Combinations of two or more letters to designate one sound (compare diacritical š against French ch, German sch, English sh for the Russian sound and the letter "sh"). Diacritics are used with both vowels and consonants. The main disadvantage of diacritics is the clutter of writing with small but important details, the omission of which can lead to serious errors, for example, when reading the Koran in Arabic. There are languages ​​in which diactic marks are not so common (Russian) or practically not used (English). In some cases there is a tendency to replace diacritical letters with digraphs (German: ö > oe in printed text and computerization).

Story The oldest diacritics were probably Greek longitude and brevity, as well as Greek stress marks. Diacritics are most widely used in languages ​​that have the Latin alphabet. This is due to the fact that in classical Latin there were no hissing sounds, nasal vowels, palatalized (softened) vowels, which were or developed in other languages, especially unrelated ones. So, if in Italian it is possible to render sibilants purely positionally (for example, in the word città "citta" - "city", where c + i automatically means a sibilant sound), then in other languages ​​not related to Latin, this is impossible. Czech, Slovak, Turkish, Romanian, Polish, Lithuanian, Vietnamese are the most loaded with sound-distinctive diacritics. In Portuguese and French, vowels (ê, è, ë, ï, ã) are subjected to strong diacriticization - both sound- and semantic-distinctive, and purely etymological: île< лат. insula "остров". В романских языках имеется и особых диакритизованный согласный ç, в испанском - буква ñ, возникшая в результате надстрочного "двухэтажного" написания двух букв nn в латинских словах типа annum >anno> año "year". Classification Diacritics can be classified in various ways. 1. By place of writing: superscript, subscript, inline. 2. According to the method of drawing: freely attached to the main character or requiring a change in its shape. 3. By phonetic-orthographic meaning (the classification is incomplete and the categories are not mutually exclusive): signs that have a phonetic meaning (affecting pronunciation): signs that give the letter a new sound meaning different from the usual alphabetic one (for example, Czech č, ř, ž ); signs that specify the pronunciation of a sound (for example, French é, è, ê ); signs indicating that the letter retains its standard meaning in such an environment when its sound should change (for example, French ü, ï ); prosodic signs (specifying the quantitative parameters of sound: duration, strength, pitch, etc.): signs of longitude and shortness of vowels (for example, ancient Greek ᾱ, ᾰ ); signs of musical tones (for example, Chinese ā, á, ǎ, à, a); stress marks (for example, Greek "acute", "heavy" and "clothed" stresses: ά, ὰ, ᾶ ); signs that have only spelling meaning, but do not affect pronunciation: signs that allow you to avoid homography (for example, in Church Slavonic there is a difference between the creative falling unit of the number "small" and the data fall the plural of the number "small"; in Spanish si "if" and Sí "yes"); signs that do not denote anything and are used according to tradition (for example, aspiration in Church Slavonic, which is always written over the first letter of the word, if that is a vowel); signs of hieroglyphic meaning (considered diacritical only from the standpoint of typography): signs indicating an abbreviated or conditional spelling (for example, a title in Church Slavonic); signs indicating the use of letters for other purposes (the same titles in the Cyrillic notation of numbers). 4. By formal status: signs with the help of which new letters of the alphabet are formed (in Western terminology they are sometimes called modifiers, and not proper diacritics); characters whose combinations of letters are not considered to be a single letter (such diacritics usually do not affect the alphabetical sort order). 5. By mandatory use: signs, the absence of which makes the text spelling incorrect, and sometimes unreadable, signs used only in special circumstances: in books for the initial teaching of reading, in sacred texts, in rare words with ambiguous reading, etc. If necessary (for example, in the case of technical restrictions), the diacritic may be omitted, sometimes with the insertion or replacement of the letters of the word. Diacritics that look the same can have different meanings, names, and status in different languages ​​and writing systems. The assignment of one or another element of the graphic system to diacritical marks is largely conditional. So, in modern Russian writing, one can find "diacritical marks" of various indisputability (from absolute to almost zero): stresses - are placed only in rare cases and do not form new letters; colon over "" - forms a new letter, but is usually omitted; short over "" - forms a new letter and is never omitted; underlining and underlining letters that look the same when handwritten t (m ) and w (w ); the letter "ь" as such (may be considered as a diacritic for the previous consonant); the stick at "" and the tail at "" - are integral parts of the corresponding letters, but can be perceived as diacritical marks in the formal analysis and comparison of letters of the alphabet. Basic diacritics Comment. There are no well-established Russian names for most diacritics. Currently competing: a traditional system of a philological persuasion, in which one (in form) sign can have many names used depending on the language in question: for example, the same superscript colon in relation to the German language will be called "umlaut" (in recently also “umlaut”), to French - “three”, and to Russian - most often just “two dots”; approximate descriptions of the shape (“bird”, “lid”, “hook”, etc.); tracing paper from English computer terminology (primarily from Unicode), which even in the original is rather conditional, controversial and internally contradictory. Further complicating the situation is the fact that two different characters in one language in another may turn out to be interchangeable font variants. Description, code Example Possible uses Unmerged superscripts /-shaped stroke above the letter U+0301 á acute accent: Greek. and c.-sl. oxia, lat. acutus(acut), fr. accent aigu (aksan-egyu) , English acute; used in Greek, Romanesque, Slavic and more. other languages ń , ѓ trait (Polish) kreska) in Polish denotes a specific softening of consonants, and over ó - pronunciation as [u]; the same softening meaning is used in Sorbian, Croatian, Macedonian and some other languages á in Czech, Slovak and Hungarian - a measure of vowel length \-shaped stroke above the letter U+0300 à heavy accent: Greek and c.-sl. varia, lat. gravity(gravis), fr. accent grave, English grave; used in Greek (polytonic spelling), Romance (primarily French), South Slavic and many more. other languages hat over letter (^-shaped: U+0302, round: U+0311, st.-sl. soft sign: U+0484, over a couple of letters: U+0361) â clothed stress: Greek. and c.-sl. chamber or perispomeni, lat. circumflexus(circumflex), fr. accent circumflexe, English circumflex; used in Greek (polytonic spelling), Romanesque (primarily in French), Serbian, C.-SL. and many others. other languages; in classical languages ​​the cap is usually round or even (in Greek) in the shape of a tilde (see below), in French, sometimes in Serbian - pointed ĉ , ĝ , ĥ , ĵ , ŝ in Esperanto, the superscript character ^ is officially called "circumflex" (Esp. "cirkumflekso"), unofficially - "hat" (Esp. "ĉapelo"); modifies the reading of the corresponding uncapped consonants so that they are read, respectively, as Russian h, shh, X, and and w(approximately) î in Romanian, a pointed cap over â and î means reading them as [s] ê, ŝ in some systems of Latin transliteration of Cyrillic through ê the letter "e" can be transmitted, and through ŝ - the letter "u" f͡ d in some transcription systems, a round cap over a group of letters indicates their continuous pronunciation (affricate) l̑ in Old Church Slavonic, a round cap over a consonant (sometimes slightly shifted to the right) means its softness â in Turkish, a cap over a vowel meant the softness of the previous consonant, it could also indicate the length of the vowel (it was used in borrowings from Arabic); after the writing reform in the 1990s, the cap was abolished, although it continues to be used occasionally. superscript colon U+0308 ë sign of separate reading of letter combinations: gr. diaeresis or dialytika, Gr. and fr. trema(diaeresis); used in Greek, Romance and Nek. other languages ​​(sometimes even in English) ä umlaut - a sign of German and some other Germanic scripts, indicating a changed ("softened") pronunciation of some vowels; borrowed also by some other languages ​​(e.g. Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish and Slovak) yo the colon is part of the Russian (and Belarusian) letter "ё" ї the colon is part of the Ukrainian letter "ї" [yi] ї , ѵ̈ in Church Slavonic kendema, that is, two dots (either two strokes // or \\, which was equivalent), are placed above the letter i and izhitsa ( ѵ ) in the case when they are read as [and] and do not have other superscript characters (accent or aspiration) ӥ in the phonetic transcription of the Russian text: vowel change caused by the position between soft consonants // above the letter U+030B ő , ű "Hungarian umlaut": ő and ű mean long variants of sounds expressed by letters ö and ü ѵ̋ ѵ̈ \\ above letter U+030F and in Serbian: short falling stress ѷ in Church Slavonic: font style ѵ̈ (for Izhitsa the most common, but ї often painted with dots or vertical strokes) superscript circle U+030A å in some Scandinavian languages ​​through å long [a] is denoted, which has passed into [o]; uppercase Å - designation of angstroms ů in Czech with the help of a circle (Czech. kroužek) through ů denoted by a long superscript dot U+0307 i, j included in lowercase letters i and j most languages ​​with Latin and some with Cyrillic writing (when adding any other superscript, the dot is usually removed); in some languages ​​(for example, in Turkish) the letter i with a dot (read as [and] in Turkish) and without a dot (read as [s]), and this difference is preserved for uppercase letters ż hissing consonants in old Czech script, letter ż in current Polish ė in Lithuanian ṁ Latin transliteration of Sanskrit (via ṁ in different systems, both anunasika and anusvara can be depicted, but the latter can also be ṅ) dot to the left above the letter in phonetic transcription of a Russian text: vowel change caused by position after a soft consonant dot to the right above the letter U+0358 a͘ in the phonetic transcription of the Russian text: vowel change caused by position before a soft consonant tilde over letter U+0303 ã in some the tilde transcription system (derived from superscript n and m) over vowels means their nasal pronunciation; in this sense it is also used in Portuguese ñ in spanish ñ - soft [n] in polytonic Greek orthography, the tilde is a font version of a round cap (see above about “clothed stress”) bar over letter U+0304 ā the main meaning (coming from ancient Greek and Latin) is an indication of the length of vowels (and syllable-forming consonants); sometimes the Greek name macron is used U-shaped superscript U+0306 ă the main meaning (coming from the ancient Greek and Latin languages) is an indication of the brevity of vowels; lat. brevis(brevis), English. Breve th in Slavic Cyrillic means the non-syllabic character of vowels and their transition to consonants; c.-sl. and Russian name - short (from the end of the 19th century in dictionaries also brief). Included in letters th , ў (used in the Belarusian language) and some. etc. In modern Cyrillic scripts, it is usually depicted differently than in Greek and Latin. ӂ in the Moldavian Cyrillic alphabet of the Soviet times, the letter "ӂ" meant the affricate [j] ğ in Turkish through ğ denotes a sound close to Ukrainian G, and in some dialects reaching complete extinction ŭ in Esperanto, the U-shaped accent, informally called "bath" (Esp. "kuveto"), transforms the vowel u into a non-syllable sound close to English w, used almost exclusively in diphthongs aŭ and eŭ, for example: "aŭroro" ("dawn"), "Eŭropo" ("Europe") "bird" above the letter U+030C ž , ě hook (czech háček) - a sign of Czech writing, marking hissing and soft consonants, as well as greatly softening the pronunciation of the letter ě (usually corresponding to the old Slavic yat); above some letters it may look like an almost stuck apostrophe for beauty: Ľ , ď etc.; borrowed into some other scripts (in Croatian it was used in both meanings); used in some Latin transliteration systems for Russian and other Cyrillic alphabets. In English computer slang since the 1980s, the name for this sign has appeared caron of unknown origin ( caret + macron?, carom + on?, lat. lat. corona?), which subsequently spread into other languages ​​and official documents (like the Unicode standard). (-shaped sign Greek: U+0314, Kir.: U+0485 ὡ, ῥ deep breath (often corresponds to the initial h- in internationalisms): Gr. and c.-sl. dasia, lat. spiritus asper; used in polytonic Greek orthography and in some older varieties of Church Slavonic )-shaped sign Greek: U+0313, Kir.: U+0486 ὀ, ὠ thin breath: Gr. and c.-sl. psili, c.-sl. also caller, lat. spiritus lenis; used in polytonic Greek orthography and in Church Slavonic (does not stand for anything, is placed above the initial vowel of words) top ponytail U+0309 ả Vietnamese character for one of the musical tones (Vietnamese dấu hỏi) title U+0483 a҃ old and Church Slavonic sign for indicating abbreviated spellings of words and for literal notation of numbers apostrophe n" in some systems of phonetic transcription: a sign of softness of consonants: be in love= [l"ub"um"] or Unmerged subscripts subscript dot U+0323 ḥ various systems of transcription and transliteration (Semitic languages, Indian languages, etc.); a subscript dot can denote syllabic consonants (ṛ, ḷ), cerebral consonants (ḍ, ṭ, ṇ), the same anunasika with anusvara, etc. subscript comma U+0326 ț whistling and hissing in Romanian ( ș , ț ) subscript circle U+0325 r̥ in some transcription systems (for example, in the reconstruction of the Indo-European or Proto-Slavic language), the circle under the consonant indicates its syllabic character "cup" under several letters U+035C t͜s in some systems of phonetic transcription, the sign ͜ under the letter combination means its continuous pronunciation "hat" under the letter U+032F u̯ in some phonetic transcription systems: non-syllabic sound underline U+0331 a̱ in dictionaries can denote stress "bird" under the letter U+032C s̬ in IFA - a sign of voicedness Unmerged inline characters colon after letter a: in phonetic transcription - the sign of the longitude of the sound (in the IPA, a special sign of the "triangular colon" is used: ) dot on the top right after the letter o in Latin script for Taiwanese dialect Merged superscripts horn to the right and up U+031B ơ used in Vietnamese Merged subscripts cedilla U+0327 ç comes from the Spanish language cedilla[cedilla] - "small" z ""), but now it is not used there; best known for its use in French (fr. cedille[gray]), placed under c in the case when this letter must be denoted by the pronunciation [s] instead of [k]: facade[facade]; is also used in some other languages ​​under different letters and with different meanings (for example, in Turkish the letters c, ç, s, s denote respectively the sounds [j], [h], [s] and [w]). In Latvian writing with a lowercase letter g the cedilla is reversed and becomes a superscript: ģ c-tail U+0328 ę comes from medieval Latin writing, where the sign ę was a compact replacement for the ligature æ ; from there it was borrowed by Polish script and received the name ogonek[ohonek] = "tail"; in Polish it is used in letters of nasal vowels ą and ę . Borrowed from Polish by other languages ​​(in particular, Lithuanian), used with various letters ponytail like c or sch ҷ , ӌ was used in the 1930s and later when creating Cyrillic scripts for various languages ​​of the USSR; usually went right and down, but sometimes left and down

superscript

An icon above the letter showing that. it must be read differently than without it (see diacritic mark).

Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what is SUPERSTRATED SIGN in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• SIGN in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
  a material, sensually perceived object (event, action or phenomenon), acting in cognition as an indication, designation or representative of another object, event, ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  - traditionally - a material, sensually perceived object (event, action or phenomenon), acting in cognition as an indication, designation or representative ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Fine Art Terms:
  - (from the French "signe", Latin "signum" - a mark) a human-made image, the meaning of which is known. Since the 15th century, the word "sign" has become ...
• SIGN
  BRANDED - see COMMODITY ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  TRADE - see COMMODITY ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  COMMODITY - see COMMODITY ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  CUSTOMS OFFICIAL. see CUSTOMS OFFICIAL SIGN ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  CONFORMITY - duly registered sign, which, according to the rules established in this certification system, confirms the conformity of the products marked with it ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  DIFFERENCES - stock exchange: sign (badge) certifying the rank of membership on ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  PRESIDENT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION - one of the symbols of presidential power. Assigned to the President of the Russian Federation as head of state for the period of his powers as Chairman ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  BORDER - see BORDER ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  SERVICES - a designation capable of distinguishing the services of some legal or natural persons from similar services of other legal or natural persons. Legal…
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  VINTAGE - see VINTAGE ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  COLLECTIVE - see COLLECTIVE SIGN ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  ARMORIAL - see ARMORIAL ...
• SIGN
  a material, sensually perceived object (phenomenon, action), which acts as a representative of another object, property or relationship. There are linguistic and non-linguistic signs; …
• SIGN
  a material object (phenomenon, event) acting as a representative of some other object, property or relationship and used for acquisition, storage, processing ...
• SIGN
  officer - a special breastplate Z., which was previously a common accessory of officer uniforms. Its original purpose was to protect the chest, but gradually, ...
• SIGN in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  
• SIGN in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  an object (phenomenon, action) that acts as a representative of an ancient object, property or relationship and is used to acquire, store, process and transfer ...
• superscript in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , th, th. Above the line. N. ...
• SIGN in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , -a, m. 1. A mark, an image, an object, to which it is noted, something is indicated. conditional h. Road signs (on highways, on the streets: informing ...
• SIGN
  LANGUAGE, a unit of language (morpheme, word, phrase, sentence), which serves to designate objects or phenomena of reality and their relations, to designate ...
• SIGN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  COMMODITY, see Commodity ...
• SIGN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  SERVICES, see Commodity ...
• superscript in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  superstructure superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, ...
• SIGN in the Popular Explanatory-Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  -a, m. 1) The image on some. an object that serves to distinguish it from similar ones or to indicate something; label, mark. …
• SIGN in the Dictionary of synonyms of Abramov:
  sign, omen, difference; badge, meta (label), mark, brand, seal, stamp, brand, tamga; letter, number, dash; omen, omen, omen, herald, omen, ...
• superscript in the New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language Efremova:
  adj. Situated above…
• SIGN in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Lopatin:
  sign, …
• SIGN in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  sign, …
• SIGN in the Spelling Dictionary:
  sign, …
• superscript
  located above the line N. ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Ozhegov:
  a gesture that signals a movement, communicates something. Signal with the hand. a sign of external detection, a sign of something Signs of attention. Silence - h. consent. …
• SUPERSCRIPT in Dahl's Dictionary:
  the sign above the line is, ...
• SIGN in the Dahl Dictionary:
  husband. sign, omen, difference; omen; premonition; sensory evidence, evidence; sensual expression, the discovery of something. Customs sign, stamp. - distinctions, order. - ...
• superscript
  superscript, superscript. Above the line of text. Superscript...
• SIGN in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language Ushakov:
  sign, m. 1. A sign, sign, by which it is recognized, something is recognized. The child was recognized by a sign on his left shoulder. And in the bath...
• superscript in the Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova:
  superscript adj. Situated above…
• superscript in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language Efremova:
  adj. Situated above…
• superscript in the Big Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  adj. Situated above…
• superscript in the Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary:
  Syn: upper...
• superscript in the Russian Thesaurus:
  Syn: upper...
• TITLO in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  (from Greek titlos - inscription) a superscript indicating the abbreviated spelling of a word or the digital value of a letter in medieval Latin, Greek ...
• TITLO in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  less often a title (from the Greek titles - an inscription), in ancient and medieval (Greek, Latin, Slavic) writing, a superscript sign above the abbreviated spelling ...
• TILDE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  (Spanish tilde, from Latin titulus - inscription), a sign (lowercase, superscript or subscript) in the form of a wavy line (~) the size of a hyphen or ...
• LABELED COMPOUNDS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  compounds (synthesis), chemical compounds in which the atoms of one or more elements ("tags") have an isotopic composition that differs from the main natural one. AT …
• in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  the twenty-seventh letter of the Russian alphabet, going back to the Old Slavonic (Old Bulgarian) Cyrillic b79_094-1.jpg, one of the new signs of the Slavic alphabet, specially invented ...

Previously, many words were abbreviated, and all kinds of signs were used for this: superscript - above the line; lowercase - in a line.

1. Oksia.
2. Varia. Let's say we meet in the word "option".
3. Brief. Let's say: "Y" (I - short), "O - short", "Y - short".
4. Caller indicates the vocative form. Suppose in the sentence: “Panas, what time is it?”, Above “Panas” (above the first letter “P”) we put a call.
5. Iso- this is a reversal form, i.e. when they apply. Let's say: "Panas, did you believe in God?".
6. Apostrophe. Now the apostrophe has been changed to a comma.
7. Camora.
8. Quote- is placed between the letters, i.e. before the text was solid and put a quote, as if it stands out.
9. Erok.
10. Comma- is placed at the bottom of the line.
11. Colon.
12. Point- indicates the universal scale, i.e. Izhei (i) we have with one point.
13. Interrogative.
14. Amazing.
15. Roomy.
16. Titla(or titlo) - an abbreviated literal value.
17. Digital title- to designate numbers, i.e. .
18. Measured title.
19. Numerical title.
20. Wordy- title, shortening the word, in which the basis of the reduction lies on the initial letter Word (C).
21. Rcititlo— i.e. abbreviation when the letter Rzi (R) is the basis.
22. Kindness. There may be two options for recording (see table).
23. Recital title- means that these initial letters must be read according to their images (see the KLM example).

Examples

* God- with a title (i.e., an abbreviated form), we read the image of the initial letters "God creates with the verb."
* saying good- Christians turned this abbreviation into “Lord”, and according to the images it was simply “speaking good”. The truth does nothing, it only speaks, and it is not enough to speak, one must also do it... that is why it is said: "According to their deeds, you shall beat them."
* KLM- in the annals there is this abbreviation and a recitation title on top, when Tsar Ivan gave an answer to the request of the people to return to reign. Soviet translators translated it as "Kolomna", as if the tsar asked Kolomna "should I return to the throne or not?" it is necessary to read by the names of the initial letters: “What People Think”, i.e. the tsar addressed all the people "How do you people think."