Correct answers are marked +
1. What is the name of the outer shell of the earth?
A) biosphere +
B) hydrosphere
B) atmosphere
D) lithosphere
2. The biosphere transformed by human economic activity - is this?
A) noosphere
B) technosphere +
B) atmosphere
D) hydrosphere
3. What is the purpose of the BJD?
A) to form a person's consciousness and responsibility in relation to personal safety and the safety of others
B) protecting a person from dangers at work and outside it +
C) teach a person to provide self-help and mutual assistance
D) teach how to quickly eliminate the consequences of emergencies
4. What is the noosphere?
A) the biosphere, transformed by human economic activity
B) the upper hard shell of the earth
C) the biosphere is transformed by scientific thinking and it is fully realized by a person +
D) the outer shell of the earth
5. Which of the shells of the earth performs a protective function against meteorites, solar energy and gamma radiation?
A) hydrosphere
B) lithosphere
B) technosphere
D) atmosphere +
6. Water vapor in the atmosphere plays the role of a filter from:
A) solar radiation +
B) meteorites
B) gamma radiation
D) solar energy
7. How many BJD functions are there?
8. A versatile process of human conditions for their existence and development - is this?
A) vitality
B) activity +
B) safety
D) danger
9. Security - is it?
A) a state of activity in which the manifestation of danger is excluded with a certain probability +
B) a versatile process of creating human conditions for their existence and development
C) a complex biological process that occurs in the human body and allows you to maintain health and performance
D) the central concept of BJD, which combines phenomena, processes, objects that, under certain conditions, can bring loss to human health
10. What is the name of the process of creating conditions for human existence and development?
A) danger
B) vitality
B) safety
D) activity +
11. What hazards are man-made?
A) a flood
B) industrial accidents on a large scale +
B) air pollution
D) natural disasters
12. What hazards are classified by origin?
A) anthropogenic +
B) impulsive
B) cumulative
D) biological
13. Are there any negative consequences of danger according to the time of action?
A) mixed
B) impulsive +
B) man-made
D) environmental
14. Do they belong to economic dangers?
A) natural disasters
B) floods
B) industrial accidents
D) environmental pollution +
15. Hazards that are classified according to standards:
A) biological +
B) natural
B) anthropogenic
D) economic
16. The state in which the flows correspond to the optimal conditions for interaction - is this?
A) a dangerous state
B) acceptable state
B) an extremely dangerous condition
D) comfortable state +
17. How many axioms of BJD science do you know?
18. A condition in which flows in a short period of time can cause injury, lead to death?
A) a dangerous state
B) extremely dangerous condition+
B) comfort
D) acceptable state
19. In what % of the causes of an accident is there a risk in action or inaction at work?
20. What is the desired state of the objects of protection?
A) safe +
B) acceptable
B) comfortable
D) dangerous
21. Is it a low level of risk that does not affect the environmental or other indicators of the state, industries, enterprises?
A) individual risk
B) social risk
C) acceptable risk +
D) security
22. Homeostasis is provided by:
A) hormonal mechanisms
B) neurohumoral mechanisms
C) barrier and excretory mechanisms
D) all the mechanisms listed above +
23. Are analyzers?
A) subsystems of the central nervous system that provide in the receipt and primary analysis of information signals +
B) the compatibility of complex adaptive reactions of a living organism, aimed at eliminating the action of factors of the external and internal environment that violate the relative dynamic constancy of the internal environment of the organism
C) compatibility of factors that can have a direct or indirect impact on human activity
D) the value of human functional capabilities
24. External analyzers include:
A) vision
B) pressure
C) special analyzers
D) auditory analyzers +
25. Internal analyzers include:
A) special
B) olfactory
B) painful
D) vision
26. Receptor of special analyzers:
D) internal organs +
27. Pressure analyzer receptors:
A) internal organs
28. How many functions are implemented in the vision analyzer?
29. Contrast sensitivity is a function of the analyzer:
A) auditory
B) special
B) vision +
D) temperature
30. With the help of an auditory analyzer, a person perceives:
A) up to 20% of information
B) up to 10% of information +
C) up to 50% of information
D) up to 30% of information
31. The ability to be ready to perceive information at any time is a feature:
A) vision analyzer
B) smell analyzer
B) pain analyzer
D) hearing analyzer +
32. The ability to perceive the shape, size and brightness of the object in question is characteristic of:
A) a special analyzer
B) vision analyzer +
B) hearing analyzer
D) smell analyzer
33. The analyzer of smell is intended:
A) for human perception of any smells +
B) for the ability to establish the location of the sound source
C) the ability to be ready to perceive information at any time
D) contrast sensitivity
34. How many types of elementary taste sensations are distinguished:
35. How many groups does human mental activity implement?
36. What is related to mental irritation?
A) distraction, sharpness, imagination
B) rudeness, thinking, harshness
C) thinking, rudeness, imagination
D) distraction, sharpness, rudeness +
37. Mental processes include:
A) memory and imagination, moral qualities
B) character, temperament, memory
C) memory, imagination, thinking +
D) harshness, rudeness, absent-mindedness
38. The mental properties of a person include:
A) character, temperament, moral qualities +
B) memory, imagination, thinking
C) distraction, sharpness, rudeness
D) character, memory, thinking
39. Is the ecological cleanliness of water, air, food products important for our needs?
A) sexual desires
B) material and energy +
C) socio-psychological
D) economic
40. Spatial comfort - is it?
A) need for food, oxygen, water
B) the need for communication, family
C) the need for a spatial room +
D) is achieved due to the temperature and humidity of the room
41. What ensures the protection of a person from stress?
A) spatial comfort +
B) thermal comfort
C) socio-psychological needs
D) economic needs
42. The need for a space minimum:
43. The optimal combination of microclimate parameters in areas of human activity and recreation:
A) comfort
B) living environment
C) acceptable conditions
D) thermal comfort
44. What is the compatibility of factors that can have a direct or indirect impact on human activity, his health and offspring?
A) activities
B) vitality
B) safety
D) living environment +
45. Performance is characterized by:
A) the amount of work done
B) the amount of work performed
C) quantity and quality of work performed
D) the quantity and quality of work performed for a certain time +
46. How many phases of working capacity are there?
47. The first phase of health:
A) high performance
B) fatigue
B) working out +
D) average performance
48. The duration of the high performance phase:
49. What phase of health does not exist?
A) fatigue
B) high performance
C) average working capacity +
D) working out
50. Duration of the development phase:
51. Hypothermia of the body can be caused by:
A) an increase in temperature
B) a decrease in humidity
B) with a decrease in heat transfer
D) with a decrease in temperature and an increase in humidity +
52. Biological sources of pollution of the hydrosphere include:
A) organic microorganisms that cause water fermentation +
B) microorganisms that change the chemical composition of water
C) microorganisms that change the transparency of water
D) dust, smoke, gases
53. The chemical sources of pollution of the hydrosphere include:
A) enterprises of the food, medical and biological industries
B) oil products, heavy metals +
C) discharge from workings, mines, quarries
D) dust, smoke, gases
54. Discharges from workings, mines, quarries, washouts from mountains:
A) change the transparency of water +
B) change the chemical composition of water
B) cause water to ferment
D) refer to anthropogenic pollution
55. What enterprises are most dangerous when soil cover is polluted?
A) food industry
B) enterprises of the medical and biological industry
C) enterprises of non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy +
D) paper industry enterprises
56. Pollution radius of non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy enterprises:
A) up to 50 km.+
B) up to 100 km.
C) up to 10 km.
D) up to 30 km.
57. Pollution radius of waste incineration plant emissions and TPP emissions:
A) up to 50 km.
B) up to 5 km.+
C) up to 100 km.
D) up to 20 km.
58. Unexpected release of the potential energy of the earth's interior, which takes the form of shock waves?
A) an earthquake
B) landslides
B) a hurricane
59. How many points does the scale for measuring the strength of an earthquake consist of:
60. Earthquakes of how many points do not pose a particular danger?
61. At what magnitude of an earthquake do cracks appear in the ground up to 10 cm large rock falls?
62. With an earthquake of 11 points, there is:
A) cracks in the ground
B) mountain falls
C) catastrophe, widespread destruction of buildings changes the level of groundwater +
D) cracks in the earth's crust up to 1 meter
63. Downward displacement under the action of gravity of large soil masses that form slopes, rivers, mountains, lakes - is this?
A) landslides +
B) earthquakes
B) snow avalanches
64. Landslides can also lead to:
A) the appearance of cracks in the ground
B) mountain collapse
C) changes in the level of groundwater
D) damage to pipelines, power lines +
65. The dangers of the lithosphere include:
A) a hurricane
B) an earthquake
D) flood
66. A hurricane is classified as a hazard in:
A) lithosphere
B) atmosphere +
B) is not a hazard
D) hydrosphere
67. A cyclone, in the center of which there is very low pressure, and the wind has a high speed and destructive force, is:
A) hurricane
B) snow avalanches
D) landslides
68. How many points does the scale for measuring the strength of a hurricane consist of?
69. At what point does a hurricane pose no particular danger?
70. A hurricane of 7 points is characterized by:
A) unusually strong, the wind breaks thick trees
B) very strong, it is difficult for people to move against the wind +
C) a storm, the wind demolishes light buildings
D) a strong storm, the wind knocks down strong houses
71. What is the danger in the hydrosphere?
A) strong drifts and snowstorms
B) floods+
B) snow avalanches
D) landslides
72. With our dangers, does a person lose the ability to navigate, lose visibility?
A) a hurricane
B) earthquake
C) snow drifts and blizzards +
D) landslides
73. Choose the correct statement:
A) a storm, the wind demolishes light buildings - an earthquake of 7 points
B) unusually strong, the wind breaks thick trunks - a hurricane of 10 points
C) very strong, individual houses are collapsing - an earthquake of 8 points
D) a strong storm, the wind uproots trees, knocks down strong houses - a hurricane of 10 points +
74. The area of low pressure in the atmosphere is:
A) cyclone
B) Anticyclone
B) tornado
75. You should leave the zone of chemical contamination:
A) in the direction of the wind
b) facing the wind
B) Perpendicular to the direction of the wind
76. Dangerous extreme working conditions are characterized
77. Dangerous extreme working conditions are characterized
A) the level of pollution in the workplace
B) the number of risks of potential danger
C) the level of production factors that pose a threat to life
Analyzer- a set of three parts of the nervous system: peripheral, conductive and central.
Peripheral section of the analyzer represented by receptors that perceive external and internal stimuli.
All receptors are divided into two groups: distant and contact. distant receptors are able to perceive irritations, the source of which is located at a considerable distance from the body (visual, auditory, olfactory receptors). Contact receptors are excited by direct contact with a source of irritation. These include tactile, temperature, taste buds.
Receptors transform the energy of irritation into the energy of a nerve impulse. The cause of excitation in the receptor is the depolarization of its surface membrane as a result of exposure to the stimulus. This depolarization is called the receptor or regenerative potential.
Adaptation- adaptation to the strength of the stimulus. There is a decrease in the sensitivity of receptors to a constantly acting stimulus. Proprioreceptors are incapable of adaptation.
Conductor section of the analyzer represented by nerve pathways that conduct nerve impulses to the central section of the analyzer.
Central, or brain, department of the analyzer certain areas of the cerebral cortex. In the cells of the cerebral cortex, nerve impulses are the basis for the emergence of sensation. On the basis of sensations, more complex mental acts arise - perception, representation and abstract thinking.
Pavlov I.P. The brain end of the analyzer consists of two parts: the nucleus and peripheral scattered nerve elements located over the entire surface of the cerebral cortex.
The central part of the analyzer (the core) consists of functionally highly differentiated neurons that carry out the highest analysis and synthesis of information coming to them. The scattered elements of the brain end of the analyzer are represented by less differentiated neurons capable of performing the simplest functions.
All analyzers are divided into external and internal. To external analyzers include visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory and skin . To internal analyzers - motor, vestibular and analyzer of internal organs (interoreceptive analyzer).
EXTERNAL ANALYZERS.
visual analyzer. The peripheral part of the visual analyzer is photoreceptors located on the retina of the eye. Nerve impulses along the optic nerve (conductor section) enter the occipital region - the brain section of the analyzer. In the neurons of the occipital region of the cerebral cortex, diverse and different visual sensations arise.
The eye consists of an eyeball and an auxiliary apparatus. The wall of the eyeball is formed by three membranes: the cornea, sclera, or protein, and vascular. The inner (vascular) membrane consists of the retina, on which photoreceptors (rods and cones) are located, and its blood vessels.
The eye consists of a receptor apparatus located in the retina and an optical system. Optical system The eye is represented by the anterior and posterior surfaces of the cornea, the lens and the vitreous body. For a clear vision of an object, it is necessary that the rays from all its points fall on the retina. The adaptation of the eye to see clearly objects at different distances is called accommodation . Accommodation is carried out by changing the curvature of the lens. Refraction - refraction of light in the optical media of the eye.
There are two main anomalies in the refraction of rays in the eye: farsightedness and myopia.
line of sight- angular space visible eye with a fixed gaze and a motionless head.
On the retina are photoreceptors: rods (with the pigment rhodopsin) and cones (with the pigment iodopsin). Cones provide daytime vision and color perception, rods - twilight, night vision.
A person has the ability to distinguish a large number of colors. Mechanism color perception According to the generally accepted, but already outdated three-component theory, there are three sensors in the visual system that are sensitive to three primary colors: red, yellow and blue. Therefore, normal color perception is called trichromasia. With a certain mixture of the three primary colors, a sensation of white appears. If one or two sensors of the primary colors are malfunctioning, the correct mixing of colors is not observed and there are violations of color perception.
There are congenital and acquired forms of color anomalies. With a congenital color anomaly, a decrease in sensitivity to blue is more often observed, and with an acquired color - to green. Color anomaly Dalton (color blindness) is a decrease in sensitivity to shades of red and green. This disease affects about 10% of men and 0.5% of women.
The process of color perception is not limited to the reaction of the retina, but significantly depends on the processing of the received signals by the brain..
auditory analyzer.
The value of the auditory analyzer lies in the perception and analysis of sound waves. Peripheral department auditory analyzer is represented by a spiral (Corti) organ of the inner ear. The auditory receptors of the spiral organ perceive the physical energy of sound vibrations that come to them from the sound-catching (outer ear) and sound-transmitting apparatus (middle ear). Nerve impulses generated in the receptors of the spiral organ, through conduction path(auditory nerve) go to the temporal region of the cerebral cortex - the brain section of the analyzer. AT cerebral region Analyzer nerve impulses are converted into auditory sensations.
The organ of hearing includes the outer, middle and inner ear.
The structure of the outer ear. The outer ear consists of the auricle and the external auditory canal.
The outer ear is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane. On the inside, the tympanic membrane is connected to the handle of the malleus. The eardrum vibrates with every sound according to its wavelength.
The structure of the middle ear. The structure of the middle ear includes a system of auditory ossicles - hammer, anvil, stirrup, auditory (Eustachian) tube. One of the bones - the malleus - is woven with its handle into the tympanic membrane, the other side of the malleus is articulated with the anvil. The anvil is connected to the stirrup, which is adjacent to the membrane of the window of the vestibule (foramen ovale) of the inner wall of the middle ear.
The auditory ossicles are involved in the transmission of vibrations of the tympanic membrane caused by sound waves to the window of the vestibule, and then to the endolymph of the cochlea of the inner ear.
The vestibule window is located on the wall separating the middle ear from the inner ear. There is also a round window. Oscillations of the endolymph of the cochlea, which began at the oval window, spread along the cochlea, without fading, to the round window.
The structure of the inner ear. The composition of the inner ear (labyrinth) includes the vestibule, semicircular canals and the cochlea, in which special receptors are located that respond to sound waves. The vestibule and semicircular canals do not belong to the organ of hearing. They represent vestibular apparatus , which is involved in the regulation of the position of the body in space and maintaining balance.
On the main membrane of the middle course of the cochlea there is a sound-perceiving apparatus - a spiral organ. It consists of receptor hair cells, the vibrations of which are converted into nerve impulses that propagate along the fibers of the auditory nerve and enter the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex. The neurons of the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex come into a state of excitation, and there is a sensation of sound. This is how air conduction of sound occurs.
With air conduction of sound, a person is able to perceive sounds in a very wide range - from 16 to 20,000 vibrations per 1 s.
Bone conduction of sound is carried out through the bones of the skull. Sound vibrations are well conducted by the bones of the skull, are transmitted immediately to the perilymph of the upper and lower cochlea of the inner ear, and then to the endolymph of the middle course. There is an oscillation of the main membrane with hair cells, as a result of which they are excited, and the resulting nerve impulses are subsequently transmitted to the neurons of the brain.
Air conduction of sound is better than bone conduction.
Taste and olfactory analyzers.
Meaning taste analyzer consists in approbation of food in direct contact with the oral mucosa.
Taste receptors (peripheral) are embedded in the epithelium of the oral mucosa. Nerve impulses along the conduction path, mainly the vagus, facial and glossopharyngeal nerves, enter the brain end of the analyzer, located in the immediate vicinity of the cortical section of the olfactory analyzer.
Taste buds (receptors) are concentrated mainly on the papillae of the tongue. Most taste buds are found at the tip, edges, and back of the tongue. Taste receptors are also located on the back of the pharynx, soft palate, tonsils, epiglottis.
Irritation of some papillae causes only a sweet taste, others only a bitter taste, etc. At the same time, there are papillae, the excitation of which is accompanied by two or three taste sensations.
Olfactory analyzer takes part in the determination of odors associated with the appearance of odorous substances in the environment.
The peripheral section of the analyzer is formed by olfactory receptors, which are located in the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity. From the olfactory receptors, nerve impulses through the conduction section - the olfactory nerve - enter the brain section of the analyzer - the region of the hook and hippocampus of the limbic system. In the cortical section of the analyzer, various olfactory sensations arise.
The olfactory receptors are concentrated in the region of the upper nasal passages. There are cilia on the surface of the olfactory cells. This increases the possibility of their contact with the molecules of odorous substances. The olfactory receptors are very sensitive. So, to obtain a sense of smell, it is enough that 40 receptor cells are excited, and only one molecule of an odorous substance should act on each of them.
The sensation of smell at the same concentration of an odorous substance in the air occurs only at the first moment of its action on the olfactory cells. In the future, the sense of smell weakens. The amount of mucus in the nasal cavity also affects the excitability of olfactory receptors. With increased secretion of mucus, for example during a runny nose, there is a decrease in the sensitivity of olfactory receptors to odorous substances.
Tactile and temperature analyzers.
The activity of the tactile analyzer is associated with the distinction between various effects on the skin - touch, pressure.
Tactile receptors located on the surface of the skin and mucous membranes of the mouth and nose, form the peripheral section of the analyzer. They are excited by touching or pressure on them. conductor department The tactile analyzer is represented by sensitive nerve fibers coming from receptors in the spinal cord (through the posterior roots and posterior columns), the medulla oblongata, the optic tubercles, and the neurons of the reticular formation. Brain section of the analyzer- posterior central gyrus. It has tactile sensations.
Tactile receptors include tactile bodies (Meissner's), located in the vessels of the skin, and tactile menisci (Merkel discs), which are present in large numbers on the tips of the fingers and lips. Pressure receptors include lamellar bodies (Pacini), which are concentrated in the deep layers of the skin, in tendons, ligaments, peritoneum, mesentery of the intestine.
Temperature analyzer. Its significance lies in determining the temperature of the external and internal environment of the body.
The peripheral section of this analyzer is formed by thermoreceptors. A change in the temperature of the internal environment of the body leads to the excitation of temperature receptors located in the hypothalamus. The conduction section of the analyzer is represented by the spinothalamic pathway, the fibers of which end in the nuclei of the visual tubercles and neurons of the reticular formation of the brain stem. The brain end of the analyzer is the posterior central gyrus of the CGM, where temperature sensations are formed.
Thermal receptors are represented by Ruffini bodies, cold receptors are represented by Krause flasks.
Thermoreceptors in the skin are located at different depths: cold receptors are located more superficially, and thermal receptors are deeper.
INTERNAL ANALYZERS.
vestibular analyzer. Participates in the regulation of the position and movement of the body in space, in maintaining balance, and is also related to the regulation of muscle tone.
Peripheral department The analyzer is represented by receptors located in the vestibular apparatus. They are excited by changing the speed of rotational movement, rectilinear acceleration, changing the direction of gravity, vibration. conductor path- vestibular nerve. brain department analyzer is located in the anterior parts of the temporal lobe of the CGM. As a result of excitation of the neurons of this section of the cortex, sensations arise that give ideas about the position of the body and its individual parts in space, helping to maintain balance and maintain a certain posture of the body at rest and during movement.
The vestibular apparatus consists of the vestibule and three semicircular channels internal ear. The semicircular canals are narrow passages correct forms located in three mutually perpendicular planes. top or front channel lies in the front, rear - in sagittal, and external - in the horizontal plane. One the end of each the canal is flask-shaped and is called an ampulla
Excitation of receptor cells occurs due to the movement of endolymph channels.
An increase in the activity of the vestibular analyzer occurs under the influence of a change in the speed of the body.
motor analyzer. Due to the activity of the motor analyzer, the position of the body or its individual parts in space, the degree of contraction of each muscle is determined.
Peripheral department The motor analyzer is represented by proprioceptors located in muscles, tendons, ligaments and periarticular bags. conductor department consists of the corresponding sensory nerves and pathways of the spinal cord and brain. brain department The analyzer is located in the motor area of the cerebral cortex - the anterior central gyrus of the frontal lobe.
Proprioceptors are: muscle spindles found among muscle fibers, bulbous bodies (Golgi) located in tendons, lamellar bodies found in fascia covering muscles, tendons, ligaments and periosteum. A change in the activity of various proprioceptors occurs at the time of muscle contraction or relaxation. Muscle spindles are always in a state of some excitation. Therefore, nerve impulses constantly flow from muscle spindles to the central nervous system, to the spinal cord. This leads to the fact that the motor nerve cells - the motor neurons of the spinal cord are in a state of tone and continuously send rare nerve impulses along the efferent pathways to the muscle fibers, ensuring their moderate contraction - tone.
Interoceptive analyzer. This analyzer of internal organs is involved in maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body (homeostasis).
Peripheral department formed by a variety of interoreceptors diffusely located in the internal organs. They're called visceroreceptors.
Conductor Department includes several nerves of different functional significance that innervate the internal organs, vagus, celiac and splanchnic pelvic. brain department located in the motor and premotor area of the CG. Unlike external analyzers, the brain section of the interoceptive analyzer has significantly fewer afferent neurons that receive nerve impulses from receptors. Therefore, a healthy person does not feel the work of internal organs. This is due to the fact that afferent impulses coming from interoreceptors to the brain section of the analyzer are not converted into sensations, that is, they do not reach the threshold of our consciousness. However, when some visceroreceptors are excited, for example, the receptors of the bladder and rectum, if their walls are stretched, there are sensations of the urge to urinate and defecate.
Visceroreceptors are involved in the regulation of the work of internal organs, carry out reflex interactions between them.
Pain- a physiological phenomenon that informs us about harmful effects that damage or represent a potential danger to the body. Painful irritations can occur in the skin, deep tissues and internal organs. These irritations are perceived nociceptors located throughout the body, with the exception of the brain. Term nociception means the process of perceiving damage.
When, upon stimulation of skin nociceptors, nociceptors of deep tissues or internal organs of the body, the resulting impulses, following the classical anatomical pathways, reach the higher parts of the nervous system and are displayed by consciousness, a sensation of pain. The complex of the nociceptive system is equally balanced in the body by the complex antinociceptive system, which provides control over the activity of structures involved in the perception, conduction and analysis of pain signals. The antinociceptive system provides a decrease in pain sensations inside the body. It has now been established that pain signals coming from the periphery stimulate the activity of various parts of the central nervous system (periaductal gray matter, raphe nuclei of the brainstem, nuclei of the reticular formation, nucleus of the thalamus, internal capsule, cerebellum, interneurons of the posterior horns of the spinal cord, etc. ) exerting a downward inhibitory effect on the transmission of nociceptive afferentation in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord.
In the mechanisms of development analgesia the greatest importance is attached to the serotonergic, noradrenergic, GABAergic and opioidergic systems of the brain. The main one, opioidergic system, formed by neurons, the body and processes of which contain opioid peptides (beta-endorphin, met-enkephalin, leu-enkephalin, dynorphin). By binding to certain groups of specific opioid receptors, 90% of which are located in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord, they promote the release of various chemicals (gamma-aminobutyric acid) that inhibit the transmission of pain impulses. This natural, natural pain-relieving system is just as important to normal functioning as the pain-signaling system. Thanks to her, minor injuries such as a bruised finger or a sprain cause severe pain only for a short time - from a few minutes to several hours, without making us suffer for days and weeks, which would happen in conditions of persisting pain until complete healing.
Analyzer is a term introduced by I.P. Pavlov to designate a functional unit responsible for receiving and analyzing sensory information of any one modality.
A set of neurons of different levels of the hierarchy involved in the perception of stimuli, the conduction of excitation, and in the analysis of stimuli.
The analyzer, together with a set of specialized structures (sense organs) that contribute to the perception of environmental information, is called a sensory system.
For example, the auditory system is a collection of very complex interacting structures, including the outer, middle, inner ear and a collection of neurons called the analyzer.
Often the terms "analyzer" and "sensor system" are used as synonyms.
Analyzers, like sensory systems, classify according to the quality (modality) of those sensations in the formation of which they participate. These are visual, auditory, vestibular, gustatory, olfactory, skin, vestibular, motor analyzers, analyzers of internal organs, somatosensory analyzers.
The analyzer is divided into three sections:
1. Perceiving organ or receptor designed to convert the energy of irritation into the process of nervous excitation;
2. Conductor, consisting of afferent nerves and pathways, through which impulses are transmitted to the overlying parts of the central nervous system;
3. The central section, consisting of relay subcortical nuclei and projection sections of the cerebral cortex.
In addition to the ascending (afferent) pathways, there are descending fibers (efferent), along which the regulation of the activity of the lower levels of the analyzer from its higher, especially cortical, departments is carried out.
Analyzers are special structures of the body that serve to enter external information into the brain for its subsequent processing.
Minor terms
· receptors;
Block diagram of terms
In the process of labor activity, the human body adapts to environmental changes due to the regulatory function of the central nervous system (CNS). The individual is connected to the environment through analyzers, which consist of receptors, nerve pathways and a brain end in the cerebral cortex. The brain end consists of a nucleus and elements scattered throughout the cerebral cortex, providing nerve connections between individual analyzers. For example, when a person eats, he feels the taste, smell of food and feels its temperature.
The main characteristic of analyzers is sensitivity.
The lower absolute threshold of sensitivity is the minimum value of the stimulus to which the analyzer begins to respond.
If the stimulus causes pain or disruption of the analyzer, this will be the upper absolute threshold of sensitivity. The interval from minimum to maximum determines the sensitivity range (for sound from 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
In humans, receptors are tuned to the following stimuli:
electromagnetic oscillations of the light range - photoreceptors in the retina of the eye;
mechanical vibrations of air - phonoreceptors of the ear;
Changes in hydrostatic and osmotic blood pressure - baro- and osmoreceptors;
· change of position of a body concerning a vector of gravitation - receptors of a vestibular device.
In addition, there are chemoreceptors (react to the effects of chemicals), thermoreceptors (perceive temperature changes both inside the body and in the environment), tactile receptors and pain receptors.
In response to changes in environmental conditions, so that external stimuli do not cause damage and death of the body, compensatory reactions are formed in it, which can be: behavioral (change of location, withdrawal of the hand from hot or cold) or internal (change in the mechanism of thermoregulation in response to change in microclimate parameters).
A person has a number of important specialized peripheral formations - sensory organs that provide the perception of external stimuli affecting the body. These include the organs of sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch.
Do not confuse the concepts of "sense organs" and "receptor". For example, the eye is the organ of vision, and the retina is the photoreceptor, one of the components of the organ of vision. The sense organs alone cannot provide sensation. For the occurrence of a subjective sensation, it is necessary that the excitation that has arisen in the receptors enters the corresponding section of the cerebral cortex.
visual analyzer includes the eye, optic nerve, visual center in the occipital part of the cerebral cortex. The eye is sensitive to the visible range of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves from 0.38 to 0.77 microns. Within these limits, different wavelength ranges cause different sensations (colors) when exposed to the retina:
0.38 - 0.455 microns - purple;
0.455 - 0.47 microns - blue;
0.47 - 0.5 microns - blue;
0.5 - 0.55 microns - green;
0.55 - 0.59 microns - yellow;
0.59 - 0.61 microns - orange;
0.61 - 0.77 microns - red.
The adaptation of the eye to the distinction of a given object under given conditions is carried out by three processes without the participation of the human will.
Accommodation- changing the curvature of the lens so that the image of the object is in the plane of the retina (focusing).
Convergence- rotation of the axes of vision of both eyes so that they intersect at the object of difference.
Adaptation- adaptation of the eye to a given level of brightness. During the period of adaptation, the eye works with reduced efficiency, so it is necessary to avoid frequent and deep re-adaptation.
Hearing- the ability of the body to receive and distinguish sound vibrations with an auditory analyzer in the range from 16 to 20,000 Hz.
The perceptive part of the auditory analyzer is the ear, which is divided into three sections: outer, middle and inner. Sound waves, penetrating into the external auditory canal, vibrate the eardrum and through the chain of auditory ossicles are transmitted to the cavity of the cochlea of the inner ear. Vibrations of the fluid in the canal cause the fibers of the main membrane to resonate with the sounds entering the ear. Vibrations of the fibers of the cochlea set in motion the cells of the organ of Corti located in them, a nerve impulse arises, which is transmitted to the corresponding sections of the cerebral cortex. Pain threshold 130 - 140 dB.
Smell- the ability to perceive odors. The receptors are located in the mucous membrane of the upper and middle nasal passages.
A person has a different degree of smell for various odorous substances. Pleasant odors improve a person’s well-being, while unpleasant odors act depressingly, cause negative reactions up to nausea, vomiting, fainting (hydrogen sulfide, gasoline), can change skin temperature, cause disgust for food, lead to depression and irritability.
Taste- a sensation that occurs when certain water-soluble chemicals are exposed to taste buds located on different parts of the tongue.
Taste is made up of four simple taste sensations: sour, salty, sweet, and bitter. All other flavor variations are combinations of basic sensations. Different parts of the tongue have different sensitivity to taste substances: the tip of the tongue is sensitive to sweet, the edges of the tongue to sour, the tip and edge of the tongue to salty, the root of the tongue to bitter. The mechanism of perception of taste sensations is associated with chemical reactions. It is assumed that each receptor contains highly sensitive protein substances that decompose when exposed to certain flavoring substances.
Touch- a complex sensation that occurs when the receptors of the skin, the outer parts of the mucous membranes and the muscular-articular apparatus are irritated.
The skin analyzer perceives external mechanical, temperature, chemical and other skin irritants.
One of the main functions of the skin is protective. Sprains, bruises, pressures are neutralized by an elastic fatty lining and elasticity of the skin. The stratum corneum protects the deep layers of the skin from drying out and is highly resistant to various chemicals. The melanin pigment protects the skin from UV rays. The intact layer of skin is impervious to infections, while sebum and sweat create a deadly acidic environment for germs.
An important protective function of the skin is participation in thermoregulation, because. 80% of all body heat transfer is carried out by the skin. At high ambient temperatures, skin vessels expand and heat transfer by convection increases. At low temperatures, the vessels narrow, the skin turns pale, and heat transfer decreases. Heat is also transferred through the skin by sweating.
Secretory function is carried out through the sebaceous and sweat glands. With sebum and sweat, iodine, bromine, and toxic substances are released.
The metabolic function of the skin is participation in the regulation of the general metabolism in the body (water, mineral).
The receptor function of the skin is perception from the outside and transmission of signals to the central nervous system.
Types of skin sensitivity: tactile, pain, temperature.
With the help of analyzers, a person receives information about the outside world, which determines the work of the functional systems of the body and human behavior.
The maximum transmission rates of information received by a person with the help of various sense organs are given in Table. 1.6.1
Table 1. Characteristics of the sense organs
| Perceived signal | Signal content | Maximum information transfer rate Bit / s |
| Visual | Line length. Color. Brightness | 3,25; 3,1; 3,3 |
| Auditory | Volume. Pitch | 2,3; 2,5 |
| Taste | Salinity | 1,3 |
| Olfactory | Intensity | 1,53 |
| Tactile (tactile) | Intensity. duration. Location on the body | 2,0; 2,3; 2,8 |
Faculty of Pharmacy
Department of Normal Physiology, Volgmu
LECTURE 15
PHYSIOLOGY OF SENSORY SYSTEMS
1. Sensory systems. General principles of the structure of analyzers. Basic functions and properties. Classification of sensory signals.
2. Auditory analyzer.
3. Visual analyzer.
4. Pain analyzer. Noci- and antinociceptive systems.
5. Ways to correct pain sensitivity.
Sensory systems. General principles of the structure of analyzers. Basic functions and properties. Classification of sensory signals.
SENSOR SYSTEM is a set of specialized nerve formations that provide encoding and decoding of the physical characteristics of sensory signals
The doctrine of analyzers was created by I.P. Pavlov, who considered ANALYZER as a single system, including THREE DEPARTMENTS, functionally and anatomically related to each other:
· peripheral or receptor(includes receptor apparatus);
· conductive(represented by afferent and intermediate neurons);
· central or cortical(represented by areas of the cerebral cortex that perceive afferent signals).
Main functions analyzers are as follows.
1. Reception and transformation (transformation) of the receptor signal.
2. Coding information and its transmission in the form of a code to the sensory nuclei of the central nervous system.
3. Analysis, identification of properties and identification of the signal.
To the main properties analyzers include the following.
1. Specificity - the ability to selectively perceive stimuli of a certain modality, to which analyzers have a particularly high sensitivity.
2. Adaptation (addiction) is manifested in a decrease in sensitivity (an increase in the threshold of irritation) to a long-acting stimulus of constant strength and can occur at the level of all three sections of the analyzers (receptor, conduction, cortical).
Because the trigger factor for the activity of sensory systems are sensory signals, then they can be divided by modalities(specificity) and adequacy(compliance).
Under modality understand kind of energy(thermal, light, sound), acting on the body. Modality encoded in specialization receptors and related sensory cortical zones.
Adequate signal is a signal to which the receptors and structures of the sensory cortex are adapted.
For example:
· sound- for ear receptors and the auditory cortex;
· light- for the receptors of the eye and the visual cortex.
Adequacy criterion is sensation threshold, which is lower for an adequate signal.
All analyzers are divided into two groups: external and internal.
To external analyzers include visual, auditory, olfactory, skin.
Due to their activity, a person learns the surrounding and material world.
To internal analyzers include motor, vestibular, analyzer of internal organs (interoreceptive analyzer).
With their help, the brain receives information about the state of internal organs, the motor apparatus, the location of individual parts of the body in relation to each other and in space.
SENSATION is a subjective reflection of the properties of the stimulus.
It is carried out at the highest levels of sensory systems and is determined sensitivity.
ABSOLUTE SENSITIVITY - the ability of the analyzer to form a sensation under the influence of a stimulus.
Its measure is the ABSOLUTE threshold of sensation - this is the irritation of the minimum intensity, at which there is a minimum sensation.
DIFFERENTIAL SENSITIVITY is the ability of analyzers to distinguish between signals based on strength, in space and in belt.
auditory analyzer.
HEARING is the result of the subjective perception of the mechanical energy of air vibrations. It is provided by the HEARING ANALYZER.
HEARING organ includes sound-catching, sound-conducting and receptor apparatus.
He consists 3 parts (OUTER, MIDDLE and INNER ear).
OUTER EAR includes:
1. Ear performs sound pickup function.
2. External auditory meatus provides conduction of sound vibrations to the eardrum and performs the role of a resonator with a natural oscillation frequency of 3000 Hz.
3. The eardrum, which represents a little pliable and weakly extensible membrane connected to the middle ear through the handle of the malleus.
MIDDLE EARIncludes chain, interconnected bones: hammer, anvil and stirrup (connected through its base to the oval window, and through it to the inner ear).
Contains a special MECHANISM that protects the inner ear from damage due to excessive impact.
The INNER EAR contains the receptor apparatus of the vestibular analyzer (the vestibule and semicircular canals) and the auditory analyzer (the cochlea with the organ of Corti).
inner ear presented snail.
This is a bone structure in the form of a spiral about 35 mm long, which is 2.5 curls.
Snail divided two membranes (vestibular and main) on three channel:
upper(vestibular ladder), with red(snail move) and n lower(tympanic scala).
Upper and lower the canals are connected with the helicotrema at the top of the cochlea and end in a round window.
They are filled perilymph , which in chemical composition approaches blood plasma and cerebral fluid (sodium content predominates).
Average channel full endolymph , which in chemical composition approaches the intracellular fluid (high potassium content).
It contains (on the main membrane) the receptor apparatus - the CORTI organ, which is formed mechanoreceptors(contain 4 rows of HAIR cells).
They are covered with a tectorial (integumentary) membrane.
It has a free edge and, when transmitting sound, bends the hairs of receptor cells, which converts acoustic signals into potentials of the nervous system.
SEQUENCE OF PROCESSES OF TRANSFORMATION OF ACOUSTIC PROCESSES IN ELECTRIC PROCESSES is carried out as follows.
1. A mechanical (sound) wave, acting on the system of auditory ossicles of the middle ear, causes an oscillatory movement of the membrane of the oval window.
2. Wave-like movement of the perilymph of the upper and lower canals leads to displacement of the basement membrane.
3. The resulting inclination of the hairs causes physicochemical changes in the microstructures of the receptor cells.
4. The consequence is the excitation of the fibers of the auditory nerve.
CONDUCTION OF EXCITATION TO THE NERVE CENTERS is carried out through Cochlear spiral ganglion where first-order neurons are located.
Its branches form Auditory or cochlear nerve which is heading to Cochlear nuclei of the medulla oblongata where the second-order neurons are located.
Through their processes, excitation is directed to top olive where the first decussation of the auditory pathways occurs.
Next, the excitation goes to Posterior tubercles of the quadrigemina (second decussation of the auditory pathways), to V internal cranked bodies and auditory cortex , which is located in the upper part of the temporal lobe and where the third decussation of the auditory pathways occurs.
INDIVIDUAL PARTS OF THE AUDIO CONDUCTION SYSTEM provide certain FUNCTIONS
AUDIO NERVE - perception of sounds at high and low frequencies
Inferior tubercles of the quadrigemina - reproduction of an orienting reflex to sound stimuli (turning the head to a sound).
AUDIO CORTEX - analysis of short sound signals, differentiation of sounds, fixation of the beginning of a sound, distinction between the duration of a sound, spatial localization of a sound, a complex idea of a sound signal entering both ears at the same time.
visual analyzer.
VISUAL ANALYZER is a combination of protective, optical, receptor and nervous structures that perceive and analyze light stimuli.
Light stimuli are electromagnetic radiation with different wavelengths - from short (red part of the spectrum) to long (blue part of the spectrum) and are characterized.
Frequency (determines the color of the color) and Intensity (brightness)
visual analyzer provides more than 80% of information about the outside world due to:
· spatial resolution abilities (visual acuity);
· temporary resolution abilities (summation time and critical flicker frequency);
· threshold of sensitivity, adaptation, ability to color perception, stereoscopy(perception of depth and volume).
The organ of vision includes the OPTICAL system of the eye and the RECEPTOR apparatus of the retina.
Optical system includes iris, cornea, eye media and lens.
IRIS - determines the amount of light entering the eye (parasympathetic influences constrict, and sympathetic - dilate the pupil).
The CORNEAL, EYE MEDIA and LENS form an effective focusing system that creates an image on the light-sensitive retina TRACK OF THE RAYS through the optical system of the eye is determined:
The radius of the refractive surfaces and the refractive index of the media of the eye. REFRACTIVE POWER topics more, how shorter FOCAL DISTANCE(distance from the optical center of the system to the point where the refracted rays converge);
· adaptation eyes to clear vision various distant objects or focusing the eye is carried out with the help of ACCOMMODATION mechanisms, which are provided by the neuronal elements of the subcortical and cortical visual centers, which are sensitive to the clarity of the image contours and are regulated by changing the tone of the CILLIARY muscle.
When considering distant objects, the ciliary muscle relaxed, ligament of cinnamon stretched, resulting in squeezing(front to back) and stretching lens.
As a result RAYS ARE FOCUSED on the RETINA.
When considering CLOSE objects, reverse processes occur.
AT normal eye(EMMETROPIC eye) with completely relaxed accommodation, the image of sufficiently distant objects is focused on the retina, which ensures their clear vision.
Disadvantages of optics of the human eye (anatomical or functional) lead to blurred images on the retina, which is a consequence of ANOMALIES OF REFRACTION or REFRACTION. To violations refraction relate:
1. MYOPIA (nearsightedness) - occurs in an elongated eye, when the main focus is in front of the retina.
2. HYPERMETROPIA (farsightedness) - occurs in the short eye. In this case, the zone of a clear image is located behind the retina.
3. SPHERICAL ABERRATION - occurs when rays passing through the peripheral part of the lens are refracted more strongly. The result is image distortion.
4. CHROMATIC ABERRATION - occurs when the lens refracts light of different lengths unequally.
5. ASTIGMATISM - a defect in the refractive media of the eyes, associated with the unequal curvature of their refractive surfaces.
6. PRESBYOPIA (senile farsightedness) - occurs as a result of the gradual loss (during life) of the lens of its basic properties (transparency and elasticity). At the same time, the force of accommodation decreases, and the point of near clear vision moves away into the distance.
7. CATARACT is clouding and loss of elasticity of the lens as a result of degeneration of its inner layers, which are (from the point of view of metabolism) in the most unfavorable conditions.
Receptor system It is represented in the RETINA, where the primary processing of visual information and the conversion of optical signals into bioelectrical reactions take place.
Retina It has layered structure and contains PHOTORECEPTORS (including rods and cones that provide the synthesis of visual pigments and the absorption of light rays) and several layers of neurons(transmitting the receptor potential to the fibers of the optic nerve).
PHOTOCHEMICAL PROCESS OF VISUAL PIGMENTS is triggered by the absorption of one quantum of light by one molecule of the STICKS pigment (120 million) - they contain the visual pigment RHODOPSIN and provide NIGHT vision.
CONES (6 million) - contain the visual pigment IODOPSIN. They provide DAY vision and COLOR perception.
As a result of the breakdown of pigments (rhodopsin in rods and rhodopsin in cones), the OPSIN protein and vitamin A are formed through a series of chemical transformations.
RESTORATION (RESYNTHESIS) OF PIGMENTS occurs in the dark as a result of a chain of chemical reactions occurring with the absorption of energy with the obligatory participation of the cis-isomer of vitamin A.
UNDER CONSTANT LIGHTING, the photochemical decomposition of pigments is balanced with the resynthesis of pigments.
NERVE TRANSMISSION in the RETINA is carried out as follows light rays pass layers retina and absorbed in the outer segments of receptor cells, resulting in starts photochemical process of visual pigments.
As a result, a receptor potential in photoreceptors, which leads to the generation of an action potential in the fibers of the optic nerve.
CONDUCTION OF EXCITATION TO THE NERVE CENTERS is carried out according to visual nerve in medulla (blinking protective reflex).
AT anterior tubercles quadrigemina midbrain there are primary visual centers, which provide visual orienting reflexes, reflex eye movements, pupillary reflex, accommodation of the eyes, convergence of visual axes.
AT posterior lobe cerebellum there are centers responsible for eye movements.
AT visual tubercles hypothalamus there are nuclei responsible for the expansion (posterior nuclei) of the pupils and palpebral fissures and the narrowing (anterior nuclei) of the pupils and palpebral fissures.
AT thalamus (lateral geniculate body) is the switching nucleus of visual signals.
AT occipital lobe cerebral cortex located visual zone where the retina is projected.
Pain analyzer. Noci- and antinociceptive systems.
PAIN is an integrative function of the body, which mobilizes the body and its various functional systems for protection against influencing harmful factors and includes such components as consciousness, sensation, memory, motivation, vegetative, somatic, behavioral reactions, emotions.
At the same time, external or internal damaging influences change the NORMAL LIFE ACTIVITY of the ORGANS and TISSUES of the body.
The resultant irritation nociceptors causes afferent impulse to various structures of the central nervous system, where the pain sensation is formed.
The consequence is effector influences aimed at elimination harmful factor, sparing diseased organ, compensatory mobilization body defenses.
I. According to the evolutionary mechanism pain is subdivided on the:
ACUTE ("epicritic" pain). It has a later and perfect evolutionary mechanism, it is quickly realized, easily determined and localized, adaptation to it quickly develops;
Dull ("protopathic" pain). It has a more ancient and imperfect evolutionary mechanism, is realized slowly, is poorly localized, persists for a long time and is not accompanied by the development of adaptation.
II. By place of origin pain divide by somatic and visceral:
SOMATIC pain can be superficial (occurs with skin lesions, it is acutely manifested and easily localized) and deep (occurs when muscles, bones, joints of connective tissue are damaged);
VISCERAL pain occurs when internal organs are damaged (in its manifestation it is similar to deep pain, it is poorly localized, radiates and is accompanied by autonomic reactions).
III. By the time of formation pain divide by early and late:
EARLY pain occurs quickly (latent period 0.2 s) and quickly disappears (with the cessation of stimulation), has a superficial origin (skin);
LATE pain occurs at a high intensity of irritation with a latent period of 0.5-1 s, slowly disappears, has manifestations of deep pain.
IV. Specific forms of pain include:
· PROJECTED pain - a condition in which the place on which the damaging stimulus acts does not coincide with where this pain is felt. Occurs with excessive irritation of afferent nerve fibers. For example, when the spinal nerves are clamped at the points of their entry into the spinal cord (neuralgia);
REFLECTED pain - pain sensation caused by damaging irritations of internal organs, which is localized not only in this organ, but also in remote superficial areas. It is caused by irritation of receptive endings. For example, pain that originates in the heart, but is felt in the shoulder and in a narrow strip on the medial surface of the arm;
HYPERPATHIA - hypersensitivity of the skin, which occurs as a result of convergence of nociceptive afferents from dermatomes and internal organs to the same intercalary neurons during sunburn, as well as skin damage by heating, cooling, x-rays, mechanical trauma.
FEELING pain is a negative biological need of the body associated with a violation integrity protective integumentary shells and a change in the level oxygen respiration fabrics
PAIN receptors or NOCIceptors are high threshold receptors. They represent the free endings of unmyelinated fibers that form pleximorphic plexuses in the tissues of the skin, muscles, and some organs.
They are divided into MECHANONOCYCEPTORS and CHEMONOCYCEPTORS, which are excited when exposed to strong damaging stimuli as a result of mechanical displacement of the membrane or the action of chemicals.
Mechanociceptors predominantly located on the superficial membranes of the body, and
Chemonocyceptors- in internal organs, skin, muscles, connective tissue, outer membranes of arteries
Mechanociceptors ensure the safety of the protective shells of the body, isolating the internal environment from the outside world, and react on injections, compression, twisting, pressure, bending, temperature.
Chemonocyceptors provide control of tissue respiration and react tissue damage, inflammation development (metabolic disorder, accompanied by the release of histamine, prostaglandins, quinines, all substances that suppress oxidative processes), as well as the termination of oxygen access to tissues (ischemia).
Afferent nociceptive fibers include:
A-delta fibers (from mechanociceptors) are thick, myelinated, conduct excitation at a speed of 4-30 m/sec, high threshold.
Their activation forms the first pain of the C-fiber (from chemociceptors) - thin, non-myelinated, with a speed of excitation of 0.5-2 m/sec, low threshold.
Their activation forms the second pain and tonic muscle contractions.
Excitation through them enters the posterior horns of the spinal cord, the midbrain, the hypothalamus, the thalamus, the limbic structures of the forebrain, the sensory and associative zones of the cortex.
Excitation central structures forms the main COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEMIC PAIN REACTION:
1. PERCEPTUAL component - the FEELING of pain itself, arising on the basis of excitation of mechano- and chemociceptors.
2. MOTOR component - reflex protective motor reactions at the level of the spinal cord.
3. EMOTIONAL component - NEGATIVE emotion in the form of fear or aggression, formed on the basis of excitation of the hypothalamic-limbic-reticular formations of the brain.
4. MOTIVATIONAL component - the motivation to ELIMINATE pain sensations, which is formed on the basis of the activation of the frontal and parietal areas of the cerebral cortex and leads to the formation of behavior aimed at healing wounds or eliminating pain.
5. VEGETATIVE component - reflex reactions aimed at eliminating damage: acceleration of blood clotting, increased production of antibodies, leukocytosis, increased phagocytic activity of leukocytes, reactions that improve the oxidative processes of damaged tissues (local expansion of blood vessels, increased functions of the cardiovascular, respiratory system, increase in erythrocytes in peripheral blood, changes in the activity of hormones, metabolism.
6. MEMORY - activation of memory mechanisms associated with the extraction from experience to eliminate pain, i.e. avoidance of the damaging factor or minimization of its effect, and experience in the treatment of wounds.
Pain SENSITIVITY CONTROL mechanisms include:
1. The OPIATE mechanism is provided by OPIATE RECEPTORS, which are located along the nociceptive conduction system and have selective specificity for opiate peptides.
OPIATE PEPTIDES are endogenous morphine-like substances produced in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
Their representatives are: ENDORPHINS and ENKEPHALINS Antagonist is NALOXONE (blocks opiate peptides)
with PAIN, their content DECREASES. With ANALGESIA, the content INCREASES.
The number of opiate RECEPTORS and opiate PEPTIDES determines the threshold of PAIN SENSITIVITY (a decrease in opiate peptides causes an increase in pain sensitivity - a state of HYPERALGESIA).
2. The serotonergic mechanism is an independent nervous mechanism.
Serotonin highlighted by some brain stem neurons, which have a downward influence on the pathways of pain sensitivity.
In PAIN, the release of serotonin DECREASES. With ANALGESIA, its content INCREASES. DECREASE in serotonin release INCREASES pain sensitivity.
3. The catecholamine mechanism is an independent endogenous mechanism, which is realized through the emotiogenic zones of the hypothalamus (positive and negative) and the reticular formation of the brain stem.
Direct projections from the hypothalamus to the neurons of the posterior horn of the spinal cord are catecholamine in nature.
Catecholamines in high concentrations DEPRESS nociceptive impulses.
In the absence of pain stimulus.
NOCICEPTIVE AND ANTINOCICEPTIVE SYSTEMS are in balance. NOCICEPTIVE SYSTEM forms pain sensation.
ANTINOCICEPTIVE SYSTEM suppresses pain sensation, inhibits activity nociceptive system and determines the excitability THRESHOLDS of NOCIceptors.
NOCICEPTIVE STRUCTURES include the posterior horn of the spinal cord and the thalamus.
They produce NOCICEPTIVE SUBSTANCES: substance "P", bradykinin, histamine, somatostatin.
ANTINOCICEPTIVE STRUCTURES include: central gray periaqueductal substance, raphe nuclei, dorsomedial hypothalamus.
ANTINOCYCEPTIVE SUBSTANCES are released there: catecholamines, endorphins, enkephalins, serotonin, acetylcholine, oxytocin, glycine, neurotensin.
NOCIceptive stimulus causes inhibition of the antinociceptive system and activation of the nociceptive system. The result is PAIN.
Similar information.
Life safety tests with answers
What is the outer layer of the earth called?
A) the biosphere
B) hydrosphere
B) atmosphere
D) lithosphere
The biosphere transformed by human economic activity is?
A) noosphere
B) technosphere
B) atmosphere
D) hydrosphere
What is the purpose of the BJD?
A) to form a person's consciousness and responsibility in relation to personal safety and the safety of others
B) protecting a person from dangers at work and outside it
C) teach a person to provide self-help and mutual assistance
D) teach how to quickly eliminate the consequences of emergencies
What is the noosphere?
A) the biosphere, transformed by human economic activity
B) the upper hard shell of the earth
C) the biosphere is transformed by scientific thinking and it is fully realized by a person
D) the outer shell of the earth
Which of the earth's shells performs a protective function against meteorites, solar energy and gamma radiation?
A) hydrosphere
B) lithosphere
B) technosphere
D) atmosphere
6. Water vapor in the atmosphere plays the role of a filter from:
A) solar radiation
B) meteorites
B) gamma radiation
D) solar energy
How many BJD functions are there?
A versatile process of human conditions for its existence and development - is this?
A) vitality
B) activity
B) safety
D) danger
Security is it?
A) the state of activity in which the manifestation of danger is excluded with a certain probability
B) a versatile process of creating human conditions for their existence and development
C) a complex biological process that occurs in the human body and allows you to maintain health and performance
D) the central concept of BJD, which combines phenomena, processes, objects that, under certain conditions, can bring loss to human health
What is the process of creating conditions for human existence and development called?
A) danger
B) vitality
B) safety
D) activity
What hazards are man-made?
A) a flood
B) industrial accidents on a large scale
B) air pollution
D) natural disasters
What hazards are classified by origin?
A) anthropogenic
B) impulsive
B) cumulative
D) biological
By the time of action, the negative consequences of the danger are there?
A) mixed
B) impulsive
B) man-made
D) environmental
What are the economic risks?
A) natural disasters
B) floods
B) industrial accidents
D) environmental pollution
15. Hazards that are classified according to standards:
A) biological
B) natural
B) anthropogenic
D) economic
The state in which the flows correspond to the optimal conditions for interaction - is this?
A) a dangerous state
B) acceptable state
B) an extremely dangerous condition
D) comfort
How many axioms of BJD science do you know?
A condition in which flows in a short period of time can cause injury, lead to death?
A) a dangerous state
B) extremely dangerous condition
B) comfort
D) acceptable state
19. In what % of the causes of an accident is there a risk in action or inaction at work?
What is the desired state of the protected objects?
A) safe
B) acceptable
B) comfortable
D) dangerous
Is it a low level of risk that does not affect the environmental or other indicators of the state, industries, enterprises?
A) individual risk
B) social risk
B) tolerable risk
D) security
22. Homeostasis is provided by:
A) hormonal mechanisms
B) neurohumoral mechanisms
C) barrier and excretory mechanisms
D) all the mechanisms listed above
Analyzers are?
A) subsystems of the central nervous system that provide in the receipt and primary analysis of information signals
B) the compatibility of complex adaptive reactions of a living organism, aimed at eliminating the action of factors of the external and internal environment that violate the relative dynamic constancy of the internal environment of the organism
C) compatibility of factors that can have a direct or indirect impact on human activity
D) the value of human functional capabilities
24. External analyzers include:
A) vision
B) pressure
C) special analyzers
D) auditory analyzers
25. Internal analyzers include:
A) special
B) olfactory
B) painful
D) vision
26. Receptor of special analyzers:
D) internal organs
