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Non-state educational institution

higher professional education

Omsk Law Institute

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by discipline "History of the state and law of foreign countries»

Features of the stateabout the development of India in the Middle Ages

Performed:

student of group No. 143-yuuz

Musatova N.V.

Option 27

Checked by: Ph.D., Associate Professor

A.V. Minzhurenko

OMSK 2013

Introduction
1. Features of the state development of India in the Middle Ages
1.1 Rajput (pre-Islamic) period (VII-XII centuries)
1.2 Delhi Sultanate (XIII - early XVI centuries)
1.3 The state of the Great Moghuls in the XVI - ser. XVII centuries
Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

India is one of the cradles of human civilization. A mysterious country in which a highly developed culture has developed, which has had a considerable influence on the culture of many peoples of the East.

In this work, I will analyze the processes that took place in the Middle Ages, trace the features of the formation of civilization that left their mark on the course of Indian history in the Middle Ages. Whatever features of the development of certain societies we would not note, each of them to a certain extent obeys the general rhythm of the history of mankind, because history has always been world-wide.

The scientific study of the history and science of India began at the end of the 18th century. In India itself, interest in the study of its history and culture became noticeable in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

According to the author of the book "Medieval India" Alaev L.B. the allocation of the "medieval period" in the history of the countries of the East, in this case India, is problematic and causes a lot of controversy Alaev L.B. Medieval India. - St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2003. - p.3. . It is generally accepted that the Indian Middle Ages began in the 6th century. The end of the medieval period is considered to be the beginning of the collapse of the Mughal state - 1707.

In our country, the study of the medieval history of India is described in the works of Antonova K.A., Kotovsky G.G., Alaev L.B., Ashrafyan K.Z., Vanina E.Yu., information from which formed the basis for the disclosure of the topic of this essay. Scientists study medieval Indian society and evaluate the stages of its evolution solely on the basis of information about economic, social and administrative-political institutions.

1. Features of the state development of India in the Middle Ages

As noted above, it is almost impossible to draw a clear boundary for the transition of the countries of the East from the era of the ancient world to the Middle Ages, unlike the countries of Europe. In the countries of the East there were no such huge changes as in Europe. The development of these countries was formed, as in previous centuries, within its traditional framework.

Most Soviet Indologists consider the 7th-18th centuries to be the time of the dominance of the feudal system in India. But this fact is disputed by many scientists, since the socio-economic system of medieval India differed from the European medieval system, which was originally called feudalism. Some historians note that in the countries of the East in the "Middle Ages" there was no feudalism in its classical, Marxist sense, there was no antiquity. The development of Eastern civilization is characterized by cyclicity: periods of prosperity are combined here with periods of decline.

The medieval political structure of India is characterized by constant instability of power, both in the north and in the south of the country. The dynasties and states that arose in the Medieval period were short-lived and weak.

Medieval India was politically fragmented. Fragmentation was accompanied by endless internecine wars, the temporary emergence of large states.

The state development of India in the Middle Ages is divided into several periods:

I. Rajput (pre-Islamic) period (VII-XII centuries)

II. Delhi Sultanate-(XIII - early XVI centuries)

III. State of the Great Moghuls in the XVI - ser. XVII centuries

1.1 Rajput (pre-Islamic) period (VII-XII centuries)

The Rajput period is very difficult to describe as states came and went. The boundaries of the political development of each of them were short.

The political history of India of this period is characterized by the preservation of the traditional division into the Dravidian South and the Aryan North. Moreover, the levels of development in the cultural and socio-economic spheres differed significantly between them. Also this period is characterized by constant instability in the political sphere in both parts of the peninsula. The rapid rise and fall of states due to their internal weakness and imbalance of power between them, ruin due to external wars and internal conflicts; alternation of long eras of decentralization and short-term periods of centralization and relative stability Govorov Yu. L. History of Asia and Africa in the Middle Ages. - Kemerovo: Kemerovo State University, 1998. .

The Gupta era (4th-6th centuries AD), perceiving it as the golden age of India, was replaced in the 7th-12th centuries. period of feudal fragmentation.

The conquering tribes of the Huns-Ephthalites who came from Central Asia settled in the north-west of the country, and the Gujarats who appeared with them settled in Punjab, Sindh, Rajputana and Malwa. As a result of the merging of the Hephthalites and Gurjars with the local population, a compact ethnic community of Rajputs (children of the Raja) arose, which in the 8th century. began expansion from Rajputana into the rich regions of the Ganges valley and Central India. The Gurjara-Pratihara clan, which formed a state in Malwa, was the most famous. Here the most striking type of feudal relations with a developed hierarchy and vassal psychology developed. World history G. B. Polyak, A. N. Markova. - M.: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1997. - 496 p. . .

During this period, a system of stable political centers was formed in India, fighting each other under the banner of different dynasties.

The first strong state was the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. It arose as a small principality in western Rajasthan at the beginning of the 8th century, but then covered the whole of northern India. In the east, the Gurjara-Pratiharas had a powerful rival - the state of Palov (750). In the south, the rivals for these states were the Rashtrakutas. In the tenth century the leading powers of the country fell into decline. The Chalukya dynasty (Dakana state) succeeded the Rashtrakut dynasty. The Palov state, having weakened since the middle of the 10th century, no longer interfered in the political struggle for Northern India. And the state of the Gurjara-Pratiharas retained formal supremacy and broke up into principalities.

The south of India lagged behind the north in its development. This is due to the fact that there were a lot of tribes in the South, but even here independent states arose - principalities. So, for example, back in the III-IV centuries. the state of Palavas was formed, and in the 7th century. in the southern part of Maharashtra - the principality of the Chalukyas, in IX - the principality of the Cholas, which for some time controlled all of southern India.

The southern states of India were larger, more stable, and made a significant contribution to the development of Hindu India and its culture. These states are the "embryo" states of national India. There were attempts to create mini-empires, but intra-dynastic wars undermined the trend towards national consolidation.

The political fragmentation of the country proved especially tragic for India during this period. Since XI Northern India has been regularly raided by troops Mahmud Ghaznevid(998-1030), the ruler of a vast empire that included the territories of the modern states of Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, as well as Punjab and Sindh. By the beginning of the XIV century. South India becomes easy prey for the Delhi Sultanate, which by this time had reached its greatness.

The states of the Rajput period were arranged very simply: the court was reduced to a minimum, the main institution of the state was the army, which consisted of detachments of vassals. The mercenary army was unknown. The main branch of the army was the infantry, the cavalry was an insignificant part of the army. Elephants were used, as before.

The socio-economic development of India during the Rajput era was characterized by the growth of feudal estates. Along with the rulers, the Hindu temples and monasteries were just as wealthy. If initially only uncultivated lands complained to the feudal lords, then from the 8th century. more and more often, not only lands are transferred, but also villages, the inhabitants of which were obliged to bear a natural service in favor of the recipient. However, the Indian community at that time still remained relatively independent, large in size and self-governing. A full-fledged community member hereditarily owned his field, but trade operations with land were controlled by the community administration.

City life, frozen after the 6th century, began to revive only towards the end of the Rajput period. The old port centers developed faster. New cities arose near the castles of the feudal lords, where artisans settled, serving the needs of the court and the landowner's troops. The development of urban life was facilitated by the increased exchange between cities and the emergence of groupings of artisans according to castes. Just as in Western Europe, in the Indian city the development of handicrafts and trade was accompanied by the struggle of citizens against the feudal lords, who imposed new taxes on artisans and merchants. Moreover, the value of the tax was the higher, the lower was the class position of the castes to which the artisans and merchants belonged.

At the stage of feudal fragmentation, Hinduism finally took over Buddhism, defeating it with the power of its amorphousness, which perfectly corresponded to the political system of the era. World history: Textbook for universities / Ed. - G. B. Polyak, A. N. Markova. - M.: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1997. - 496 p. . .

1.2 Delhi Sultanate-(XIII - early XVI centuries)

As already noted, there was no strong power on the territory of Hindustan for thousands of years of history. Some states stood out and sought to subjugate others. However, having exhausted its potential in wars against its neighbors, it perished and fell apart again.

Starting from the XI century. India becomes the arena of devastating raids of the Turkic conquerors - Muslims. Since India was feudally fragmented, the Indian principalities were unable to resist these invasions. Significant changes in the life of India began in the XII century, when its northern regions were conquered by Muslims. They sought to subjugate India from the 8th century, but their actions were unsuccessful. So gradually in the north of India a new state was established, headed by Muslim conquerors, which received the name in history - Delhi Sultanate Antonov K.A. History of India (short essay). /K.A. Antonov, G.M. Bongard - Levin, G.G. Kotovsky. M., "Thought", 1973. P. 175. . The governor of this state was the governor of the Sultan Qutb-ad-din Aybek. From the end of the XIII century. The Sultanate quickly increased its territory and by the beginning of the XIV century. captured almost the entire Hindustan peninsula. emergence Delhi Sultanate, had a significant impact on the history of India.

The Delhi Sultanate was a relatively centralized state. This centralization rested on the strength of the Delhi rulers, who maintained their power by methods of brutal suppression of popular resistance and rebellions of individual feudal lords.

During the period Delhi Sultanate one dynasty succeeded another. Consider the features of the reign of these dynasties.

Gulyam dynasty (1206-1290).

As mentioned above, one of the Turkic slaves, head of the guard, commander and governor of the North of India, Qutb-ud-din Aibek (1206-1210) was proclaimed the first ruler of the sultanate. His main support was his army.

During this period, Sunni Islam became the state religion, and Persian became the official language. Only Christians and Jews, the "People of the Book", were allowed to maintain their faith on the condition that they recognized themselves as subjects paying kharaj (land tax) and jizya (poll tax). Later, as Islam spread and the number of its followers grew, the difference in land taxation between Muslims and non-Muslims disappeared, and kharaj became the universal land tax.

After the death of Aibek, the Turkic nobility placed Shams-ud-din Iltutmysh (1210-1236) on the throne.

Long-term wars of Shams-ud-din led to the expansion of the Sultanate and to the relative strengthening of the Sultan's power. The glory of Delhi went far beyond India. In 1229, the Sultan of Delhi received an investiture (recognition as such) from the Caliph of Baghdad Loginov A.N. History of Asia and Africa in the Middle Ages Volgograd: VolGU Publishing House, 2002. - 106p. .

Due to the constant threats and invasions of the Mongol conquerors, the Muslim nobility united around the throne of Delhi. The military nobility in this period consisted mainly of Central Asian Turks, who rallied into a strong organization called "Forty" by the number of its founders. Officials and clerics were Khorasanians (i.e. Tajiks and Persians). Sunni Islam became the state religion, the Hindus were considered despicable, unfaithful (“zim-mi”).

The first two Delhi sultans were elected by Muslim commanders, Iltutmysh sought to make the monarchy hereditary and appointed his daughter Razziya as the successor, whom he considered a “better man” than his sons, but she could only rule for 4 years. Discord began between the confidants and the ghoul commanders; anarchy reigned in the state

In 1246, the youngest son of Iltutmysh, Nasir-ud-din, was elevated to the throne. However, all power was in the hands of his able adviser Giyas-ud-din Balban. Having taken the throne after the death of Nasir (1265-1287), Balban managed to drive away the Mongols and build a chain of fortresses on the northwestern border as strongholds. His reign was spent in the struggle to strengthen his power.

Under Balban, a strong state apparatus and a huge standing army of Central Asian, Afghan and Iranian mercenaries were created in the Delhi Sultanate. All power was in the hands of the Sultan. His closest assistant was the chief vizier, who directed and supervised the work of numerous departments. The main departments were tax and military. The territory of the Delhi Sultanate was divided into several regions. To manage them, the sultan appointed governors (wali) from the highest Muslim nobility, often from members of his family. The regions, in turn, were divided into tax districts, headed by chiefs, also from Muslims.

After the death of the elderly sultan, strife began again between the feudal factions. In this struggle, the commanders from the Turkic Khilji tribe gained the upper hand. The 70-year-old Jalal-ud-din Firuz (1290-1296) came to the throne.

Khilji's reign

Under the first representative of the Khilji dynasty, Mongol troops again invaded India. Jalal-ad-din Firuz was a gentle and merciful sultan.

In 1296, having killed his father-in-law, Ala-ad-din Khilji (1296-1316) became the ruler of Delhi. Cruel and resolute, Ala-ad-din was a capable military leader and a talented administrator.

To replenish the treasury, the sultan took the lands of the clergy and rich military leaders and taxed them. The tax on Hindus was raised from 1/6 to 1/2 of the crop. They were forbidden to carry weapons, dress richly, and ride horses. In order to avoid conspiracies, the Sultan created a system of espionage and sent his spies everywhere. He forbade the nobles to drink alcoholic beverages and stopped drinking himself. But then he allowed noble people to drink, but only at home. Marriages between noble people were allowed only with the consent of the Sultan.

Khilji's special concern was the army. He introduced the cash payment of iktadars instead of the distribution of allotments that existed before. Soldiers' salaries have been increased. These measures gave Ala-ad-din the opportunity to create a huge combat-ready army of 475 thousand horsemen and repel the Mongols' raids. Then the sultan organized a big campaign to the Deccan and within three years (1308-1311) conquered it.

Only most of Northern India was under the direct control of the Sultan. The empire of Ala ad-din was not a centralized state. Riots broke out everywhere. And after the death of Khilji, the struggle for the throne began.

Tughlaq dynasty (1320 - 1414 )

In 1320, one of the most famous commanders of Ala-ad-din, Malik Gazi, overthrew and killed the last sultan of the Khilji dynasty. The Delhi nobility proclaims him Sultan under the name of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq.

The new sultan carried out a number of measures, seeking to eliminate the shortcomings that were the result of the reforms of Ala ad-din. The land tax was reduced to 1/10th of the crop, and irrigation canals were built with public funds.

Like his predecessors, Ghiyas ad-din pursued an active foreign policy. He subjugated East Bengal and forced the ruler of West Bengal to recognize himself as a vassal of Delhi. On this occasion, his son arranged a magnificent meeting in Delhi, but during the procession of elephants, a wooden pavilion collapsed, and Ghiyas-ud-din died under its rubble.

Muhammad Shah (1325-1351) ascended the throne. Muhammad Tughlaq was a capable general. For his time, Muhammad Tughlaq was a capable commander, a well-educated man. But he was terribly cruel. Muhammad toyed with fantastic plans for the conquest of Persia and China, and by his ill-conceived actions brought the state into a chaotic state.

The country was ruined by his crazy plans and heavy taxes. The famine began, and then the uprisings. For the cruelty of the reprisals, the Sultan received the nickname Huni, that is, the Bloody. In 1351, the sultan, pursuing the rebellious emirs, arrived in Thattu (Sindh), where he died of a fever. Right there, in Sind, the nobility elevated the late sultan's cousin, Firuz Tughlaq (1351-1388), to the throne. state of india middle age

Firuz had to take drastic measures to eliminate the harmful effects of the reign of Muhammad. Abwabs were no longer levied, the land tax was reduced, five irrigation canals were built to increase productivity in Doab, high market duties were abolished, "villages, towns and cities" were distributed to military leaders, and an order was issued to prohibit torture. Muslim military leaders had to be granted a number of privileges, but this only encouraged their separatist tendencies. Antonov K.A. History of India (short essay). /K.A. Antonov, G.M. Bongard-Levin, G.G. Kotovsky. M., "Thought", 1973. C 180 .

Firuze failed to preserve the integrity of his state. Bengal, which had separated under Muhammad Tughlaq, was not reattached. The dean actually broke away from the empire, campaigns against Orissa and Sindh ended in failure. When the elderly sultan dies, a struggle flares up between powerful factions of feudal lords, each of which supported its protégé to the throne.

The final blow to the decaying empire was delivered by the invasion of the troops of Timur, the ruler of Samarkand (1398). In India, after his invasion, famine and disease began. The empire collapsed.

Sayyid dynastyand Lodi

In 1414, Khizr Khan Sayyid, the former ruler of Multan, who joined Timur and left him as governor of Multan and the Punjab, captured Delhi and took power into his own hands. The year 1414 is considered the beginning of the rule of the Sayid dynasty.

Khizr Khan (1414-1421) and his relatives held on to power until 1451. Devastation continued in the country, land tax was collected only with the help of troops, and the treasury was replenished from military booty. His son and heir, Mubarak Shah (1421-1434), in the last year of his reign, refused to obey the Timurids and began to mint coins with his names.

In 1451, the Pashtun Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489), an able military leader, seized the throne. Under him, the Sultanate was politically strengthened and expanded.

Bahlul's son Sikandar Shah (1489-1515) expanded the borders of the state in the east - up to the borders of Bengal, suppressed uprisings, tried to make the Afghan authorities more obedient. Restored espionage. He resumed tax reporting checks, executions for embezzlement and theft. Under his rule, the country's economy revived somewhat. He founded Agra (1504), which became one of the capitals of India.

Si-kandar showed himself as a zealous, fanatical Muslim. He fiercely persecuted the Hindus, destroying temples, breaking statues, etc.

His son Ibrahim (1517-1525) tried to continue his father's policy of strengthening power, but at the same time he showed excessive straightforwardness. Ibrahim's largest military activities were his campaigns against Jaunpur and Gwaliur, which ended in the subjugation of both principalities. However, his despotic rule and attempts to break the power of the Afghan warlords led to mutinies. Feudal strife and discontent of the feudal lords did not stop. Then the nobility invited the Timurid Babur to India with a request to save them from the tyranny of the Sultan. Babur took advantage of this invitation. He himself sought to seize the rich Indian lands. In 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim at the Battle of Panipat and occupied Delhi.

A new period of Indian history has begun. Thus was born the Mughal Empire, whose dominance determined the history of India for two hundred years.

It should be noted a number of states that existed on the territory of India from the middle of the XIV to the middle of the XVI centuries. some of them played an important role in the history of India than the Delhi Sultanate.

While the Delhi state was in decline, two states arose in the Deccan. One in the south, named after its capital, Vijayanagar, and ruled by Hindu rulers (1336). And the state of Bahmani. (1347) in the northern part of the Deccan.

The political life of the Bahmanid state was determined by wars with Vijayanagar and internal strife between two groups of Muslim feudal lords - dekans (i.e., descendants of Muslims who have long lived in the Deccan) and afaks (i.e., foreigners who have recently arrived from Persia and other countries).

The fierce ruler Ahmad Shah Bahmani (1422-1435) mercilessly plundered the lands of Vijayanagara and slaughtered the Hindu population. He moved the capital of the state to Bidar. Feudal strife and civil strife weakened the state, and in the XVI century. The Bahmanid empire collapsed.

Of the five principalities that arose on the ruins of the Bahmanid state (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar and Berar), Bijapur was the largest. The history of the Deccan of this period is filled with the wars of these principalities, both with Vijayanagar and among themselves. Although the rulers of these states were zealous Muslims and mercilessly destroyed the Hindu population in the occupied territories, the wars with Vijayanagar were determined not by religious, but by political considerations.

In 1565, all five dean states formed an alliance against Vijayanagara. At the Battle of Talikota on the Krishna River, Vijayanagar was defeated.

The second major dean sultanate was Golconda, which essentially occupied the territory of the ancient state of Telingana. Golconda was a wealthy state

A rich state ruled by a Muslim dynasty was also Gujarat, located in the west of India and not included in the number of dean states. Gujarat was one of the most economically developed areas in India.

During the reign of the Delhi Sultanate, Europeans began to penetrate India. In 1498, under Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese first reached Calikat on the Malabar coast of western India. As a result of subsequent military expeditions - Cabral (1500), Vasco de Gama (1502), d "Albuquerque (1510-1511) - the Portuguese capture the island of Goa, which became the backbone of their possessions in the East. The Portuguese monopoly on maritime trade undermined India's trade relations with countries East, isolated the deep regions of the country and delayed their development.To the same wars and the destruction of the population of Malabar led.Gujarat was also weakened.Only the Vijayanagar empire remained in the XIV-XVI centuries powerful and even more centralized than the former states of the south.Its head was considered maharaja, but all the fullness of real power belonged to the state council, the chief minister, to whom the governors of the provinces were directly subordinate. State lands were distributed in conditional military awards - amars. A significant part of the villages were in the possession of Brahmin collectives - sabkhs. Large communities disintegrated. Their possessions narrowed to lands one village, and community members increasingly began to turn into incomplete sharecroppers. In the cities, the authorities began to pay the collection of duties at the mercy of the feudal lords, which strengthened their undivided rule here.

1.3 State of the Great Moghuls in the XVI - ser. XVII centuries

The final stage in the medieval history of India was the rise in its north at the beginning of the 16th century. new powerful Muslim Mughal Empire, which in the XVII century. managed to subjugate a significant part of South India. Timurid was the founder of the state Babur(1483-1530).

In 1526, Timurid Babur (Timur's grandson) invaded India. His army (muskets, cannons) defeated the 40,000 army of the last of the Delhi sultans (Ibrahim Lodi) and the Rajput militia in the decisive battle of Panipat and occupied most of the Ganges valley. This is how the Mughals appeared in India. The conquest of India by the Great Mughals is explained by the weakness of the Delhi Sultanate and the feudal fragmentation that prevailed in India and the interest of different sections of the rural and urban population (merchants associated with transit caravan trade) in ending civil strife that hindered the development of agriculture, crafts and trade.

Babur did not rule for long, in 1530 his son Humayun replaced him, but the struggle with the brothers for power led to the fact that the ruler of Bihar and Bengal, Farid Sher Khan (the Afghan Sur tribe) seized power in Delhi, and Humayun had to seek refuge in Iran . In 1540, Sher Khan became Shah (1540-1545) and began to strengthen the central government. He conducted the main roads with caravanserais, connecting Delhi with Bengal, Rajputana, Indus, etc .; streamlined land relations (compilation of the general cadastre of lands was started), the tax system (1/3 of the crop - the average amount of requisitions), the nature of land ownership of military leaders - jagirds, raised the status of some Hindus, providing them with a number of influential positions. The death of Sheh Shah was used by Humayun, who in 1555 regained power. But in 1556, Humayun died in an accident, and power passed into the hands of his 13-year-old son. Akbar (1556-1605).

The period of the reign of this padishah is the "golden age" of the Mughal Empire. There was an expansion of the territory - Gondwana, Rajputana, Bengal, Gujarat, Kashmir, Orissa. The country has developed a centralized system of government. The Shah had unlimited power. The administration was in charge of the first minister - vakil and the heads of several departments subordinate to him, the most important of which was the financial department (divani). It dealt with taxation and distributed jagirs(land grants on the terms of military service). The second most important department was headed by the chief commissar and treasurer of the troops, who monitored the performance of their military duties by the jagirdars and the delivery of the military booty they captured to the treasury. The functions of the economic department were limited to control over state-owned workshops and supervision of palace property and construction. A special department was in charge of the appointment of clergy, judges, as well as the distribution of land to the Muslim clergy. The army consisted of detachments of jagirdars. The entire state was divided into provinces ruled by governors, which in turn were divided into regions and districts. At the same time, civil and military administrations existed in parallel, acting independently of each other. Unlike the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughals often appointed Hindus to administrative and military posts.

Akbar completed Sher Shah's reforms - all lands were declared state lands, he completed the cadastre of lands, the amount of tax collection from each of the districts was determined (1/3 of the crop from arable land was collected in favor of the state, and all cultivated lands were divided into 3 categories: lands cultivated annually, sown after a five-year break and virgin land; when collecting taxes from the last two categories, discounts were made; in the central regions of the state, quitrent in kind was replaced by cash; only on the outskirts and in lands inhabited by Afghan tribes, this tax was levied in kind, in addition to paying the tax, the peasant must was serving a labor service); part of the land was given on the terms of conditional non-hereditary service possession to military leaders - jagirdars. Jagirdars had to maintain an army in accordance with the size of the jagir. But it was necessary to refuse to replace the jagirs with a monetary reward, since the jagirdars were against it. And the jagir system created conditions for abuse, which both Sher Shah and Akbar tried to fight, but to no avail. So, in 1580-1582. The Jagirdars rebelled against Akbar. It was possible to pacify the feudal lords only after new decrees on the award of jagirs.

There were possessions of vassal princes - zamindars, paid tribute to the treasury and independently disposed of all other income. Over time, zamindars became privately owned. The heirs were introduced into the possession of the land by a special letter. Zamindars did not carry out military service.

About 3% of the land was owned by the Muslim clergy, and Hindu temples also had some land. These complaints were called soyurgals. Lands of this type had tax immunity.

Akbar sought to strengthen state ownership of land. Not allowing court factions to influence the administration of the state to any extent, he divided the huge staff of his courtiers into 3 separate categories.

Under Akbar, a number of measures were taken to encourage crafts and trade: fees from crafts and additional duties on the sale of various goods were abolished, and internal duties at crossings and river piers were reduced. Single monetary units and a single system of measure and weight were introduced, caravan roads were improved, caravanserais and markets were built.

He attached great importance to religion. He tried to create a synthetic religion ("one sovereign - one religion"), designed to eliminate religious differences among his subjects. Akbar canceled the jizya. Taking Islam as a basis, Akbar used the idea of the Sikhs about unquestioning submission of students to their supreme mentor - guru; fire, from the Mahdi - the doctrine of a righteous ruler, etc. Adhered to the principle of religious tolerance. Many of Akbar's innovations (especially religious policy) were not supported by the feudal lords.

Son of Akbar Jahangir(1605-1627) continued his father's active foreign policy, started wars in the Deccan, opposed the Sikhs in the Punjab. But there were also failures, for example, in Assam, there were problems in Bengal. Under check Jahan(son of Jahangir) (1627-1658) were subordinated to Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda, who became vassals, i.e. The whole of India came under the rule of the Mughal Empire. But this period was the beginning of the decline of the empire.

Shah Jahan replaced by son Aurangzeb(1658-1707), despot, put his father in prison. He ruled for a long time, but not with talent. As a Sunni, Aurangzeb persecuted both Hindus and Shiites. He made attempts to introduce the poll tax for non-Muslims, canceled by Akbar. Constantly robbed jagirdars. Frequent unrest of the peasants. Under him, the economic rhythm of life was falling, at the beginning of the 18th century. India survived the famine, separatism took place on the outskirts.

In the 17th century increased penetration of Europeans into India - the British, Dutch, French, Danes. After the death of Aurangzeb, the vast Mughal empire broke up into a number of separate feudal estates, the rulers of which were constantly at war with each other.

Taking advantage of the collapse of the empire and ousting the French, the British in the 60s. 18th century expanded their possessions in India and then turned it into their colony.

Conclusion

The first thing I would like to note, after analyzing the educational literature, I came to the conclusion that the allocation of Medieval India is practically not considered in history.

In general, the following can be noted. Medieval India embodies the synthesis of a wide variety of socio-political foundations, ethnic cultures, and religious traditions. The study of India attracts with its fabulousness, exoticism, secrets, wealth. If we compare India during this period with Europe, in which at that time the internal market was being formed, international relations were developing, social contradictions were deepening. In India, a typical Asian power, the despotic state was a strong deterrent to capitalization. With its weakening, the country becomes an easy prey for the European colonialists, whose activities interrupted the natural course of the country's historical development for many years.

After analyzing the works of famous medievalists, we can conclude that in India during this period the development of production, labor productivity was very slow, the productivity of the land increased, the state system became more formalized and mature, culture underwent a restructuring associated with the development of national identity. Because of this, India during the Middle Ages lagged behind in its economic, political and spiritual development from the countries of Western Europe, which had pulled ahead. L.B. Alaev, who studied the basic patterns of Indian civilization, singled out the extreme moderation of the pace of movement of its history as the main characteristic: it looks "like one continuous transitional period."

Over the years, interest in the study of the Indian Middle Ages does not disappear. Until now, there are two groups of qualified historians: one considers pre-colonial Indian society as feudal, the other group, no less numerous and qualified, is opposed to the concept of feudalism. Both groups build their arguments on the analysis of a wide range of sources, and often the same texts serve to confirm opposing points of view. I studied with interest the works of some scientists who devoted many years of their lives to the analysis of the processes that took place in the Indian Middle Ages.

Literature

1. Alaev L.B. Medieval India. - St. Petersburg: Aleteyya, 2003 - 304 p.

2. Antonov K.A. History of India (short essay). /K.A. Antonov, G.M. Bongard-Levin, G.G. Kotovsky. M., "Thought", 1973. 558 c

3. World history I: Textbook for universities / Ed. G .B. Polyak, A. N. Markova. - M.: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1997. - 496 p.

4. History of the state and law of foreign countries. Part 1. Textbook for universities. Ed. prof. Krasheni nnikova N.A and prof. Zhidkova O. A. - M. - Publishing house NORMA, 1996. - 480 p.

5. Loginov A.N. History of Asia and Africa in the Middle Ages: Volgograd: VolGU Publishing House, 2002. - 106 p.

Electronic sources

1. Story (P.S. SAMYGIN AND OTHERS) 7th ed. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2007. - 480 p. http://studlib.com/content/category/4/9/13/

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1. The medieval state of India

The slow and uneven nature of the development of Indian society in the Middle Ages makes it extremely difficult to periodize its history. Even in ancient India, one can find some social institutions reminiscent of feudal ones: large-scale private land ownership, exploitation of a dependent farmer with caste inferiority characteristic of India for significant groups of the population, etc., and slavery continued to exist not only in the Middle Ages, but also later.

Medieval India was politically fragmented. Fragmentation was accompanied by endless internecine wars, the temporary emergence of large states, such as the Harsha empire (VII century), which replaced the Gupta empire (IV-V centuries) and lasted only 40 years.

In the V-VI centuries. tribes of the White Huns and Gurjars penetrate into the northwestern part of India, who settle and settle in Sind, Rajasthan, Gujarat. As a result of the mixing of the conquerors with the local population, which is at a higher stage of cultural development, a new caste of warrior-landowners-Rajputs is formed here, who first formed a principality in Gujarat, and then at the beginning of the 8th century. State of the Pratiharas.

The south of India with its numerous tribes noticeably lagged behind in its development from the North, but even here independent states arose - principalities. So, for example, back in the III-IV centuries. the state, Palava, is formed, and in the 7th century. in the southern part of Maharashtra - the principality of the Chalukyas, in IX - the principality of the Cholas, which for some time controlled all of southern India.

The fierce internecine struggle greatly facilitated the invasion of the Muslim conquerors into the northern part of India at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. Having defeated the Rajputs and subjugated the Rajput princes, the main fighting force of India at that time, they formed in the conquered territories Delhi Sultanate(1206-1526), which was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526-1707).

Despite political decentralization, in India in the V-VII centuries. important processes took place that give reason to single out this period in the history of the country. These processes were primarily associated with the internal restructuring of the varna system that had always existed and retained its status quo despite all the political upheavals, with the creation of a vast Indo-Buddhist civilizational zone in a significant part of the territories of India due to the influence of the North, with the growth of the religious and cultural self-consciousness of the Indians, which for centuries has been an important factor in their unification, despite ethnic disunity and the lack of state unity.

Estate-class division. Starting from the first centuries of the new era, the process of enslavement of peasant communities, attaching them to the tax tax, is intensifying, forms of feudal exploitation associated with the growth of private land ownership are gaining strength. Factors accelerating the further stratification of Indian society were the deepening of property differentiation among communal peasants, grants by rulers to individual or group ownership of land by representatives of higher castes, and the right to exploit peasants. In the first centuries of the new era, the land ownership of Hindu temples and Buddhist monasteries increased, primarily due to grants. Temples and monasteries ran their own economy, exploiting enslaved peasants, hired workers, and slaves.

The result of numerous wars was the redistribution of land, which directly affected the varno-caste system. The old system of varnas has been preserved, but the varnas themselves have not remained unchanged. They were transformed under the influence of a new caste division. Ethnic and professional groups, clans of conquering warriors, religious sects, etc. became castes. Regardless of the initial origin, castes, as the division of labor deepened, “lined up” in the hierarchy of the varna society in accordance with the socio-economic status of their members, with their relationship to the land . The transformation of the Rajputs into the dominant Kshatriya caste was directly related to their acquisition of the right to rent-tax from the conquered population, to the real disposal of land.

The general scheme of the caste hierarchy associated with land ownership rights was constructed as follows. Brahmin landowners, ruling dynasties of Hindu principalities, representatives of the administrative and tax apparatus, warrior landowners, and finally, full-fledged community members - Rajputs and Jains in a number of areas of northern and northwestern India were part of the highest Brahmin and Kshatri castes, who supposedly traced their ancestry from the Brahmin and Kshatriya clans of ancient India. Vaishiev Varna began to designate mainly a class organization of merchants and artisans. The Shudra castes consisted of impoverished landowners, community land holders, and artisans. The last, lowest group of "untouchable" castes included disenfranchised tenants and servants of the community, deprived of any property rights, who were in a semi-slavish, semi-serf dependence on full-fledged community members.

The process of class stratification proceeded in India in a very peculiar way. It was characterized by the long-term preservation of extreme mosaicism of both the dominant and exploited social strata. A community member paying a rent-tax could himself act as an exploiter of hired and dependent workers. Bonded exploitation of non-communal members of the community or non-communal peasantry from the "untouchable" castes was used in the households of both large landowners and ordinary community members.

The assertion of the power of Muslim rulers led to a significant change in the composition of the highest ruling elite in India. A significant part of the major Indian princes was exterminated, their lands became part of the territorial composition of the Sultanate. Some smaller Indian princes (rajas), having recognized the power of the Sultan, fell into vassal dependence on him. They were obliged to pay tribute to the Sultan.

All land of the Sultanate was declared state property. In fact, the land remained in the hands of community peasants who were obliged to pay taxes in favor of the conquerors, which were calculated in a much larger volume than before, and according to a different scheme. All landowners were taxed in the form kharaja, that is, the same rent-tax, but non-Muslims paid another poll tax jizyu. Both taxes often reached half of the harvest.

Part of the state undivided land fund was attributed directly to the treasury. These are the ".golise" lands, the income from which went to the maintenance of the Sultan himself and his court, the state apparatus, officials, soldiers. The other part was divided into service allotments “ikta” and distributed in conditional holding for military service, bureaucratic, etc. Conditional official land tenure was both short-term and for life, but often ikta was transferred for service to the son or son-in-law of an iktadar. Ikta owners (iktadars) collected taxes themselves or through their servants from granted villages or regions, appropriating only a part of tax revenues. Most of the taxes continued to go to the state fund, which determined the amount and form of their withdrawal.

Along with state property, private property also existed in the Sultanate. (mulk). A peculiar type of private property was the lands of Muslim religious institutions. Waqfs and hereditary lands of Muslim clerics (imams). The owners of the mulks paid only a tithe. It was their privilege.

The Delhi Sultanate was characterized by three pronounced trends in the development of land ownership:

1) gradual transformation of ikta lands into mulk lands;

2) reduction of Khalis lands due to the expansion of the first two types of lands;

3) an increase in the direct share of the service elite in the total amount of rent-tax received from state lands. Already in the second half of the XIV century. part of the iktadars acquires tax immunity, and the iqta becomes in many cases hereditary.

State ownership of land was also preserved in Mughal India. Moreover, it was largely streamlined, including through the creation of a land cadastre, the compilation of which was started under Sher Khan (1540-1545) and completed under Akbar (1556-1605), who went down in history as the great ruler, who abolished, in particular, jizya from the local population and clearly defined the amount of taxes from each region.

Much land in Mughal India was given as a conditional grant (jagira) To large Muslim commanders jagirdars, Jagir-dar was obliged to maintain a detachment of troops corresponding to the size of his jagir and rank (from 100 to 5 thousand soldiers), of which the main backbone of the ruler's army consisted. The possessory rights of a jagirdar or a local prince-raja, who was dependent on the padishah, were realized in the right to levy taxes from community members-peasants and withhold a certain part of them in their favor. In addition to the jagirs, there were also possessions of vassal Indian princes of zamindars, who paid tribute to the padishah.

Depending on the forms of exploitation of the farmer, the entire territory of Mughal India was divided into two parts: paradisei and zamindari. Within the territory of paradisei taxes from community members-peasants were levied directly through the state apparatus. The padishah ensured that the jagirdars did not have any administrative or independent tax authority on their lands.

Within the territory of zamindari taxes were collected by the zamindars themselves. The zamindar himself established, in accordance with custom, the amount of payments from the peasants and the forms of their receipt. These payments thus had the character of feudal rent.

The so-called primary zamindars, full-fledged members of the community, who were the owners of their own plots of land, adjoined the zamindars - "lords of the earth". These plots were usually rented out to sharecroppers or farmed by dependent people. Much of the communal land was under perpetual lease with no legal protection. In practice, however, tenants, lacking community peasants, could not be driven from their plots. The tenants were in personal and land dependence on the layer of full-fledged community members, they provided them with all kinds of services. The most exploited stratum of the rural population consisted of landless peasants.

As the Mughal India collapsed, the position of the Mughal rulers weakened, the power of local zamindars increased - both Hindus and Muslims. There is a vassal-lena system of relations. The hierarchy of the former military and civil ranks, who receive their share of the surplus peasant product through the tax apparatus of the state, begins to be supplanted by the hierarchy of feudal landowners.

Political system. Central administration. India VI-XII centuries. It was a collection of numerous states-principalities that were not economically connected with each other. In the early class, so-called tribal states, significant vestiges of tribal relations remained. These states include numerous territorial entities that arose as a result of the conquests of the Rajput clans, in which the power of the prince relied on the military strength of fellow tribesmen, Rajput warriors.

Larger political communities arising from time to time as a result of wars: Harshi (VII century), Chalukyas (VII century), Gurjara-Pratiharas (VIII century) and others - were primitive state formations, representing a conglomeration of the same tribal principalities with extremely mobile borders, with an unformed administrative apparatus. These states were headed maharajas - chief princes. The princely throne was inherited by the son or transferred to the successor at the will of the ruler. In some small principalities, princes were elected, the Maharaja was assisted by advisers who were part of an advisory body. mantriparishad. In the state apparatus, a significant place belonged to soldiers and tax collectors.

The absence of India's state unity over the centuries was compensated to a certain extent by the religious and cultural unity of its multilingual, ethnically diverse population, which began to take shape early. Societies, as shown by the history of India, connected by religious and cultural unity, show a high degree of stability during periods of state fragmentation, conquests and mass migrations of peoples.

This characteristic feature of the country's history is explained to a large extent by the specifics of Hinduism itself, which is not only a religious and philosophical, but also a socio-economic, socio-legal system associated with a huge fund of cultural values that have been created by the Indian people for millennia (myths, epics , religious, legal, scientific literature, etc.).

No religion, perhaps, was not so closely connected with all areas of the spiritual and material culture of the people as Hinduism. This is a huge repository of ancient historical information about the customs and traditions of the country.

The traditional political fragmentation, the weakness of the central state apparatus - as a characteristic feature of medieval India - was also replenished by the strength of the communal organization of Indian society, the stable existence and self-development of which depended little on the victories and defeats of one or another ruler striving for power.

A certain state unity was achieved as a result of the conquest of India by the Muslims. Muslim wars of conquest in India began as early as the 12th century. The conquered Indian lands were first included in the state lands of the Ghurid state, and then from the 13th century. separated into an independent state, called the Delhi Sultanate. In 1229, the Delhi Sultanate was recognized by the Caliph of Baghdad as an independent state. However, the close connection of the rulers of Delhi with the rest of the Muslim world was not interrupted. The sultans of Delhi continued to be proteges of various foreign rulers: Central Asian Turks, Tajiks, Persians.

At the beginning of the XVI century. begins the invasion of India by the Turkic-Afghan conquerors - the Mughals. Mughal Empire reached its peak at the end of the 16th-17th centuries. At the same time, it should be noted that Muslim rulers, including the Great Mughals, despite the powerful political potential of Islam, were unable to create in India either a strong state system or an efficient central apparatus.

Under the monarchical form of government in the system of state authorities, both the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal India had much in common, since the state administration was built here in accordance with the Islamic religious doctrine of the Muslim state. According to this doctrine, all believing Muslims must have one head, who in his power is limited only by the law arising from Allah. The actual scope of the powers of Muslim rulers was determined by the balance of power in the ongoing struggle for power between the ruler and the nobility. Thus, the omnipotence of the Muslim nobility under the Delhi ruler Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246-1265) was replaced by the subsequent strengthening of the positions of the sultans. Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351) already wrote on his coins: "The Sultan is the shadow of God", and the founder of the Mughal Empire, Babur (1526-1530), appropriated the title padishah, endowed with alleged divine rights.

The power of the head of state (sultan, padishah) was hereditary, he himself could appoint the heir to the throne. The Qur'an lists the duties of a ruler. In the first place among them was the protection of Islam, including the maintenance of religious rites and the persecution of heretics and "false teachers". These requirements could not always be met by Muslim rulers in conquered India, where life itself often forced them to make concessions and pursue a policy of religious tolerance.

The Muslim rulers held the supreme legislative and judicial power. Interpreting the norms of Islamic law, they could not, however, disregard its generally accepted interpretation (ijma).

The highest official in the Muslim state, who was considered the second person after the sovereign, was vizier, head of the military and financial department. His main duty was to carry out the orders of the Sultan. Often the viziers concentrated all power in their hands.

The central administration in both the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal India was carried out by special government departments - sofas, designed, in particular, to keep special books containing various information, statistical data of national importance.

The military department, which keeps records of military strength, the number of mercenary troops, the personal protection of the sultan or padishah, land and monetary awards, and the locations of garrisons, occupied a special place in the Muslim state mechanism. The chief quartermaster and treasurer of this department exercised control over the issuance of jagirs in Mughal India, checked the condition of the troops and their equipment at reviews. The financial department controlled the accounting and collection of revenues to the state treasury: taxes, duties, redemption sums for prisoners of war, taxes from the conquered population.

A special department had information about the appointment of all officials, about the amounts they received from the state treasury, and land grants. At the head of this department in the XVI century. stood Mirsaman. He was also in charge of the padishah's workshops and warehouses. Office sadr-us-sadura It was a kind of main spiritual and judicial administration, which could be headed by the sovereign himself or a person authorized by him. It was in charge of appointing judges.

Neither in the Delhi Sultanate nor in Mughal India was there a clear division of functions between court dignitaries and government officials. The court of the Sultan of Delhi was the center of political life and administration of the empire. played a special role at court vakil-i-dar, the palace administrator, who oversees the maintenance of the family, close associates and servants of the Sultan, at the Sultan's kitchen and table. All servants at the court in Mughal India had military ranks and ranks, they often exercised control over the activities of government officials. The personal secretary of the padishah and a special official who reviewed his decrees played an important role in the central administration.

The common features of the state mechanism of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal India did not exclude differences between them, which were expressed not so much in the names of state bodies and positions, but in the nature of the political regime. The rulers of Delhi established their power in the conquered country by methods of brutal suppression of popular resistance and rebellious Hindu rulers. The sultans, relying on military force, confiscated property, killed the disobedient. Islam in its Sunni interpretation became the state religion, and the Persian language (Farsi) became the language of judicial proceedings. The reign of the Moghuls in India began in a different domestic political situation, when the process of "Islamization" of the ruling elite was completed, and the Hindu princes and princelings recognized, to one degree or another, their dependence on Muslim rulers. The Indian city began to exert a certain influence on the policy of the padishahs.

Of the Mughal rulers, Akbar (16th century) left the most noticeable mark on the history of the medieval state of India. At this time, there was a certain "liberalization" of the political regime, the indicators of which can be, for example, some weakening of the tax tax, and the abolition of the poll tax - jizya under Akbar, as well as the ongoing policy of religious tolerance. A large amount of land at that time was transferred to the ownership of not only the Muslim clergy, but also Hindu temples. There has also been some change in urban policy.

So, for example, in order to split the maturing trade and handicraft opposition, starting with Akbar, merchants, artisans and other “low-born” persons began to be appointed to the highest positions in the administrative and tax apparatus. The Mughal rulers were followers of the Hanifite school (the School is named after its founder Abu Hanifa ibn Sabit (699-767)), one of the main distinguishing features and requirements of which was the consideration of local conditions in administration and legal proceedings.

Local government. The introduction of administrative division back in ancient India was a direct consequence of the emerging system of exploitation of the tax-paying community member-peasant. The Gupta and Harsha empires, for example, were divided into provinces ruled by frontier chiefs or governors. The provinces were divided into districts. The smallest administrative unit was the rural community.

Muslim rulers introduced a new administrative-territorial division. The Delhi Sultanate was divided into 23 provinces. Major provinces were divided into evidence(regions). The next administrative-tax unit was pergunnah(district), which includes a number of villages, and patta - one or two villages. The Mughal Empire was divided into 15 regions headed by governors (khaki-mami). Each region was also assigned foudjars - military leaders, gomashty - tax collectors and boilers- chiefs of cities.

The presence of a semi-autonomous mechanism of communal self-government headed by the Brahmin-Kshatriya elite remained a characteristic feature of both Delhi and Mughal India. The Muslim rulers were unable to either break or adequately subjugate the Indian communities, especially the large ones. So, for example, the Mughals did not recognize the possessions of the local ruling clans. However, in practice, such administrative-tax units as pargana and patta coincided with clan possessions.

At the head of the Indian communities were mukkadams, chaudhris(chiefs) - heads of the dominant castes, huta - village heads. They were not officials of the central apparatus, but representatives of the taxpayer community in their relations with the central government. These relations were akin to the tribute duties of the defeated to the victorious state. Community positions were inherited and, moreover, were divided among the heirs. Community councils continued to exist - panchayats, consisting of representatives of the dominant caste in the district, village.

Army. The strength of the Muslim ruling regime was determined by the combat capability of its army. The Muslim cavalry was the main force of the army. A special place was given to the palace guards and other selected troops. The army in the Delhi Sultanate was organized according to the decimal system. The military and civil rank depended on the number of soldiers under the command of a certain person; the emir commanded 100 horsemen, the melik - 1 thousand horsemen, the khan - 10 thousand horsemen. In Mughal India, the number of troops was significantly increased by mercenary units paid directly from the treasury. A particularly privileged position was occupied by mercenary soldiers directly subordinate to the padishah. It is quite characteristic that the heads of powerful agricultural castes had their own military contingents, consisting of people dependent on them. Large Indian communities collectively defended their territory and their rights with weapons in their hands.

Court. The administration of justice in all Muslim states was based on the provisions of the Koran, according to which the court was separated from the administration and administered by judges-qadis specially appointed by the head of state. There was no hierarchy of judicial positions in the judicial system, as well as differences in civil and criminal proceedings. The judges were single. The stability of local communities (village, caste) determined the existence of special panchayat courts, which had significant powers. They were the administrators of the communal land, regulated inter-caste relations, monitored the observance of caste and family rules, and the rule of law.

In the history of India, as already mentioned, it is very difficult to draw a line between ancient history and the Middle Ages. When serious changes took place in Europe associated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of feudalism, India continued to develop according to its own scenario. Many small states fought among themselves, while the foundations of life for the bulk of the population remained unshakable.

Since ancient times, Indian society has been divided into four large groups - varnas. The higher varnas (Brahmins and Kshatriyas) continued to rule and fight, and below (Vaishyas and Shudras) they worked in the fields and in workshops. In the Middle Ages, changes took place in this ancient division. Varnas began to be divided into smaller groups of people who were united by profession or gender Thus, for example, pharmacists, doctors, teachers, etc. stood out among the Brahmins, Warriors, officials, etc., among the Kshatriyas. had its own special signs, rituals, decorations, rules of conduct. A bride or groom could only be sought in their own caste, and children could be raised only according to the traditions and customs of the caste. Like the Varnas, the Castes were divided into lower and higher. There was also a special caste of "untouchables ".

Representatives of the higher castes could not even be near the lower ones, much less wash food or water from their hands. It was considered higher that even the shadow of the "Untouchables" could "desecrate". Only representatives of the higher ones could read and listen to sacred texts. Those who violated these customs and traditions were severely punished.

From the notes of the Chinese traveler Xuan Zang (7th century)

Butchers, fishermen, scavengers, medicine men, laundresses, itinerant performers, gravediggers, executioners and the like live outside the city. On the streets, these people either do not appear at all, or keep to the left side until they reach the right place. Their dwellings are surrounded by walls and located outside the city.

Despite the existence of caste division, representatives of various castes united in communities, were arranged as small self-sufficient states, which acted as a single entity in state power. Communities were the backbone of Indian society. They provided him with internal stability. While state power was weak and limited to collecting taxes from the communities.

A system of mutual services has developed between the various castes in the community - the exchange of products and services. Almost all issues were resolved by the community itself: they chose the council, judges, payment of taxes, allocated people for public works. Those who violated the rules of life in the community could be punished. Worse than punishment is expulsion from the community.

There were several religions in medieval India. Based on the ancient religion in the 1st millennium AD. Hinduism was formed. In the first place came the worship of three gods: Cherry, Shiva and Brahmi. Temples were built in their honor and rich sacrifices were made.

Hindus believed in the transmigration of souls after death. If a person did not do anything during his lifetime. What violated caste traditions, then in the next life he could be reborn in a higher caste. If he retreated, then he was reborn into a lower or animal, plant, stone.

Hindus deified animals. Especially cows. They were forbidden to be killed. Hindus also worshiped the sacred river Ganges.

The second religion of India was Buddhism, which arose here in the VI century. BC. The Buddha taught that the whole life of a person is hardness and suffering, and therefore his soul must be freed from everything earthly and strive for higher peace. He urged to forget about riches. Pleasure, to speak only the truth and not to kill living beings.

From the 5th century Buddhism in India is in decline, but is rapidly spreading in China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, countries of Southeast Asia. Buddhism has become another world religion along with Christianity and Islam.

With the advent of Muslim conquerors, Islam entered India. It has acquired the greatest distribution in the north of the peninsula.

In addition to the religions mentioned, hundreds of local cults were spread in India.

The device in the society of India in the Middle Ages. Features of the state development of India in the Middle Ages. higher professional education

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Introduction

1. Features of the state development of India in the Middle Ages

1.1 Rajput (pre-Islamic) period (VII-XII centuries)

1.2 Delhi Sultanate-(XIII - early XVI centuries)

Conclusion

Literature

Similar Documents

1. The medieval state of India

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Introduction

1. Features of the state development of India in the Middle Ages

1.1 Rajput (pre-Islamic) period (VII-XII centuries)

1.2 Delhi Sultanate-(XIII - early XVI centuries)

Conclusion

Literature

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1. The medieval state of India

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