In vocabulary, the main means of expressiveness are trails(translated from Greek - turn, turn, image) - special figurative and expressive means of language, based on the use of words in a figurative meaning.

The main types of tropes include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis (periphrase), hyperbole, litotes, irony.

Special lexical figurative and expressive means of language (tropes)

Epithet(translated from Greek - application, addition) is a figurative definition that marks an essential feature for a given context in the depicted phenomenon.

The epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness and imagery. The epithet is based on a hidden comparison.

Epithets include all “colorful” definitions, which are most often expressed by adjectives.

For example: sad and orphaned Earth(F.I. Tyutchev), gray fog, lemon light, silent peace(I.A. Bunin).

Epithets can also be expressed:

- nouns , acting as applications or predicates, giving a figurative characteristic of the subject.

For example: sorceress - winter; mother is the damp earth; The poet is a lyre, and not just the nanny of his soul(M. Gorky);

- adverbs , acting as circumstances.

For example: In the wild north it stands alone....(M. Yu. Lermontov); The leaves were tensely stretched in the wind(K. G. Paustovsky);

- participles .

For example: the waves rush thundering and sparkling;

- pronouns , expressing the superlative degree of a particular state of the human soul.

For example: After all, there were fighting fights, Yes, they say, some more!(M. Yu. Lermontov);

- participles And participial phrases .

For example: Nightingales announce the forest limits with their thundering words(B. L. Pasternak); I also admit the appearance of... greyhound writers who cannot prove where they spent the night yesterday, and who have no other words in their language except the words not remembering kinship (M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

The creation of figurative epithets is usually associated with the use of words in a figurative meaning.

From the point of view of the type of figurative meaning of the word acting as an epithet, all epithets are divided into:

metaphorical (they are based on a metaphorical figurative meaning.

For example: a golden cloud, a bottomless sky, a lilac fog, a walking cloud and a standing tree.

Metaphorical epithets– a striking sign of the author’s style:

You are my cornflower blue word,
I love you forever.
How does our cow live now?
Are you tugging at straw sadness?
(S.A. Yesenin. “I haven’t seen such beautiful ones?”);

How greedily the world of the soul is at night
Hears the story of his beloved!
(Tyutchev. “What are you howling about, night wind?”).

metonymic (they are based on metonymic figurative meaning.

For example: suede gait(V.V. Nabokov); scratchy look(M. Gorky); birch cheerful tongue(S. A. Yesenin).

From a genetic point of view epithets are divided into:

- general language (deathly silence, leaden waves),

- folk-poetic (permanent) ( red sun, wild wind, good fellow).

In poetic folklore, an epithet, which together with the word it defines, constitutes a stable phrase, served, in addition to its content, mnemonic function (gr. mnemo nicon- the art of memorization).

Constant epithets made it easier for the singer and narrator to perform the work. Any folklore text is full of such, mostly “decorating”, epithets.

« In folklore, writes literary critic V.P. Anikin, the girl is always beautiful, the fellow is kind, the father is dear, the kids are small, the fellow is daring, the body is white, the hands are white, the tears are flammable, the voice is loud, bow - low, table - oak, wine - green, vodka - sweet, eagle - gray, flower - scarlet, stone - flammable, sand - loose, night - dark, forest - stagnant, mountains - steep, forests - dense, cloud - menacing , the winds are violent, the field is clean, the sun is red, the bow is tight, the tavern is Tsarev, the saber is sharp, the wolf is gray, etc.»

Depending on the genre, the selection of epithets varied somewhat. Recreation of style, or stylization of folk genres, involves the widespread use of constant epithets. So, they abound " A song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young oprichnik and the daring merchant Kalashnikov» Lermontov: red sun, blue clouds, golden crown, formidable king, daring fighter, strong thought, black thought, hot heart, heroic shoulders, sharp saber etc.

An epithet can incorporate the properties of many tropes . Based on metaphor or at metonymy , it can also be combined with personification... misty and quiet azure above sad and orphaned earth(F.I. Tyutchev), hyperbole (Autumn already knows that such a deep and silent peace is a harbinger of long bad weather(I.A. Bunin) and other paths and figures.

The role of epithets in the text

All epithets as bright, “illuminating” definitions are aimed at enhancing the expressiveness of the images of depicted objects or phenomena, at highlighting their most significant features.

In addition, epithets can:

Strengthen, emphasize any characteristic features of objects.

For example: Wandering between the rocks, a yellow ray crept into the wild cave and illuminated the smooth skull...(M. Yu. Lermontov);

Clarify the distinctive features of an object (shape, color, size, quality):.

For example: The forest, like a painted tower, Lilac, golden, crimson, A cheerful, motley wall Stands above a bright clearing(I. A. Bunin);

Create combinations of words that are contrasting in meaning and serve as the basis for creating an oxymoron: wretched luxury(L.N. Tolstoy), brilliant shadow(E. A. Baratynsky);

Convey the author’s attitude towards the depicted, express the author’s assessment and perception of the phenomenon: ...Dead words smell bad(N.S. Gumilyov); And we value the prophetic word, and we honor the Russian word, And we will not change the power of the word(S. N. Sergeev-Tsensky); What does this smiling mean? blessing heaven, this happy, resting earth?(I. S. Turgenev)

Figurative epithets highlight the essential aspects of what is depicted without introducing a direct assessment (“ in the blue sea fog», « in the dead sky" and so on.).

In expressive (lyrical) epithets , on the contrary, the attitude towards the depicted phenomenon is clearly expressed (“ images of crazy people flash», « a languid night story»).

It should be borne in mind that this division is quite arbitrary, since figurative epithets also have an emotional and evaluative meaning.

Epithets are widely used in artistic and journalistic, as well as colloquial and popular scientific styles of speech.

Comparison is a visual technique based on the comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another.

Unlike metaphor comparison is always binomial : it names both compared objects (phenomena, signs, actions).

For example: The villages are burning, they have no protection. The sons of the fatherland are defeated by the enemy, And the glow, like an eternal meteor, Playing in the clouds, frightens the eye.(M. Yu. Lermontov)

Comparisons are expressed in various ways:

Form of the instrumental case of nouns.

For example: Youth flew by like a flying nightingale, Joy faded away like a wave in bad weather.(A.V. Koltsov) The moon slides like a pancake in sour cream.(B. Pasternak) Leaves flew like stars.(D. Samoilov) The flying rain sparkles golden in the sun.(V. Nabokov) Icicles hang like glass fringes.(I. Shmelev) A rainbow hangs from a birch tree with a patterned clean towel.(N. Rubtsov)

The comparative form of an adjective or adverb.

For example: These eyes are greener than the sea and our cypress trees are darker.(A. Akhmatova) A girl's eyes are brighter than roses.(A.S. Pushkin) But the eyes are bluer than the day.(S. Yesenin) Rowan bushes are more misty than the depths.(S. Yesenin) Youth is more free.(A.S. Pushkin) Truth is more valuable than gold.(Proverb) The throne room is brighter than the sun. M. Tsvetaeva)

Comparative turnover with unions as if, as if, as if and etc.

For example: Like a predatory beast, the winner bursts into the humble monastery with bayonets...(M. Yu. Lermontov) April looks at the birds' flight with eyes as blue as ice.(D. Samoilov) Every village here is so loving, As if it contains the beauty of the whole universe. (A. Yashin) And they stand behind oak nets Like forest evil spirits, hemp.(S. Yesenin) Like a bird in a cage, My heart leaps.(M. Yu. Lermontov) To my poems like precious wines, Your turn will come.(M. I. Tsvetaeva) It's almost noon. The heat is blazing. Like a plowman, the battle rests. (A.S. Pushkin) The past, like the bottom of the sea, spreads like a pattern into the distance.(V. Bryusov)

Beyond the river in peace
The cherry blossomed
Like snow across the river
The stitch was flooded.
Like light snowstorms
They rushed at full speed,
It was as if swans were flying,
They dropped the fluff.(A. Prokofiev)

With words similar, similar, this.

For example: Your eyes are like the eyes of a cautious cat(A. Akhmatova);

Using comparative clauses.

For example: Golden leaves swirled in the pinkish water of the pond, Like a light flock of butterflies, it flies breathlessly towards a star. (S. A. Yesenin) The rain sows, sows, sows, It has been drizzling since midnight, Hanging like a muslin curtain outside the windows. (V. Tushnova) Heavy snow, spinning, covered the Sunless Heights, It was as if hundreds of white wings flew silently. (V. Tushnova) Like a tree silently shedding its leaves, So I drop sad words.(S. Yesenin) How the king loved rich palaces, So I fell in love with the ancient roads And the blue eyes of eternity!(N. Rubtsov)

Comparisons can be direct Andnegative

Negative comparisons are especially characteristic of oral folk poetry and can serve as a way of stylizing the text.

For example: This is not a horse's top, Not human rumor... (A.S. Pushkin)

A special type of comparison is represented by detailed comparisons, with the help of which entire texts can be constructed.

For example, the poem by F. I. Tyutchev “ Like over hot ashes...»:
Like over hot ashes
The scroll smokes and burns
And the fire is hidden and dull
Devours words and lines -

My life is dying so sadly
And every day it goes up in smoke,
So I gradually fade away
In unbearable monotony!..

Oh Heaven, if only once
This flame developed at will -
And, without languishing, without suffering any longer,
I would shine - and go out!

The role of comparisons in text

Comparisons, like epithets, are used in the text in order to enhance its figurativeness and imagery, create more vivid, expressive images and highlight, emphasize any significant features of the depicted objects or phenomena, as well as for the purpose of expressing the author’s assessments and emotions.

For example:
I like it, my friend,
When the word melts
And when it sings
The line is covered in heat,
So that words glow from words,
So that when they take flight,
They twisted and fought to sing,
To be eaten like honey.
(A. A. Prokofiev);

In every soul it seems to live, burn, glow, like a star in the sky, and, like a star, it goes out when it, having completed its journey in life, flies from our lips... It happens that an extinguished star for us, people on earth, burns for another thousand years. (M. M. Prishvin)

Comparisons as a means of linguistic expressiveness can be used not only in literary texts, but also in journalistic, colloquial, and scientific ones.

Metaphor(translated from Greek - transfer) is a word or expression that is used in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena for some reason. Sometimes they say that a metaphor is a hidden comparison.

For example, metaphor A red rowan fire is burning in the garden (S. Yesenin) contains a comparison of rowan brushes with the flame of a fire.

Many metaphors have become commonplace in everyday use and therefore do not attract attention and have lost their imagery in our perception.

For example: the bank has burst, the dollar is walking, my head is spinning and etc.

Unlike a comparison, which contains both what is being compared and what is being compared with, a metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness in the use of the word.

A metaphor can be based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, volume, purpose, sensations, etc.

For example: a waterfall of stars, an avalanche of letters, a wall of fire, an abyss of grief, a pearl of poetry, a spark of love and etc.

All metaphors are divided into two groups:

1) general language (“erased”)

For example: golden hands, storm in a teacup, moving mountains, heartstrings, love faded ;

2) artistic (individual author’s, poetic)

For example: And the stars fade diamond thrill in the painless cold of dawn (M. Voloshin); Empty skies transparent glass(A. Akhmatova); AND blue, bottomless eyes bloom on the far shore. (A. A. Blok)

Metaphors of Sergei Yesenin: fire of red rowan, cheerful birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky; or bloody tears of September, overgrown raindrops, lantern buns and roof donuts at Boris Pasternak's
Metaphor is paraphrased into comparison using auxiliary words as if, like, like, as if and so on.

There are several types of metaphor: erased, expanded, realized.

Erased - a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative meaning of which is no longer felt.

For example: chair leg, headboard, sheet of paper, clock hand and so on.

A whole work or a large excerpt from it can be built on a metaphor. Such a metaphor is called “expanded”, in it the image is “expanded”, that is, revealed in detail.

Thus, the poem by A.S. Pushkin “ Prophet" is an example of an extended metaphor. Transformation of the lyrical hero into a herald of the will of the Lord - a poet-prophet, satisfying him " spiritual thirst“, that is, the desire to know the meaning of existence and find one’s calling, is depicted by the poet gradually: “ six-winged seraph", the messenger of God, transformed the hero with his " right hand" - the right hand, which was an allegory of strength and power. By God's power, the lyrical hero received different vision, different hearing, different mental and spiritual abilities. He could " heed“, that is, to comprehend sublime, heavenly values ​​and earthly, material existence, to feel the beauty of the world and its suffering. Pushkin depicts this beautiful and painful process, “ stringing"one metaphor to another: the hero's eyes acquire eagle vigilance, his ears are filled with" noise and ringing"of life, the tongue ceases to be "idle and crafty", conveying the wisdom received as a gift, " trembling heart" turns into " coal burning with fire" The chain of metaphors is held together by the general idea of ​​the work: the poet, as Pushkin wanted him to be, must be a herald of the future and an exposer of human vices, inspiring people with his words, encouraging them to goodness and truth.

Examples of expanded metaphor are often found in poetry and prose (the main part of the metaphor is indicated in italics, its “development” is emphasized):
... let's say goodbye together,
Oh my easy youth!
Thank you for the pleasures
For sadness, for sweet torment,
For the noise, for the storms, for the feasts,
For everything, for all your gifts...
A.S. Pushkin " Eugene Onegin"

We drink from the cup of existence
With eyes closed...
Lermontov "The Cup of Life"

... a boy caught in love
To a girl shrouded in silks...
N. Gumilev " Eagle of Sinbad"

The golden grove dissuaded
Birch cheerful language.
S. Yesenin " The golden grove dissuaded…"

Sad, and crying, and laughing,
The streams of my poems ring
At your feet
And every verse
Runs, weaves a living thread,
Not knowing our own shores.
A. Blok " Sad, and crying, and laughing...."

Save my speech forever for the taste of misfortune and smoke...
O. Mandelstam " Save my speech forever…"

... seethed, washing away kings,
July curve street...
O. Mandelstam " I pray for pity and mercy..."

Now the wind embraces flocks of waves in a strong embrace and throws them with wild anger onto the cliffs, smashing the emerald masses into dust and splashes.
M. Gorky " Song about the Petrel"

The sea has woken up. It played with small waves, giving birth to them, decorating them with a fringe of foam, pushing them against each other and breaking them into fine dust.
M. Gorky " Chelkash"

Realized - metaphor , which again takes on direct meaning. The result of this process at the everyday level is often comical:

For example: I lost my temper and got on the bus

The exam will not take place: all tickets have been sold.

If you go into yourself, don't come back empty-handed and so on.

The simple-minded joker-gravedigger in William Shakespeare's tragedy " Hamlet" to the main character's question about " on what basis"The young prince has lost his mind, replies: " In our Danish" He understands the word " the soil"literally - the top layer of the earth, territory, while Hamlet means figuratively - for what reason, as a result of what."

« Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh's hat! " - the king complains in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin " Boris Godunov" Since the time of Vladimir Monomakh, the crown of Russian tsars has had the shape of a cap. It was decorated with precious stones, so it was “heavy” in the literal sense of the word. In figurative terms - “ Monomakh's hat" personified " heaviness", the responsibility of royal power, the grave responsibilities of an autocrat.

In the novel by A.S. Pushkin “ Eugene Onegin“An important role is played by the image of the Muse, who since ancient times has personified the source of poetic inspiration. The expression “the poet was visited by a muse” has a figurative meaning. But the Muse - the poet's friend and inspirer - appears in the novel in the form of a living woman, young, beautiful, cheerful. IN " student cell"It's the Muse" opened a feast of young ideas- pranks and serious arguments about life. She is the one " sang“everything that the young poet strived for - earthly passions and desires: friendship, a cheerful feast, thoughtless joy - “ children's fun" Muse, " how the bacchante frolicked", and the poet was proud of his " frivolous friend».

During her southern exile, Muse appeared as a romantic heroine - a victim of her destructive passions, determined, capable of reckless rebellion. Her image helped the poet create an atmosphere of mystery and mystery in his poems:

How often l ask Muse
I enjoyed the silent path
The magic of a secret story!..

At the turning point of the author’s creative quest, it was she
She appeared as a district young lady,
With a sad thought in his eyes...

Throughout the entire work " affectionate Muse"was true" girlfriend"poet.

The implementation of metaphor is often found in the poetry of V. Mayakovsky. So, in the poem “ A cloud in pants"he implements the popular expression " nerves cleared up" or " I'm on my nerves»:
I hear:
quiet,
like a sick person out of bed,
the nerve jumped.
Here, -
walked first
barely,
then he ran in
excited,
clear.
Now he and the new two
rushing about with desperate tap dancing...
Nerves -
big,
small,
many, -
are jumping madly,
and already
your legs are shaking from nerves!

It should be remembered that the boundary between different types of metaphor is very arbitrary, unstable, and it can be difficult to accurately determine the type.

The role of metaphors in the text

Metaphor is one of the most striking and powerful means of creating expressiveness and imagery in a text.

Through the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text not only enhances the visibility and clarity of what is depicted, but also conveys the uniqueness and individuality of objects or phenomena, while demonstrating the depth and character of his own associative-figurative thinking, vision of the world, the measure of talent (“The most important thing is to be skillful in metaphors. Only this cannot be learned from another - it is a sign of talent" (Aristotle).

Metaphors serve as an important means of expressing the author's assessments and emotions, the author's characteristics of objects and phenomena.

For example: I feel stuffy in this atmosphere! Kites! Owl's nest! Crocodiles!(A.P. Chekhov)

In addition to artistic and journalistic styles, metaphors are characteristic of colloquial and even scientific styles (“ the ozone hole », « electron cloud " and etc.).

Personification- this is a type of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects and concepts.

More often personifications are used when describing nature.

For example:
Rolling through sleepy valleys,
The sleepy mists have settled,
And only the clatter of horses,
Sounding, it gets lost in the distance.
The day has gone out, turning pale autumn,
Rolling up the fragrant leaves,
Taste dreamless sleep
Half-withered flowers.
(M. Yu. Lermontov)

Less often, personifications are associated with the objective world.

For example:
Isn't it true, never again
Will we not part? Enough?..
AND the violin answered Yes,
But the violin's heart was hurting.
The bow understood everything, he fell silent,
And in the violin the echo was still there...
And it was torment for them,
What people thought was music.
(I. F. Annensky);

There was something good-natured and at the same time cozy in the faces of this house. (D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak)

Personifications- the paths are very old, their roots go back to pagan antiquity and therefore occupy such an important place in mythology and folklore. The Fox and the Wolf, the Hare and the Bear, the epic Serpent Gorynych and the Foul Idol - all these and other fantastic and zoological characters from fairy tales and epics are familiar to us from early childhood.

One of the literary genres closest to folklore, the fable, is based on personification.

Even today it is unthinkable to imagine works of art without personification; our everyday speech is unthinkable without them.

Figurative speech not only visually represents an idea. Its advantage is that it is shorter. Instead of describing an object in detail, we can compare it with an already known object.

It is impossible to imagine poetic speech without using this technique:
"The storm covers the sky with darkness
Whirling snow whirlwinds
Then, like a beast, she will howl,
She will cry like a child."(A.S. Pushkin)

The role of personifications in the text

Personifications serve to create bright, expressive and imaginative pictures of something, enhancing conveyed thoughts and feelings.

Personification as an expressive means is used not only in artistic style, but also in journalistic and scientific ones.

For example: X-rays show, the device says, the air heals, something is stirring in the economy.

The most common metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification, when an inanimate object receives the properties of an animate one, as if acquiring a face.

1. Typically, the two components of a personification metaphor are a subject and a predicate: " the blizzard was angry», « the golden cloud spent the night», « the waves are playing».

« Get angry", that is, only a person can experience irritation, but " snowstorm", a blizzard, plunging the world into cold and darkness, also brings " evil". « Spend the night"Only living beings are capable of sleeping peacefully at night, " cloud" represents a young woman who has found an unexpected shelter. Marine « waves"in the poet's imagination" play", like children.

We often find examples of metaphors of this type in the poetry of A.S. Pushkin:
Not suddenly delights will abandon us...
A mortal dream flies over him...
My days have flown by...
The spirit of life awakened in him...
The Fatherland caressed you...
Poetry awakens in me...

2. Many personification metaphors are built according to the method of control: “ lyre singing», « the talk of the waves», « fashion darling», « happiness darling" and etc.

A musical instrument is like the human voice, and it too " sings", and the splashing of the waves resembles a quiet conversation. " Favorite», « darling"happens not only to people, but also to wayward ones" fashion"or the fickle one" happiness».

For example: “winter threat”, “the voice of the abyss”, “the joy of sadness”, “the day of despondency”, “the son of laziness”, “threads ... of fun”, “brother by muse, by fate”, “victim of slander”, “cathedrals wax faces ”, “language of joy”, “burden of sorrow”, “hope of young days”, “pages of malice and vice”, “sacred voice”, “by the will of passions”.

But there are metaphors formed differently. The criterion of difference here is the principle of animateness and inanimateness. An inanimate object does NOT receive the properties of an animate object.

1). Subject and predicate: “desire is boiling”, “eyes are burning”, “heart is empty”.

Desire in a person can manifest itself to a strong degree, seethe and “ boil" The eyes, showing excitement, shine and “ are burning" A heart and soul that are not warmed by feeling can become “ empty».

For example: “I learned grief early, I was overcome by persecution”, “our youth will not suddenly fade”, “noon... was burning”, “the moon is floating”, “conversations flow”, “stories spread out”, “love... faded”, “I am calling the shadow ", "life has fallen."

2). Phrases constructed according to the method of control can also, being metaphors, NOT be personification: “ dagger of treason», « tomb of glory», « chain of clouds" and etc.

Steel arms - " dagger" - kills a person, but " treason“is like a dagger and can also destroy and break life. " Tomb“This is a crypt, a grave, but not only people can be buried, but also glory, worldly love. " Chain"consists of metal links, but " clouds", intricately intertwined, forming a kind of chain in the sky.

For example: “flattery of a necklace”, “twilight of freedom”, “forest... of voices”, “clouds of arrows”, “noise of poetry”, “bell of brotherhood”, “incandescence of poetry”, “fire... of black eyes”, “salt of solemn grievances”, “ the science of parting", "flame of southern blood" .

Many metaphors of this kind are formed according to the principle of reification, when the defined word receives the properties of some substance or material: “crystal windows”, “gold hair” .

On a sunny day, the window seems to sparkle like " crystal", and the hair takes on color " gold" The hidden comparison inherent in the metaphor is especially noticeable here.

For example: “in the black velvet of the Soviet night, in the velvet of universal emptiness”, “poems... grape meat”, “crystal of high notes”, “poems like rattling pearls”.

A metaphor is a figure of speech that uses a word or expression in an unusual sense, with significant similarities between the two terms.

This word was brought from Greek (μεταφορά), where it means “change”, “rearrangement”, “translation”, “transfer”.

A metaphor is a comparison of words where one term replaces another. This is a shortened comparison in which the verb is not expressed, but only implied.

For example: “My friend is like a bull, he moved a heavy cabinet himself.” Obviously, he is not a bull and does not physically resemble this animal at all, but he is so strong that he resembles a bull. This example compares the strength of an animal and this person.

This rhetorical figure corresponds to the replacement of one term with another through analogy.

Analogy is a relationship of established similarity between two or more separate objects. An analogy can be made, for example, between the head and the body or the captain and the soldiers. It is important to note that for an analogy to occur, there must be similar semantic elements between the two terms.

Metaphor is a linguistic tool often used in everyday life and is important in communication between people. It would be almost impossible to speak and think without resorting to metaphor.

Recent studies have shown that people use an average of 4 metaphors per minute when speaking. Often people are unwilling or unable to express how they really feel. Therefore, they say metaphorical phrases where the meaning is implied.

Examples of metaphors:

• sharp mind;
• heart of stone;
• golden head;
• iron character;
• skillful fingers;
• poisonous person;
• gold words;
• the cat cried;
• hedgehog gloves;
• dead night;
• wolf grip;
• fifth wheel in a cart;
• step on the same rake.

Metaphor - examples from literature

"We drink from the cup of existence with our eyes closed..."
(M. Lermontov)

"Hut-old woman jaw threshold
Chews the odorous crumb of silence"
(S. Yesenin)

"Sleeping on my wall
Willow lace shadow"
(N. Rubtsov)

“The autumn of life, like the autumn of the year, must be gratefully accepted”
(E. Ryazanov)

"The ensigns fixed their eyes on the Tsar"
(A. Tolstoy)

“The sky above the port was the color of a TV turned on to an empty channel.”
(William Gibson)

“All our words are just crumbs that fall during the feast of our mind.”
(Khalil Gibran)

Types of metaphor

Nominative metaphor

This is a means of creating new terms, intended for the formation of names of objects that do not yet have their own name.

For example:

• Earth satellite;
• zipper;
• table leg;
• spout;
• bow of the ship (similarity of objects in shape and location;
• cup handle;
• door peephole;
• base of the mountain;
• chair back;
• Rose of Wind;
• eyeball;
• white of the eye
• chanterelles (a type of mushroom)
• umbrella (type of inflorescence), etc.

The “metaphorical freshness” of such names exists only at the moment of nomination. Gradually, the internal form of the metaphor “fades away,” and the connection with the corresponding object is lost.

Cognitive metaphor

Metaphorization of the meaning of attribute (predicate) words gives rise to this type of metaphor, which has cognitive value, since with its help a person can comprehend an abstract concept based on the concrete. For example: stand up like a wall, dull pain, sharp mind, prickly answer, etc.

According to the concept of N.D. Arutyunova, from a means of creating an image, cognitive metaphor turns into a way of forming meanings missing in language.

Figurative metaphor

Metaphorization can be accompanied by a syntactic shift: a noun moves from a nominal position to a predicate position.

For example: Sobakevich was a real bear; he is such a hare, he is afraid of everything, etc. A metaphor of this type has the goal of individualizing or evaluating an object. A figurative metaphor contributes to the expansion of synonymous means of language and leads to the emergence of new synonymous connections (shy and hare).

Conceptual metaphor

This type is already understood as a way of thinking about one area of ​​experience through the lens of another, for example, the expression “a love relationship has reached a dead end” can be interpreted as the implementation of the conceptual metaphor “love is a journey.”

The images in which the world is comprehended are, as a rule, stable and universal within one culture. Despite the fact that the image is erased from repeated use of the metaphor, the positive or negative connotation associated with it remains.

Conceptual metaphor is intended to perform in language the function of forming new concepts based on already formed ones. Examples: election machine, presidential race, field of activity.

What is a trope

A trope is a figurative turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative meaning, two objects or phenomena that are related in meaning are compared.

The word "trope" comes from other Greek. τρόπος "turnover". It is used to enhance the imagery of language and artistic expressiveness of speech. Tropes are widely used in literature, in oratory, and in everyday speech.

Main types of trails:

• metaphor;
• metonymy;
• synecdoche;
• epithet;
• hyperbola;
• dysphemism;
• pun;
• litotes;
• comparison;
• paraphrase;
• allegory;
• pathos;
• personification;
• sarcasm;
• oxymoron;
• irony;
• euphemism.

Difference between metaphor and simile

Metaphor implies a veiled, allegorical, figurative comparison. The object being compared is called by the name of something similar to it. Comparison usually concerns homogeneous or similar objects.

The meaning of a metaphor is always figurative, but in comparison it is direct. The comparison is made only with physical objects, but in metaphor it is done in different ways.

Metaphor, without indicating the presence of similarities, encourages us to look for common qualities of objects, and comparison directly indicates similarities between objects.

A metaphor is often more voluminous in content than a simile and does not require introductory words. In comparison, comparative conjunctions are often used.

Iceberg metaphor

Iceberg metaphor - the essence is that often the visible part of the iceberg, which is on the surface, is very small compared to the part that is immersed in water. This metaphor is widely used to explain various social phenomena.

The metaphor of an iceberg is often used to describe the human mind, where the surface part is conscious and the larger, submerged part is subconscious.

This metaphor makes people realize that there is often much more truth than our eyes can see. With it we can also learn that there is still a lot beyond the surface and it often has much greater value than what is on the surface and visible to everyone.

This example shows how the use of metaphors enriches our language.

How often do you meet people who can speak pure Russian, without repetitions and banalities, so as to hypnotize the interlocutor from the first words, and covering him with a stream of thought, carry him to the very end of the dialogue, not letting him miss the thread of the conversation and carefully observing what Is the text presented interesting to the listener?

In contact with

Often, experienced speakers, writers and people whose profession is one way or another connected with communication and literature know how to make such an impression on their interlocutor and find his weak points. They succeed in this thanks to many different tricks, including the use of literary speech - tropes. One of the paths that help make a statement brighter, a metaphor is juicier and more figurative. And we will try to understand what it is, and what its essence and significance are.

History of metaphor

I would like to write something about the origin of metaphor, but, fortunately, or, conversely, this is impossible. It originated, perhaps, together with language, fantasy, and with man in principle. She grew and developed with him.

So what is a metaphor in literature? If we consider this issue in the least detail, then we can say that this is a comparison, but if you dig deeper, the definition will turn out to be more extensive for you. Metaphor - figurative comparison one object with another based on some properties, this rule, by the way, the futurists tried to bypass and ignore as much as possible. The meaning of this path for them is the transfer of feelings, emotions and pictures in front of the reader’s gaze. There are countless examples of shocking futuristic metaphors in Mayakovsky’s poems, so it’s worth dwelling on:

• Behind the sun of the streets, somewhere a useless, flabby moon was hobbling - the poet compares the moon with an old woman, weak and lonely;
• The street silently poured flour.

The scream was sticking up from the throat.

Puffed up, stuck across the throat,

Plump taxis and bony carriages.

They walked in a hurry.

Consumption is flatter. - this poem describes a comparison where the street is likened to a sick person;

• Along the pavement

my soul is worn out

crazy steps

they weave harsh phrases on their heels. - in the same poem, on the contrary, the man himself is likened to the street.

• Having thrown the Milky Way with a gallows, take and hang me, a criminal. - an incredible sentence that clearly describes the meaning of how the writer sees the starry sky, namely, a comparison of the Milky Way with a rope for the gallows where the author should be hanged.

We have been learning about metaphor as a literary trope since Aristotle's teachings, who believed that it should be as close to the truth as possible and embody an undeniable similarity to the subject. The ancient philosopher was confident that art, including literature, should maximally convey the realism of the creator’s surrounding life; this is its essence and significance.

But, over time, opinions about the properties and functions of comparison changed noticeably and during the era of futurism, which was said a little above, the creators came to the conclusion that this complex comparison should be used to make the reader think about why the author wanted to say exactly so and what did he see as a comparison.

In general, this is a metaphor description of worldview the writer himself, a path whose essence is to convey the images swarming in the writer’s head and give the reader the opportunity to imagine the author’s point of view as clearly as possible.

Structure and principles of metaphor

Metaphor itself is a multifaceted and complex concept, in which everything is not as easy to sort out as it might seem at first glance, but everyone has the right to a chance, so we will try too.

Components of constructing a metaphor

Such a multifaceted comparison, reflecting the whole essence of the author’s inner world and his vision of life, cannot but be structured, according to at least some dogmas and the law of literary vocabulary. So let's consider semantic elements, which seem to be particles of a single whole canvas - metaphors.

Let's look at the components using the following metaphor as an example: “she was fading, losing her charm.”

Types of metaphor

There are two main types of metaphors - dry and expanded. The differences between them are obvious and immediately striking, so the question of how to find a metaphor should not arise, even for inexperienced readers.

Dry metaphor- a comparison, often already firmly established in everyday life, which is sometimes difficult to notice in a conversation, for example:

• The eyeball is a metaphor whose meaning is obvious, and the comparison is in the word apple, due to the similarity of shapes;
• The leg of a cabinet is a leg, a simile used because it is a support, just like human lower limbs, although the furniture obviously cannot move on it;
• Golden words - naturally, words are not made of precious stone, but such a parallel is drawn due to the great value of what is spoken;
• Burning foliage - in fact, the foliage does not burn, it’s just that its color is very reminiscent of a fire, by the way, the time of “burning foliage” is Pushkin’s favorite time, also one of the fans of using vivid metaphors in his poems.

An extended metaphor people often use literature. This comparison can last for a line, a sentence, a paragraph, a page, or a book.

So, we can conclude that our language is rich and diverse. Moreover, it is vast and large. A huge number of writers, poets and philosophers have been proving these simple truths for centuries. From the great mind of Aristotle to Pushkin, Lermontov, Tolstoy and, ultimately, Mayakovsky and Vysotsky. They all talked about the delights of native conversation. And we only need to remember that with a word you can both kill and heal. Know your native speech and find beauty in the ordinary, good luck.

In literary language, as well as in spoken language, we often use various figures of speech, sometimes without even realizing it. Few people think: “Hmm, now let me introduce such a metaphor...” But sometimes it is very useful to know, to be able to find in someone else’s speech and use different artistic elements in your own. This diversifies speech, makes it more lively, rich, pleasant to hear and original. From this article you will learn about one of the most common tropes of speech - metaphor.

Trope

First, let's figure out what we're talking about. What are these paths and where do they lead?

A trope (from the Greek τρόπος - turnover) is a word or expression that is used figuratively to enhance and diversify speech. If there were no tropes, our speech would be similar to a dictionary entry or, even worse, to some kind of normative acts.

In these cases, paths are not used at all, because laws, dictionaries, all sorts of instructions, deeds and certificates should not be figurative, but as specific as possible, not allowing for discrepancies. In all other cases: in conversation, in literature, in journalism, authors saturate their speech with a variety of tropes and figures. This makes speech more artistic, expressive, interesting, and rich.

Tropes include such techniques as metaphor - we will talk about it in detail below, as well as metonymy, epithet, hyperbole, comparison, euphemism, and so on.

So, let's move closer to the topic. The concept of metaphor was not given yet, and that was quite a long time ago. Then lexicology and philology were born. And most of the terms were borrowed into modern Russian from ancient Greek.

Aristotle defined metaphor as “the comparison of an unnamed thing with another on the basis of some common characteristic.” And the word μεταφορά from ancient Greek is translated as “figurative meaning.” To make it immediately clear to you, here is an example that is probably familiar to everyone:

Simple, like felt boots (like three rubles, like slippers).

This is the same metaphor. But let's return to Aristotle. He generally understood all art as “imitation of life.” That is, as one big, capacious metaphor. Later, other scientists narrowed this huge concept into separate categories: hyperbole (exaggeration), synecdoche (correlation), simple comparison, and some other tropes.

Functions of metaphor

Lexicologists need to do more than just define a concept. They also need to describe in detail what functions it performs, for what purpose it is used and exists. In his study in 1992, V.K. Kharchenko identified as many as 15 (!) functions of metaphor. The main ones, as the high school course says, are text-forming, genre-forming and style-forming functions.

Metaphor "Golden Hands"

In other words, with the help of metaphors you can give the text a coloring inherent in a particular genre or style. As for the text-forming function, there is an opinion according to which it is metaphors that create the subtext (content-subtextual information) of any work.

Metaphor "Silver Hair"

Metaphors can serve different functions in different contexts. For example, in poetic texts they most often serve an aesthetic function. A metaphor should decorate the text and create an artistic image. In scientific texts, metaphors can have a heuristic (cognitive) meaning. This helps to describe and comprehend a new object of study through knowledge about known, already described objects.

Metaphor "Autumn of Life"

Recently, in linguistics, a political metaphor has also been identified (some researchers distinguish this function of metaphor separately), which is designed to give ambiguity to statements, to veil sensitive and controversial points, “minimizing the speaker’s responsibility for a possible literal interpretation of his words by the addressee” (I.M. Kobozeva, 2001). A new, manipulative function of metaphor appears. This is how language and the science of it develop.

How to create a metaphor?

To create a metaphorical expression, you need to find points of comparison or comparison in objects. It's that simple. For example, take the item “dawn”. What can you compare it to? The dawn is scarlet, bright, burning... Let's compare it to fire! And what will happen is what millions of writers did before us: “the fire of dawn,” “the sunrise is burning,” “the fire was breaking out in the east.” Indeed, this is much more interesting than simply writing “the sun rose.”

In fact, writers and poets spend hours to find a good metaphor: apt, figurative, complete. It is no coincidence that we admire the works of literary classics so much. For example, take the famous poem:

The wind was blowing north. The grass was crying
And branches about the recent heat,
And roses that barely woke up,
The young heart sank.

She sings - and the sounds melt away,
Like kisses on the lips
He looks and the heavens play
In her divine eyes.

As you can see, both quatrains do not just narrate about some phenomenon or person, but create a three-dimensional, vivid image of him, embodying the author’s thought, conveying it colorfully and artistically.

Metaphor "The grass was crying"

So that's what metaphors are for - to create images! With metaphors, we do not just decorate speech, but create a picture for the listener or reader. Imagine speech without metaphors as a pencil sketch, and enriched with expressive means as a three-dimensional image, and you will understand the meaning of the metaphor.

What kinds of metaphors are there?

In modern linguistics, two types of metaphors are distinguished: diaphora and epiphora.

Diaphora (sharp metaphor) is a metaphor that brings together very contrasting concepts. In such metaphors, figurativeness is clearly visible; they are more figurative. The word itself in ancient Greek means “dispute.”

Metaphor "Flower of the Moon"

Examples of diaphora: “flower of the moon”, “mellow lips”, “pouring balm on the soul”. It is clear that the concepts for comparison are taken from different spheres, so such statements cannot be taken literally, but in the context of the work their meaning will become clear, adding expressiveness and beauty to the text.

Epiphora (erased metaphor) is a familiar expression, often clichéd, which we no longer always perceive as metaphorical. For example: “forest of hands”, “like clockwork”, “grow into place”.

Metaphor "Forest of Hands"

Close to epiphora is a metaphor-formula - an even more stereotypical construction, which can hardly be made non-figurative. Examples: “door handle”, “shoe toe”, “spruce paw”. Metaphors also differ in composition into extended and simple:

Simple metaphors consist of one word used in a figurative meaning, or phraseological unit: “make ends meet”, “your eyes are the ocean”.

Metaphor "Your eyes are the ocean"

Extended metaphors- these are entire phrases or even paragraphs in which one metaphor entails a whole chain of others related to each other in meaning. These examples can be found in any work of the classics. For example, the lines of the poem known to everyone from childhood: “The golden birch grove dissuaded us with its cheerful language...”

Other tropes that are metaphorical

Metaphorical tropes include those that use a transfer of meaning from one word to another.

Hyperbole (exaggeration):“I repeat for the hundredth time,” “millions of people cannot be wrong.” These are precisely the cases where we resort to deliberate exaggeration in order to reinforce the message. We didn't consider whether we were actually saying something for the hundredth time or just the tenth time, but using a large number makes our message seem more powerful.

Metaphor "This house is like a castle"

Simple comparison:“This house looks like a castle.” We see in front of us just a house that just looks like a castle.

Personification:“The moon modestly ran behind a cloud.” We endow an obviously inanimate object (the moon) with human qualities (modesty) and attribute human behavior (ran away). A huge number of children's fairy tales with all their Mikhail Ivanovichs, Little Fox Sisters and Runaway Bunnies are based on this technique.

Metaphor "The moon modestly ran behind a cloud"

Synecdoche:“The whole minibus fell down laughing.” This technique is akin to hyperbole. He attributes to parts properties of the whole. The authors of numerous online stories love him - I think you’ve seen the example given here more than once. The opposite technique is also called synecdoche - transferring the name from the specific to the general. It can often be recognized by the use of the singular instead of the plural, as in “a Soviet soldier returns victoriously from war” or “the average person spends 8 hours a day sleeping.” This technique is loved by journalists and publicists.

Metaphor "The Soviet soldier returns victoriously from the war"

Sometimes allegory is also classified as a metaphorical tropes. Many scientists disagree with this, placing it in a separate category. However, we can mention it here because allegory is also the representation of one concept through another. But allegory is more comprehensive, for example, almost all mythology is built on it. Allegory is the representation of a concept or idea through a specific artistic image. All ancient gods are essentially allegories. Thunder and lightning are Perun, Zeus, Jupiter; war - Ares, love - Aphrodite, the sun - Yarilo and so on. Many works are allegories. For example, many scholars believe that the Bible and the Koran are pure allegories and cannot be taken literally.

A metaphor is an expression or word that is pronounced figuratively. The basis of a metaphor is a certain phenomenon or object that is similar to it. In simple terms, one word is replaced by another, which has a similar feature with it. Metaphor has been used in literature for a very long time.

Components of metaphor

The metaphor has 4 parts.

1. Context is a passage of text that has a complete form and unites in meaning all the individual words and sentences that are included in it.

2. Object.

3. The process itself by which this function is performed

4. Application of the process. The process can also intersect with various situations.

Back in Ancient Greece, Aristotle discovered such a concept as metaphor. It was he who formed the view of it as an accessory of language, which allows one to achieve various goals, including cognitive ones.

Ancient philosophers were sure that Mother Nature herself gave the metaphor to man. The metaphor has become so established in people’s everyday speech that there is no longer a need to call many concepts literally. The use of metaphor replenishes the lack of words in speech. After this, metaphor began to be considered as an additional application to the mechanism of language.

It was considered harmful to science because it led those who sought the truth into a dead end. But be that as it may, the metaphor continued to exist in literature, since it was necessary for it to develop. Metaphor was most often used in poetry.

And only from the beginning of the 20th century, metaphor was recognized as an integral part of Russian speech, and scientific materials that were written using it began to be written in completely new dimensions. This helped to combine materials that are of completely different nature.

Thanks to the metaphor, which was widely used in literature, we were able to see how riddles, proverbs, and allegories appear.

How a metaphor is built

The creation of a metaphor comes from 4 components: these are two groups and the properties of each of them. Features that are in one group of objects are offered to another group.

Let's say a person is called a lion. This means that such a person is endowed with similar characteristics. As a result, a new image is created, where the word “lion” has a figurative meaning and means “mighty and fearless.”

Metaphors are specific to different languages. In Russian, the word “donkey” can mean stubbornness and stupidity, but among the Spaniards it means hard work.

Literary metaphor may differ among different peoples. This must be taken into account when translating text from one language to another.

What functions does a metaphor include?

The most important function of metaphor is a very emotional coloring of speech. At the same time, rich and very capacious images can be created from completely different objects.

Another function of metaphor is nominative. It consists in filling the language with certain lexical or phraseological structures, such as, for example: pansies, bottle neck, river bend.

In addition to these functions, metaphor also performs many others. In fact, this is a very deep and broad concept.

What kinds of metaphors are there?

Metaphors are divided into the following types:

It connects concepts that lie on different planes. For example: “I’m walking through the city, as if shot with my eyes...”

2.Erased.

It has become so commonplace that its figurative character is almost invisible. Its figurative meaning is imperceptible, it has become so familiar. For example: “Since the very morning, people have already begun to reach out to me.” It can also be detected when text is translated from one language to another.

3.Metaphor-formula.

In this case, its transformation into a literal meaning is completely excluded (wheel of fortune, worm of doubt). This metaphor has long become a stereotype.

4. Expanded.

These metaphors, in logical sequence, contain quite a big message.

5.Implemented.

It is used for its intended purpose. For example: “I came to my senses, and there was a dead end again.”

What is metaphor in literature

I think that it will be very difficult for you to imagine modern life without various metaphorical images or comparisons. We come across metaphors in everyday life, but there are a lot of them in literature.

They are necessary to reveal various images and essences of phenomena as clearly as possible. The most effective metaphor in poetry is an extended one, which is presented in the following ways:

1.Indirect message. It uses figurative expression or some kind of story that uses comparisons.

2. Figures of speech in which words are used in a figurative sense. These words are based on analogy, similarity or comparison.

The expanded metaphor is revealed sequentially in a small text fragment: “At dawn, the dawn is washed with fine rain.”

A metaphor could become the author's goal and lead the reader to a completely new meaning, to a new, unexpected meaning. And there are many such metaphors in the works of classics. Take, for example, Gogol’s work “The Nose”. The word “nose” itself acquired a metaphorical meaning in his story. The works of William Shakespeare are especially rich in metaphors. They give characters and events a new meaning.

Conclusion

Metaphor has a very effective effect on human consciousness, thanks to its emotional coloring and its images. This is especially true in poetry. Metaphors influence a person so strongly that psychologists use this in their practice. They help patients solve mental problems.

If you have some kind of internal conflict and you cannot cope with it yourself, then I suggest you sign up for in cities such as Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Yekaterinburg, Novosibirsk, Tyumen, Ufa, Omsk and other regions of Russia, as well as Kazakhstan.

Peace to you in your soul!

With love, Irina Orda!

August 2017



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