, replaced by the dictatorship of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who ruled until 1870.

The Empire was replaced by the Paris Commune, which brought about the establishment of the Third Republic. It existed until 1940. At the end of the 19th century. The country's leadership pursued an active foreign policy, creating new colonies in different regions of the world:

• North Africa.
• Madagascar.
• Equatorial Africa.
• West Africa.

During the 80s - 90s. 19th centuries France constantly competed with Germany. The contradictions between states deepened and aggravated, which caused the separation of countries from each other. France found allies in England and Russia, which contributed to the formation of the Entente.

Features of development in the 20-21st centuries.

The First World War, which began in 1914, became a chance for France to regain lost Alsace and Lorraine. Germany, under the Treaty of Versailles, was forced to give this region back to the republic, as a result of which the borders and territory of France acquired modern contours.

During the interwar period, the country actively participated in the Paris Conference and fought for spheres of influence in Europe. Therefore, she actively took part in the actions of the Entente countries. In particular, together with Britain, it sent its ships to Ukraine in 1918 to fight against the Austrians and Germans, who were helping the government of the Ukrainian People's Republic drive the Bolsheviks out of its territory.

With the participation of France, peace treaties were signed with Bulgaria and Romania, which supported Germany in the First World War.

In the mid-1920s. Diplomatic relations were established with the Soviet Union, and a non-aggression pact was signed with the leadership of this country. Fearing the strengthening of the fascist regime in Europe and the activation of far-right organizations in the republic, France tried to create military-political alliances with European states. But France was not saved from the German attack in May 1940. Within a few weeks, Wehrmacht troops captured and occupied all of France, establishing a pro-fascist Vichy regime in the republic.

The country was liberated in 1944 by the forces of the Resistance Movement, the underground movement, and the allied armies of the United States and Britain.

The Second War hit the political, social and economic life of France hard. The Marshall Plan and the country's participation in economic European integration processes, which in the early 1950s, helped to overcome the crisis. unfolded in Europe. In the mid-1950s. France abandoned its colonial possessions in Africa, granting independence to the former colonies.

Political and economic life stabilized during the presidency of Charles de Gaulle, who led France in 1958. Under him, the Fifth Republic of France was proclaimed. De Gaulle made the country a leader on the European continent. Progressive laws were adopted that changed the social life of the republic. In particular, women received the right to vote, study, choose professions, and create their own organizations and movements.

In 1965, the country elected its head of state for the first time by universal suffrage. President de Gaulle, who remained in power until 1969. After him, the presidents in France were:

• Georges Pompidou – 1969-1974
• Valeria d'Estaing 1974-1981
• Francois Mitterrand 1981-1995
• Jacques Chirac – 1995-2007
• Nicolas Sarkozy - 2007-2012
• Francois Hollande – 2012-2017
• Emmanuel Macron – 2017 – until now.

After World War II, France developed active cooperation with Germany, becoming with it the locomotives of the EU and NATO. The government of the country since the mid-1950s. develops bilateral relations with the USA, Britain, Russia, countries of the Middle East, Asia. The French leadership provides support to former colonies in Africa.

Modern France is an actively developing European country, which is a participant in many European, international and regional organizations and influences the formation of the world market. There are internal problems in the country, but the well-thought-out successful policy of the government and the new leader of the republic, Macron, is helping to develop new methods of combating terrorism, the economic crisis, and the problem of Syrian refugees. France is developing in accordance with global trends, changing social and legal legislation so that both the French and migrants feel comfortable living in France.

In France, until the last quarter of the 18th century, absolutism reigned, the basis of which, as is known, was feudal relations. But in the depths of the feudal system, bourgeois relations gradually began to emerge and develop. This was evidenced by the increased importance of manufactories in the country's economy. Moreover, some manufactories were quite large. The development of manufactories made it possible to increase the production of industrial goods, which contributed to a significant expansion of French exports. During the period from 1716 to 1784, the export of industrial goods more than tripled.

Bourgeois relations also penetrated into the country's agriculture. Here, in some provinces, there was a property differentiation of the peasantry and the emergence of wealthy peasants who began to resort to hired labor as farm laborers from landless peasants. The development of manufactures also penetrated into the countryside, where the so-called dispersed manufacture became widespread. The peasants procured yarn for the buyer-manufacturers, combed cotton, etc.

Thus, the capitalist system was firmly established in France. However, its further development was impossible under the prevailing absolutist-feudal system in the country, which made it difficult, and often completely impossible, for the entrepreneurial activity of the bourgeoisie. Guild regulation also restrained capitalist production. Under these conditions, avoiding contradictions was unthinkable.

The year 1789 was a turning point in the history of France. It was in this year that all the contradictions between the feudal-absolutist system and the third estate reached their climax. In March and April of this year, a wave of peasant unrest swept across the country. At the same time, the urban poor came out in the cities, demanding bread and lower food prices.

The treasury was devastated, France's national debt reached enormous numbers. There was nothing to pay salaries to officials and the army. A way out of this situation was seen in the convening of the Estates General, which during the Middle Ages repeatedly rescued the French kings. During the rise of absolutism in France in 1614, they were disbanded and did not meet for 175 years.

On May 5, 1789, meetings of the Estates General opened in Versailles, the work of which attracted the attention of the whole country. Feeling the enormous support of the entire population, the third estate at the very first meetings came into sharp conflict with the royal court and the privileged classes.

So, on June 17 it proclaimed itself the National Assembly, and on July 9 the Constituent Assembly. This emphasized the most important task of the highest legislative body of France - to establish a new social system and Constitution.

And only in an atmosphere of political reaction and an attack on the democratic rights prevailing in the Constituent Assembly, the Feyants hastened to complete the work on developing the Constitution, begun in 1789. On September 3, 1791, this Constitution was signed by the king, approved by the Constituent Assembly and acquired the force of law.

Constitution of 1791 consisted of a preamble and 7 sections, which were divided into chapters (chapters into sections, sections into paragraphs). The preamble confirmed the abolition of all feudal rights and privileges, but the 1st section contained in expanded form the main provisions of the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” of 1789.

According to the form of the national structure, France was declared a single and indivisible state. It consisted of 83 departments, which were divided into districts and cantons. Articles 8 and 9 of Section 2 granted the right to French citizens to form communes in cities and rural areas and to choose from among themselves, for a certain period of time in the manner “prescribed by law,” municipal bodies called upon to conduct the local affairs of the community.

On September 21, 1792, meetings of the Convention, elected on the basis of a new electoral system, opened in Paris. The Convention included 750 deputies, of which about 200 belonged to the Girondins, about 100 to the Jacobins (Paris voted for them). The majority of deputies did not belong to any of these groups. Having no clear political views, depending on the developing situation, they joined either one or the other of these groups. Contemporaries mockingly called them “swamps.” This is how the legislative branch of government was created.

Constitution of 1793 differed significantly from the first one in 1791. It was the most democratic of all known constitutions of the 18th-19th centuries. It was based on the political ideas of Rousseau - on the principles of freedom, equality and popular sovereignty, succinctly formulated in the new “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” written by Robespierre.

All government positions were to be held only for a certain period of time. The right to review and amend the Constitution was granted only to the people.

The Constitution of 1793 established a republic in France, which was declared “one and indivisible.” The peculiarity of this Constitution was that it was not built on the principle of separation of powers. According to Art. 7 the supreme power was declared to belong to the sovereign people, which is the totality of all French citizens.

Only the people could choose their representatives. All French people who had reached the age of 21 and had lived in one place for at least six months enjoyed voting rights.

Article 122 of the Constitution proclaimed: equality, freedom, security, freedom of conscience, universal education, as well as the enjoyment of all human rights.

However, it should be noted that this, undoubtedly the most democratic Constitution for that time, never entered into legal force. There are several reasons for this. The main one was that the Jacobins, having come to power, very soon embarked on the path of terror in relation not only to their enemies, but also to all dissidents. And, as you know, terror and democracy do not get along. Therefore, this Constitution was suspended. During the reign of the Jacobins, it was, as it were, the ultimate goal of their being in power and the justification for the ever-flaming terror.

As noted above, the Jacobins came to power during a very difficult period. To save the revolution, decisive measures were needed. First of all, it was necessary to create a state mechanism that would allow an effective fight against counter-revolution, hunger and external enemies. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the Decree of the Convention “On the revolutionary order of government” of October 10, 1793 noted that the order of government in France would be revolutionary until the conclusion of peace. Based on these conditions, the state mechanism under the Jacobins looked like this.

The highest authority in the country continued to be the Convention, which was declared “the only center of control.” He had the power to make and interpret laws. The Convention governed the country through a system of committees and commissions it created. However, the most important were the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of Public Safety, whose members were elected by the Convention. These committees, created at the second stage of the revolution, only became truly functioning bodies under the Jacobins.

The most important bodies for carrying out the Jacobin terror were the Committee of Public Safety and the revolutionary tribunals. The Committee of Public Safety, after its reorganization by the Jacobins, began to lead the fight against internal and external counter-revolution.

On September 5, 1793, on the initiative of M. Robespierre, the Decree “On the reorganization of the revolutionary tribunal” was adopted. The local bodies of the revolutionary government were the Commissars of the Convention, sent with emergency powers to departments and the army, as well as to municipalities, popular societies and revolutionary committees. The commissioners oversaw recruitment, investigated abuses, and supervised generals and officers.

The above organization of state power allowed the Jacobins to repel external aggression from European monarchies and suppress internal counter-revolution. In addition, they took a hard line in the area of ​​economic crimes. Thus, the following decrees were adopted: “Against speculation” of July 26, 1793, “On establishing a maximum of prices and wages” of September 29, 1793, “On the establishment of a single maximum throughout the entire territory of the Republic” of November 1, 1793, which established very strict penalties for their violations. It is quite clear that the decrees were implemented through the most severe terror, which, in the end, deprived the Jacobins of social support and led to death.

On Thermidor 9 (July 27), 1794, all opponents of the Jacobin terror united and arrested M. Robespierre, Saint-Just and their other most prominent supporters, who were soon executed. The Jacobin rule, which lasted a year and one month, ended. It was this period that was characterized by the presence of enormous casualties both on the part of opponents of the revolution and on the part of its supporters.

Constitution of the Third Republic can be generally characterized as a document that introduced the principles of the constitutional monarchy of post-revolutionary France into the republican structure. Legislative power here belonged to two chambers - the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Both these chambers could, in certain cases, unite and sit together under the name "National Assembly". This concerned the election of the President and the adoption of amendments to the Constitution.

The Senate occupied a special position in this Constitution. It was this body that was thought of as a springboard for the subsequent transition to a monarchical form of government. It was formed in two ways: 75 people were appointed for life, and 225 were elected by electoral colleges by department for a period of 9 years. Every three years the Senate was renewed by 1/3. For elections to the Senate, the age limit was set at no younger than 40 years. In addition to the fact that the Senate had equal rights with the lower house in the field of legislation (with the exception of financial laws), it also had special powers. It had the jurisdiction of a special court to try crimes committed by the President or ministers on charges brought by the Chamber of Deputies (a kind of impeachment), as well as to try certain categories of political crimes “threatening the integrity or security of the state.” Finally, the consent of the Senate was necessary for the President to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies before the expiration of its terms. In 1884, the procedure for staffing the Senate was changed: from life-long senators to elected ones for a term. However, it should be noted here that this innovation applied only to those who replaced retiring senators for life. In other words, those 75 people who were appointed for life continued to exercise their powers until their death.

The Chamber of Deputies consisted of 600 people elected for 4 years by universal suffrage. But none of the above constitutional laws contained rules regulating suffrage. Special legislation confirmed universal male suffrage (from 21 years of age), but women, military personnel, the bulk of the population of the colonies, and persons living in the electoral district for less than 6 months did not take part in the elections. This system led to the fact that out of the 40 million population of France, 12 million enjoyed the right to vote. The Chamber of Deputies, like the Senate, had the right of legislative initiative, adoption of laws, exercised control over the activities of ministers by submitting requests, etc. Its exclusive authority was, as already indicated above, the initial consideration and adoption of financial laws.

The legislative power constructed in this way made the Senate a body that was supposed to restrain the radical aspirations of the lower house, elected by general elections.

The articles in all three books are characterized by clarity of formulation and conciseness. Standing above all the codes that existed at that time, due to the fact that it recognized in principle the equality of citizens, the Civil Code became a set of laws that formed the basis for the codification of civil law in all parts of the world.

The spread of the Code was greatly facilitated by the wars of conquest waged by France under Napoleon. In 1804 the Code was introduced in Belgium and Piedmont; in 1806 - in Bavaria and Lucca; in 1808 - in Westphalia and Holland; in 1809 - in Sicily; in 1810 - in Baden and Poland. It had a strong influence on civil law in Latin America, Romania, Greece, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, etc. The Italian Civil Code of 1865, although it changes some institutions, follows, in general, the French Civil Code.

Thus, summing up the question of the history of the creation of the Civil Code of France, we can conclude that the need for its development was acutely felt at all stages of the bourgeois revolution. However, only the persistence and determination of Napoleon Bonaparte allowed France to obtain the most modern civil code for that period of time. He himself was well aware of the significance of his creation. In one of his letters from Fr. St. Helena, he wrote: “My glory is not that I won 40 battles; one defeat at Waterloo will eclipse the rest of the victories in the memory of posterity. But what will never die, what will live for centuries - this is my civil code.” The Civil Code of 1804 was reissued several times, changing its name. So, in 1804 it was called the “Civil Code of the French”, in 1807 - the “Napoleonic Code”, in 1816 - the “Civil Code”, in 1852 it again became the “Napoleonic Code”. This last name was not destroyed by law. But in practice, after the establishment of the republic, it received the stable name “Civil Code”, which is still in force in France at the present time, albeit with a large number of amendments.

Ownership. The central institution of all that is regulated by the code is the right of property. It was in this section that the most significant and radical changes were made compared to the old legislation.

Articles 544, 546 of the Code provide a classic definition of property rights. According to the title of 1 book. 2 all property was divided into movable and immovable. The Code goes into great detail on the differences between these types of property, giving specific examples.

Issues of the law of obligations are reflected in the third book, “On the various ways in which property is acquired.” Analyzing the mandatory law under the Civil Code of 1804, one can highlight its characteristic features.

1. The Code provides a wide range of contracts (purchase and sale, loan, lease, pledge, partnership agreement, etc.).

Art. 1101 defines a contract as an agreement by which one or more persons undertake to another person or to several persons to give something, to do something or not to do anything. Here we see that only individuals can be parties to contracts. The code did not introduce the concept of a legal entity. The latter was due to the fact that the bourgeoisie was afraid of the emergence of workers' organizations.

The first group included crimes directed against the security of the state (there was a distinction between internal and external security), against the imperial Constitution, and against imperial peace (this also included crimes against the order of government). The second group included crimes against the person and property. The latter crimes included willful bankruptcy and fraud.

Police penalties included: imprisonment from one to five days, a fine from one to fifteen francs inclusive, as well as confiscation of certain items that were seized (Articles 464-467). The application of all the above punishments is described in detail in the first and fourth books of the code.

Thus, the Criminal Code of 1810 gave France a unified criminal law in place of many local regulations and customs. Here an attempt is made to put an end to the arbitrariness of judges both in terms of recognizing actions as criminal and in choosing punishment for them. In addition, all citizens, although formally, became equally responsible before the criminal law, and no penalties were established for religious crimes.

Procedural law. In 1808, the Code of Criminal Procedure was adopted in France. In it in Art. 9 defined the circle of persons performing the functions of the judicial police. Their competence is revealed in book two, “On Justice.” It also provides for the introduction of so-called police tribunals, which would consider cases of police violations of the Criminal Code of 1810.

The Code of Criminal Procedure of 1808 introduced the so-called “mixed” process, which was divided into preliminary and final. At the pre-trial stage, the code reproduced the basics of the search process according to the 1670 ordinance. At this stage, the defense was not allowed (it was introduced only by the law of 1897), and the rights of the accused were restricted. He could not even be present at the interrogation of witnesses; however, he could ask to call them, but this request was not obligatory for the investigating judge. The Code of Criminal Procedure of 1808 gave the police the broadest powers to make arrests and searches. At the same time, strict secrecy of the preliminary investigation was maintained, which put the accused in a powerless position before the investigative authorities. As we can see, at the preliminary investigation stage, “methods and methods proven by the Middle Ages” are used. However, the revolution introduced some innovations into procedural law at this stage. Firstly, the person conducting the preliminary investigation was subordinate to the prosecutor, who not only supervised him, but also supervised him. Secondly, torture was no longer used as a source of evidence.

200,000 - 35,000 years ago, all of present-day France was inhabited by Neanderthals who had the skills of stone processing using the “Levallois technique”. At sites dating back to this period of history, found near the French cities of Les Eyzies (fr. Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil ) and Moustier (fr. Moustier ), in the Dordogne department numerous stone tools were found: side scrapers, handaxes, hammers, chisels. From the drawings left on the walls of the caves, it can be concluded that people of that time hunted bison, bison, wolves, horses and deer. The oldest French burials were also discovered here: the dead were buried in pits measuring 1.4 x 1 x 0.3 meters along with offerings in the form of stone tools, food, etc.

Celtic period

The increasing density of settlement of the territory and the inevitable contacts of nomadic tribes with their neighbors led to the mixing and mutual enrichment of their cultures. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, in the center of Europe (see map), a stable community of tribes of Indo-European origin, similar in language and material culture and currently called “Celts”, had formed. It is believed that the spread of Celtic tribes in Europe occurred in two major stages. In the first stage, which took place from 1500 to 700. BC e., the advance of the Celts to the eastern part of modern France was predominantly peaceful. Initially nomadic with their herds of domestic animals, in 1200-900 BC. e. The Celts began to settle on the occupied land and began to cultivate it. It was at this time that the Celts had their first permanent settlements, fortified from attacks by hostile tribes.

At the end of the 8th century BC. e. the Celts mastered iron processing techniques (see article Iron Age). With the advent of iron swords and war horses, a layer of military aristocracy emerged among the Celts, which led to colossal changes in the social structure of tribes that had previously only been engaged in cultivating the land and were built on the principles of general equality. In the graves of noble warriors, such as in the village of Vix (Fr. Vix ) in the Côte d'Or department (fr. Cote-d'Or) in the French region of Burgundy (fr. Bourgogne)), archaeologists found luxurious carts. In these same burials, scientists have discovered luxury items made in different parts of the Mediterranean (in particular, from Egypt), which gives an idea of ​​the scale of the wealth of the Celtic aristocracy and the level of development of trade of that era.

The further development of trade led to the creation of Greek sailors of their “representative offices” along the entire Mediterranean coast. So, around 600 BC. e. Phocian Greeks founded the city of Massalia (lat. Massilia, Greek Μασσαλία ), in our time - Marseille (fr. Marseille). The rapid growth of this settlement was ensured by the massive migration of Greeks from Phokis during its siege by the Persians around 550 BC. e. Massalia became one of the centers of trade and widespread Greek influence on the European part of the continent.

The second stage of the spread of the Celts to the western part of Europe began with the period of the La Tène culture in the 6th century BC. e. This time is characterized by significant changes in the way of life of the Celtic tribes. The divided military nobility gives way to soldiers recruited from ordinary peasants and under the leadership of a tribal leader, and the wooden plow is replaced by the plow with an iron coulter, which made it possible to cultivate the hard soil of the central and northern part of modern France. These changes made it possible to conquer and develop new lands, which, in turn, led to an increase in population and the need for new conquests. The military activity of the Celts interrupted trade ties centered on Marseille for a whole century, but by the end of the 4th century BC. e. the city regained its former influence in the trade sphere, as evidenced by ancient Greek pottery and coins discovered by archaeologists throughout the Rhine Valley, in the Alps and even Lorraine.

At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. the Celtic lands were invaded by Belgian tribes who came from the south and west of modern Germany, and by 250 BC. e. captured the Massif Central and Languedoc. Despite the territorial losses, the Celtic civilization was experiencing rapid development at this time and was approaching the highest point of its prosperity: fortified cities (oppidum - lat. oppidum, plural oppida), which in terms of their power and size cannot be compared with previous structures, and money is actively circulated within the state.

For the 2nd century BC. e. characterized by the dominance in Europe of the Celtic tribe of the Arverni, distinguished by their military power and the wealth of their leaders, as well as the deep penetration, initially only economic, of the Romans into the southern part of Gaul: according to the results of archaeological excavations, it can be seen that during the 2nd century BC. e. Greek amphorae are almost going out of use, giving way to Italian ones, and the inhabitants of the Greek colony of Marseille are increasingly turning to Rome for protection from Celto-Ligurian raids and Arverni oppression. However, the Romans did not limit themselves to trade relations with the Gauls and organized military expansion into their lands.

Roman Gaul

Historical maps of France. Table I. I. Gaul under Yu. Caesar. II. Gaul under Augustus. III. Gaul in 476 IV. Frankish kingdom. V. Formation of the monarchy of Charlemagne.

The territory of present-day France in ancient times was part of Transalpine Gaul, as the Romans called the country bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel, the Rhine and the Alps. The Romans established themselves first in the southern, coastal strip of this vast territory, to unite Italy with Spain, and gave the conquered area the name Narbonese Gaul (about 120 BC). From here in 58-50. BC e. Julius Caesar conquered the other three parts, which were called Aquitaine (according to the Garonne), Celtic Gaul (according to the Loire and Seine) and Belgian (from the Seine to the Rhine; see Table I, Map I).

Medieval France

The Merovingians (late 5th century - 751) are considered the first royal dynasty in the Frankish state. The dynasty was named after the semi-legendary founder of the family - Merovey. The most famous representative is Clovis I (ruled from 481 to 511, from 486 king of the Franks). The last is considered to be Childeric III (ruled from 743 to 751, died in 754). Their capital from 561 was Metz. Since 751, the Frankish state was ruled by the Carolingians. Despite being called Roman emperors since 800, the capital of the Carolingians was the city of Aachen. The Frankish Empire split into three parts in 843.

Historical maps of France. Table II. VI. France in 987 VII. France in 1180 VIII. France in 1328 IX. France in the 14th and 15th centuries.

France also had a region outside of Gaul - south of the Pyrenees (Spanish Mark of Charlemagne). During the last Carolingians, France began to split into feudal possessions, and with the accession of the Capetian dynasty to the throne (in 987; see Table II, Map VI) there were nine main possessions in the kingdom: 1) County of Flanders, 2) Duchy of Normandy, 3 ) Duchy of France, 4) Duchy of Burgundy, 5) Duchy of Aquitaine (Guienne), 6) Duchy of Gascony, 7) County of Toulouse, 8) Marquisate of Gothia and 9) County of Barcelona (Spanish Mark). Over time, fragmentation went even further; From the named possessions, new ones emerged, of which the most significant were the counties of Brittany, Blois, Anjou, Troyes, Nevers, and Bourbon.

The immediate possession of the first kings of the Capetian dynasty was a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris and very slowly expanding in different directions; during the first two centuries (987-1180) it only doubled (cf. Table II, maps VI and VII). At the same time, most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.

The era of the estate monarchy

The era of absolute monarchy

France in 1789-1914

Main article: History of France (1789-1914)

The French Revolution ( -)

Since the last third of the 18th century, Europe entered a period of revolutions (Belgium, the Netherlands). Previously, the revolution in France was considered bourgeois, but in the 60-70s. XX century began to believe that different segments of the population participated in it. Capitalism began to develop earlier. Many seigneurial farms have already switched to the capitalist mode. The industrial bourgeoisie itself was economically weak. It is sometimes said that this was a movement for civil liberty against the tyranny of the Bourbons.

The monarchy tried to adapt to the emerging conditions, but this caused discontent among the nobility. Louis XVI carried out reforms for freedom of capitalist relations. For example, in the mid-80s he adopted tax reforms that included the elimination of tax benefits for the nobility and clergy. In 1787, a meeting of the Notables was convened, at which the Comptroller General of Finance (the head of the executive branch) proposed the introduction of a unified land tax. The notables demanded his resignation. Necker was appointed, who suggested that Louis XVI convene the Estates General, which had not been convened since 1614, to support the reforms. They opened on May 5, 1789. The first conflict arose over the procedural issue of how to vote.

First stage of the revolution: June 17, 1789 - October 5-6, 1789

Second Empire (1852-1870)

After Napoleon III was captured by the Germans near Sedan (September) during the Franco-Prussian War, the National Assembly meeting in Bordeaux deposed him (September Revolution), and the Second Empire ceased to exist.

Third Republic (1870-1914)

An attempt to resist German troops advancing on the French capital led to the establishment of the Paris Commune between March 18 and May 28, 1871, which was defeated after 72 days of existence.

At the end of the 19th century. France made major colonial conquests, taking part in the "Race for Africa", and became the owner of the world's second largest colonial empire. The Fashoda crisis in 1898 brought France to the brink of war with Great Britain, but war was avoided. French Indochina was created. In 1881, France established a protectorate over Tunisia, in 1893 over Laos, and in 1912 over most of Morocco.

In 1891, an agreement was signed to create a Franco-Russian union. In 1904, an agreement on the alliance between France and Great Britain was signed. This is how the Entente came to be.

World War I

Interwar period

In 1924, a new coalition government of socialists and radicals, chaired by Edouard Herriot, came to power in France. The country began an economic recovery.

On May 13, 1958, there was a military mutiny in Algeria led by General Jacques Massu, who demanded the transfer of power to de Gaulle. On June 1, 1958, de Gaulle formed a new government. That same year, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted by referendum, expanding the rights of the executive branch. De Gaulle was elected president.

see also

• France in 2000 (Future World cards)
• History of France (1789-1914)

Notes

1. Catalog of the main human sites in the Stone Age
2. Here is the most widely used translation of the city name. In some cases, the city name is translated Shiyak(see article Communes of the Charente department). In relation to the name of the ancient site, the term is used Shiyak(see article Europe in the Stone Age and the work of V. S. Titov)
3. Some scientists question the man-made nature of the objects found there.
4. This name is given by TSB. According to some sources the correct name is Gyuntskoe
5. MEMO - History resource (French)
6. "Knowledge is power". 1978 No. 3
7. See also Combarel's article
8. See also the article Mousterian culture
9. Bernard Vandermeersh, "Cro-Magnon (homme de)" in Dictionnaire de la Préhistoire, ed. André Leroi-Gourhan, Presses universitaires de France, Paris, (French)
10. For example, in the French city of Carnac (fr. Carnac ) 2,935 menhirs stretched over 4 kilometers.
11. Jan Philip. Celtic civilization and its heritage
12. Here is the most widely used translation of the village name. In some cases, the city name is translated In and(see article Communes of the Côte d'Or department)
13. One of the most important political forces of that time were the Romans, from whose written heritage modern scientists draw the most accurate information about the culture and life of Europe. In Roman sources, the Celts are called Gauls, and the lands, according to the Romans, occupied by these tribes are called Gaul. And despite the fact that Gaul, whose borders are described by the Romans, is much more extensive than the Celtic possessions, in modern literature (especially popular science) these concepts are accepted as identical.
14. French court recognizes French participation in the Holocaust

Literature

The most complete bibliography on the history of pre-revolutionary France was published in 1888 by G. Monod (see), under the title “Bibliographie de l’histoire de France” (cf. Historiography in France). Wed. also M. Petrov, “National historiography in France, Germany and England” (1861).

General essays. Simonde de Sismondi, "Histoire des Français" (1821-44); Monteil, "Histoire des Français des divers états"; Michelet, "Histoire de France" (1845-67); H. Martin, “Histoire de France” (1856 sq.); Guizot, “Histoire de France, racontée à mes petits enfants” (1870-75); Rambaud, "Hist. de la civilization française" and "Histoire de la civilization contemporaine" (1888); E. Lavisse (in collaboration with a number of scientists), “Histoire de France depuis les origines jusqu"à la révolution” (1901 et seq.; this work has just begun to appear).

Atlas: Lognon, “Atlas historique de la France” (1888); general historical atlases by Droysen, Schrader and others. In German literature - E. A. Schmidt, “Geschichte von Frankreich” (1839-49), with continuation by Wachsmuth.

Earliest period - see Gaul and Gauls. Frankish period - see Frankish Kingdom, Merovingians and Carolingians. Feudalism - see the article about it for historiography and bibliographical information. The era of growth of royal power - see Capetians, Communes, Third Estate, Parliaments, Government officials, Hundred Years' War. The era of reformation of the Catholic religion and the wars of religion - see Huguenots and Reformation. Age of royal absolutism - see Richelieu, Louis XIII, XIV, XV and XVI.

History of France in the 19th century: Gregoire, “History of France in the 19th century.” (1893 et ​​seq.); Rochau, “History of France from the overthrow of Napoleon I to the restoration of the empire” (1865); N. Kareev, “Political history of France in the 19th century.” (1901; this work contains a detailed bibliography of all books and articles in Russian).

The era of consulate and empire - see Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon as commander. Restoration - see

France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, a document that laid the foundations of bourgeois law in Europe.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789

Image of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
By Jean-Jacques-François Le Barbier

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (French Declaration des Droits de l "Homme et du Citoyen) is the most important document of the French Revolution, defining individual human rights. The Declaration was adopted by the National Constituent Assembly (French Assemblée nationale constituante) on August 26, 1789.

The ideas of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen are based on the concept of equality and freedom that belongs to everyone from birth. Personal freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of belief, and the right to resist oppression were declared the natural rights of man and citizen.

The Declaration still forms the basis of French constitutional law. It was confirmed by the French constitution on October 4, 1958. On July 16, 1971, the French Constitutional Council recognized the Declaration as a legally binding document, the violation of which amounts to unconstitutionality.

In 2003, UNESCO included the declaration in the Memory of the World register.

Prerequisites

By the end of the 18th century, the preconditions for a bourgeois revolution had developed in France. The absolute monarchy, which once played a progressive role in the formation of a single national state, has now become a reactionary force, inhibiting the development of capitalism and jealously guarding the numerous privileges of the nobility and clergy.

A revolutionary situation arose in 1789. Peasants, ruined by feudal duties and taxes and especially by the poor harvest of 1788, flocked in droves to the cities, where they swelled the ranks of the poor.

General dissatisfaction with the government's policies forced the king in the spring of 1789 to convene the Estates General, which had not met for 175 years. The number of representatives of the third estate was equal to the number of deputies of the nobility and clergy taken together. The leading position among the deputies of the third estate was occupied by the bourgeoisie, which demanded joint discussion of decisions and voting with other estates.

With this order of work of the states of the bourgeoisie, victory would have been ensured, since among the deputies of the nobility and clergy there were people who shared the views of the third estate. But representatives of the privileged classes refused to accept this proposal. In response, the bourgeoisie decided to “cut the rope” and on June 17 declared the deputies of the third estate to be the “National Assembly”.

The decisive moment in the development of events was the uprising of the working masses of Paris on July 14, 1789, which was the beginning of the revolution. It strengthened the position of the national assembly, which began to call itself the Constituent Assembly - fr. Constituante, and actually transferred power into the hands of the big bourgeoisie.

Adoption

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was approved on August 26, 1789. It reflected the ideas of natural law, which were then the theoretical weapon of the struggle of all oppressed classes against the feudal system. The declaration formulated a number of democratic and humanistic principles.

The proclamation of freedom and equality (at that time it was only about political equality and equality before the law) as natural and inalienable human rights (Article 1) was directed against despotism and the class system.

Declaration and feminism

Word fr. Homme in the title of the document can be translated into Russian as “person” and as “man”. In 1789, the text of the declaration applied exclusively to men. From the very beginning, this raised objections from feminists.

Thus, in September 1791, Olympe de Gouges published a parody “Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen.” Following the adoption of the Constitution of the Fourth French Republic on October 13, 1946, women were given equal rights to men and the Declaration was understood to apply to every person, regardless of gender.