For those who have never been to Belgium and have heard about this country no more than what is heard from domestic TV, it does not stand apart - just think, just another little thing with an ambition. What are the recent cartoon scandals worth? By the way, one of the first comics in the history of comics (pardon the pun), depicting Soviet power in blue-black colors, was called “Tintin in the Land of the Soviets,” and was created precisely in Belgium, so the practice of drawing obscene political Belgians, one might say, have inappropriate pictures in their blood.
Ghent is incredibly beautiful, even surreal.
But you have to dig a little deeper, and you understand: it’s a little thing, but not a simple one. Are there many other countries in the world in which the internal border dividing the state in two is almost as strong as the external ones? Only North and South Korea come to mind, but there the situation is diametrically opposite - one nation divided into two states. In Belgium, two nations have to coexist, and both of them are not too enthusiastic about such a neighborhood. In the north is Flanders. In the south is Wallonia. And there are almost more differences between them than similarities.
Jacob van Artevelde was a controversial person, as evidenced by the combination of his nicknames - the Sage and the Ghent Brewer
Flanders is inhabited by Flemings who speak Dutch (although, according to locals, they are terribly offended by this and prefer to call their language Flemish). Flemish life and cuisine are quite close to Dutch, although they have their own quite recognizable Belgian flavor. However, they are not too enthusiastic about the idea of unification with the Netherlands. As one middle-aged Flemish woman told me, “we were already together, and we didn’t like it.” In Flanders they believe that the Flemings are better than the Walloons.
In appearance they are very different in Ghent, but these towers performed the same functions.
Wallonia is inhabited by the Walloons, who speak French (although there is a Walloon language, interest in it has almost died out). Walloon life and cuisine are close to French... Well, you already know about the Belgian flavor. Almost every second Walloon is in favor of unification with France. In Wallonia they believe that the Walloons are better than the Flemings.
The proximity of the beffroy to the cathedral of almost the same height allows you to look at it from a different angle.
Flanders and Wallonia brew different, but equally incomparable beers.
It is clear that it is almost impossible to maintain balance in such a difficult situation. Therefore, both the political and economic advantage in Belgium is now completely on the side of Flanders. The region, home to much of Belgium's tourism, education, finance and high-tech industry, is the object of envy, or at least malice, from its neighbors to the south. This was not always the case: a hundred years ago, Wallonia reigned supreme in Belgium, where the coal mining industry and heavy industry were concentrated - areas that were in great demand in the era of wars, which was the 20th century for all of Europe.
Unlike Bruges, this time in Ghent I actually climbed onto the beffroy. Elevators are, of course, unsporting, but they are fast and not so tiring. And the city opens up in full view.
Can the Flemings be blamed for the fact that, having seized real power in a country where their native language was not recognized even in the last century, they allow certain excesses? Can the Walloons be blamed for the fact that, having failed to rebuild in time and having fallen into economic decline, they dream of living in France? Probably not. We would like to sort out our national problems.
Looking at the excavations from above, you immediately forgive the fences erected in the very center and constantly creeping into the frame
Coming to Belgium as a tourist, you don’t notice this situation - or at least it doesn’t catch your eye. There are no torchlight processions and “beat the Flemish!” graffiti on the streets, and French-language literature is not burned in the squares of Bruges. But if you talk to the locals, you can feel some tension. And, of course, moving from Flanders to Wallonia, you realize the enormous difference between these two regions and their cities. It's like you're in another country.
As in Bruges, walks along the rivers and canals of Ghent are very popular among tourists. Yes, there is a lot in common between these two cities.
I took these photos in Ghent, the last Flemish city on our route. It is a major port (as), an educational center (as), a popular tourist city (as). It is full of attractions and has its own charm, without which the attractions are useless. Ghent is incredibly beautiful. All I can say bad about Ghent is that here in the cafe they sold me a terrible croissant. This is the only fly in the ointment in a barrel of fragrant honey. If you're in Flanders, don't miss it.
A farewell glance at Ghent and Flanders.
After Ghent we moved towards Liege, in north-eastern Wallonia. I will post photos of Liege and the thoughts it inspired in me in the next issue. Cheer up!
Flemings- a people of the Germanic linguistic group, indigenous to Belgium, along with the Romance-speaking Walloons. The total number is 7 million 230 thousand. They inhabit the northern part of Belgium - Flanders (5 million people), 250 thousand live in the north of France (French Flanders). Language - Dutch (for more details, see Dutch in Belgium). In everyday life, Flemings communicate, depending on the situation and the degree of proficiency of the native speaker of the literary norm, in the Dutch dialects represented in Flanders, in the literary language, or in variants intermediate between the literary language and the dialect.
In terms of language and culture, they are closest to the Dutch.
Ethnogenesis and history
Ethnically, the Flemings are mainly descendants of the Germanic tribes of the Franks, Batavians, Saxons and Frisians. The Celtic tribes of the Belgae, who lived in this territory before the Frankish invasion and were assimilated by the Franks, also joined the Flemish ethnic group. How the ethnic group was formed in the 17th - 19th centuries. In the Middle Ages, the territory of modern Belgium was divided into scattered principalities: Flanders, Hainaut (Geneau), Brabant, Namur, Limbourg, Luxembourg, Cambrai, Tournai, and the bishopric of Liege. They were partly subordinate to France, partly to Germany.
The history of Belgium is then linked to the history of the Netherlands (see Dutch). These lands passed from the Dukes of Burgundy to the Habsburgs in the 15th century, that is, they became part of the German Empire. Since the emperors of Germany became Spanish kings through a dynastic marriage, the Netherlands (and Flanders among them) were subordinated to Spain. Under Philip II, King of Spain, a fierce struggle of the inhabitants of the Netherlands began against foreign oppression, and the Northern Netherlands achieved freedom, forming the Republic of the United Provinces. The Southern Netherlands (future Belgium) remained a Spanish protectorate. In 1714 they passed to Austria, in the year under the influence of the French Revolution the Brabant Revolution occurred, the region was included in France. After Napoleon it was annexed to the Netherlands.
The official languages in Belgium are Dutch, French and German, but none of them have official status throughout the country. German is spoken almost exclusively in the eastern part of Belgium, which formerly (before the First World War) belonged to Germany. The Brussels-Capital Region, which is surrounded on all sides by the Flemish Region, officially uses French and Dutch. Due to the bilingualism of the country, the names of some settlements and other geographical objects have two options: Mons - Bergen, Namur - Namen, Courtrai - Kortrijk, Louvain - Leuven, Liège - Luik, Gand - Gent, Ostende - Oostende, Anvers - Antwerpen, Audenarde - Oudenaarde, Bruges-Brugge, Malines-Mechelen.
Symbolism
The national symbol of the Flemings is a flag depicting a black lion on a yellow background, with a white border and red claws and tongue. It appeared under Philip of Alsace, Count of Flanders from 1162. Under the Dukes of Burgundy it was used in the coat of arms, and during the creation of the United Netherlands it became a symbol of East Flanders. The flag is not a state flag, it is a symbol of Flemish nationalists.
Household and life
Belgium is a highly developed industrial country. The independent population is employed in industry, trade, services, and agriculture. The main industries are mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and construction. The direction of agriculture is meat and dairy farming, vegetable growing and grain production.
Transport - a dense network of railways, maritime shipping, road transport. The population lives almost entirely in cities; currently, traditional rural houses and estates remain only in ethnographic reserves. Traditional settlement - khutor. Type of house - so-called a house with a long gable, combining housing and utility rooms into one long building. Unlike the Walloon house, the Flemish house is plastered and painted white, yellow or pink. Characteristic decorations of the roof ridge in the form of swan heads.
Traditional clothing is similar to Dutch. For women, this is a shirt and jacket, a dark bodice, several skirts, an apron, a large colored or checkered shawl, a black silk scarf with fringe, and lace caps.
Traditional food: vegetable and cereal dishes, salted fish, mainly herring, chicken soup. On holidays, pies and buns are baked.
Families are more large and patriarchal than those of the Walloons. Adult children usually live with their parents. Medieval guilds and clubs remain in the cities.
Crafts have long been famous for the production of fine linen fabrics, Flemish lace, and metal processing.
Arts and culture
Until the end of the 16th century, the art of the Netherlands and Flanders formed a single whole. The territory that today includes the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, in other words, the Benelux, was called the Old Netherlands and was united. Then, due to the political events described above, the provinces were divided. In the 17th-18th centuries, Flanders began to be called the Southern, Spanish, and later the Austrian Netherlands, and art became Flemish, and even later, with the formation of a new state, Belgium, Belgian.
In the architecture of Flanders, Romanesque and Gothic monuments, the town hall and the municipal museum in Brussels on the Grand Place, the Church of St. Bavo in Ghent, the city Tower (Belfort) in Bruges and others have been preserved from the previous period, the general Dutch one. Flanders was one of the leading centers of the ceremonial Baroque style in the 17th century. Monuments of the 17th-18th centuries - the Sint-Carolus-Borromeuskerk church and the Royal Palace in Antwerp, guild houses on the Grand Place in Brussels and others. The Rubens House, built according to his own design, is widely known. The type of town house in Flanders is a narrow, high facade, with three to five windows, with a pediment, decorated with rich ornamentation. Later, national traditions were replaced by French influence.
In the 17th century there was a very strong Flemish school of painting. An outstanding master of this school - Rubens P. P., the son of a lawyer, had a varied education, studied with T. Verhahat, A. van Noort, O. Venius, and was in Italy and Spain. He served as a court painter for the Duke of Mantua, and then for the rulers of the Southern Netherlands. Other famous masters: Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641), Jacob Jordaens (1593-1678), Jan Veit (1611-1661), Frans Snyders (1579-1657), David Teniers (1610-1641), Abraham Janssens van Nuysen ( 1575-1632), Pieter Bruegel the Elder (circa 1525-1569). Flemish painting differs from Dutch painting in its greater pomp, characteristic of the Baroque style. As a result of the influence of ruling circles, mainly French culture developed, while Flemish culture fell into decline.
The Flemings have literary traditions, legends, historical stories, songs, ballads, folklore. In the 18th century and subsequent times, Flanders writers tried to raise their national literature. In the 18th-19th centuries, the following people wrote in Dutch: J. F. Willems (1793-1846), K. Ledegank (1805-1847), van Duyse (1804-1859), representatives of romanticism. Later, other directions began to appear: realism, naturalism, mysticism, symbolism and expressionism, which also had opponents and anti-fascist sentiments. The most prominent representatives: P. van Ostayen (expressionism), W. Loveling and A. Bergman (social novel of the 19th century), G. Theirling (playwright, decadent).
References
- Great Russian Encyclopedia, volume 3, article “Belgium”.
- Brief artistic encyclopedia, Art of countries and peoples of the world, volume 1, article “Belgium”. M. - 1962.
- Concise Literary Encyclopedia, ed. A. A. Surkova, M. - 1968.
- Peoples and Religions of the World, ed. V. A. Tishkova, M. - 1998.
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Excerpt characterizing the Flemings
Danilo Terentich did not answer anything, and for a long time everyone was silent again. The glow spread and swayed further and further.“God have mercy!.. wind and dryness...” the voice said again.
- Look how it went. Oh my God! You can already see the jackdaws. Lord, have mercy on us sinners!
- They'll probably put it out.
-Who should put it out? – the voice of Danila Terentich, who had been silent until now, was heard. His voice was calm and slow. “Moscow is, brothers,” he said, “she is mother squirrel...” His voice broke off, and he suddenly sobbed like an old man. And it was as if everyone was waiting for just this in order to understand the meaning that this visible glow had for them. Sighs, words of prayer and the sobbing of the old count's valet were heard.
The valet, returning, reported to the count that Moscow was burning. The Count put on his robe and went out to have a look. Sonya, who had not yet undressed, and Madame Schoss came out with him. Natasha and the Countess remained alone in the room. (Petya was no longer with his family; he went forward with his regiment, marching to Trinity.)
The Countess began to cry when she heard the news of the fire in Moscow. Natasha, pale, with fixed eyes, sitting under the icons on the bench (in the very place where she sat when she arrived), did not pay any attention to her father’s words. She listened to the incessant moaning of the adjutant, heard three houses away.
- Oh, what a horror! - said Sonya, cold and frightened, returned from the yard. – I think all of Moscow will burn, a terrible glow! Natasha, look now, you can see from the window from here,” she said to her sister, apparently wanting to entertain her with something. But Natasha looked at her, as if not understanding what they were asking her, and again stared at the corner of the stove. Natasha had been in this state of tetanus since this morning, ever since Sonya, to the surprise and annoyance of the Countess, for some unknown reason, found it necessary to announce to Natasha about Prince Andrei’s wound and his presence with them on the train. The Countess became angry with Sonya, as she was rarely angry. Sonya cried and asked for forgiveness and now, as if trying to make amends for her guilt, she never stopped caring for her sister.
“Look, Natasha, how terribly it burns,” said Sonya.
– What’s burning? – Natasha asked. - Oh, yes, Moscow.
And as if in order not to offend Sonya by refusing and to get rid of her, she moved her head to the window, looked so that, obviously, she could not see anything, and again sat down in her previous position.
-Have you not seen it?
“No, really, I saw it,” she said in a voice pleading for calm.
Both the Countess and Sonya understood that Moscow, the fire of Moscow, whatever it was, of course, could not matter to Natasha.
The Count again went behind the partition and lay down. The Countess approached Natasha, touched her head with her inverted hand, as she did when her daughter was sick, then touched her forehead with her lips, as if to find out if there was a fever, and kissed her.
-You're cold. You're shaking all over. You should go to bed,” she said.
- Go to bed? Yes, okay, I'll go to bed. “I’ll go to bed now,” Natasha said.
Since Natasha was told this morning that Prince Andrei was seriously wounded and was going with them, only in the first minute she asked a lot about where? How? Is he dangerously injured? and is she allowed to see him? But after she was told that she could not see him, that he was seriously wounded, but that his life was not in danger, she, obviously, did not believe what she was told, but was convinced that no matter how much she said, she would be answer the same thing, stopped asking and talking. All the way, with big eyes, which the countess knew so well and whose expression the countess was so afraid of, Natasha sat motionless in the corner of the carriage and now sat in the same way on the bench on which she sat down. She was thinking about something, something she was deciding or had already decided in her mind now - the countess knew this, but what it was, she did not know, and this frightened and tormented her.
- Natasha, undress, my dear, lie down on my bed. (Only the countess alone had a bed made on the bed; m me Schoss and both young ladies had to sleep on the floor on the hay.)
“No, mom, I’ll lie here on the floor,” Natasha said angrily, went to the window and opened it. The adjutant’s groan from the open window was heard more clearly. She stuck her head out into the damp air of the night, and the countess saw how her thin shoulders were shaking with sobs and beating against the frame. Natasha knew that it was not Prince Andrei who was moaning. She knew that Prince Andrei was lying in the same connection where they were, in another hut across the hallway; but this terrible, incessant groan made her sob. The Countess exchanged glances with Sonya.
“Lie down, my dear, lie down, my friend,” said the countess, lightly touching Natasha’s shoulder with her hand. - Well, go to bed.
“Oh, yes... I’ll go to bed now,” said Natasha, hastily undressing and tearing off the strings of her skirts. Having taken off her dress and put on a jacket, she tucked her legs in, sat down on the bed prepared on the floor and, throwing her short thin braid over her shoulder, began to braid it. Thin, long, familiar fingers quickly, deftly took apart, braided, and tied the braid. Natasha's head turned with a habitual gesture, first in one direction, then in the other, but her eyes, feverishly open, looked straight and motionless. When the night suit was finished, Natasha quietly sank down onto the sheet laid on the hay on the edge of the door.
“Natasha, lie down in the middle,” said Sonya.
“No, I’m here,” Natasha said. “Go to bed,” she added with annoyance. And she buried her face in the pillow.
The Countess, m me Schoss and Sonya hastily undressed and lay down. One lamp remained in the room. But in the yard it was getting brighter from the fire of Malye Mytishchi, two miles away, and the drunken cries of the people were buzzing in the tavern, which Mamon’s Cossacks had smashed, on the crossroads, on the street, and the incessant groan of the adjutant was heard.
Natasha listened for a long time to the internal and external sounds coming to her, and did not move. She heard first the prayer and sighs of her mother, the cracking of her bed under her, the familiar whistling snoring of m me Schoss, the quiet breathing of Sonya. Then the Countess called out to Natasha. Natasha did not answer her.
“He seems to be sleeping, mom,” Sonya answered quietly. The Countess, after being silent for a while, called out again, but no one answered her.
Soon after this, Natasha heard her mother's even breathing. Natasha did not move, despite the fact that her small bare foot, having escaped from under the blanket, was chilly on the bare floor.
As if celebrating victory over everyone, a cricket screamed in the crack. The rooster crowed far away, and loved ones responded. The screams died down in the tavern, only the same adjutant’s stand could be heard. Natasha stood up.
- Sonya? are you sleeping? Mother? – she whispered. No one answered. Natasha slowly and carefully stood up, crossed herself and stepped carefully with her narrow and flexible bare foot onto the dirty, cold floor. The floorboard creaked. She, quickly moving her feet, ran a few steps like a kitten and grabbed the cold door bracket.
It seemed to her that something heavy, striking evenly, was knocking on all the walls of the hut: it was her heart, frozen with fear, with horror and love, beating, bursting.
She opened the door, crossed the threshold and stepped onto the damp, cold ground of the hallway. The gripping cold refreshed her. She felt the sleeping man with her bare foot, stepped over him and opened the door to the hut where Prince Andrei lay. It was dark in this hut. In the back corner of the bed, on which something was lying, there was a tallow candle on a bench that had burned out like a large mushroom.
Natasha, in the morning, when they told her about the wound and the presence of Prince Andrei, decided that she should see him. She did not know what it was for, but she knew that the meeting would be painful, and she was even more convinced that it was necessary.
All day she lived only in the hope that at night she would see him. But now, when this moment came, the horror of what she would see came over her. How was he mutilated? What was left of him? Was he like that incessant groan of the adjutant? Yes, he was like that. He was in her imagination the personification of this terrible groan. When she saw an obscure mass in the corner and mistook his raised knees under the blanket for his shoulders, she imagined some kind of terrible body and stopped in horror. But an irresistible force pulled her forward. She carefully took one step, then another, and found herself in the middle of a small, cluttered hut. In the hut, under the icons, another person was lying on the benches (it was Timokhin), and two more people were lying on the floor (these were the doctor and the valet).
The valet stood up and whispered something. Timokhin, suffering from pain in his wounded leg, did not sleep and looked with all his eyes at the strange appearance of a girl in a poor shirt, jacket and eternal cap. The sleepy and frightened words of the valet; “What do you need, why?” - they only forced Natasha to quickly approach what was lying in the corner. No matter how scary or unlike a human this body was, she had to see it. She passed the valet: the burnt mushroom of the candle fell off, and she clearly saw Prince Andrei lying with his arms outstretched on the blanket, just as she had always seen him.
On November 6, Belgium broke its own record for “anarchy”: in almost five months since the parliamentary elections on June 10, the country managed to form a government. The previous achievement was in 1988, when it took 148 days to form a government. Protracted government crises are nothing new for the Belgians. And “anarchy” cannot be called complete. Firstly, there remains the monarch Albert II, who according to the constitution is a symbol of political unity and exercises, albeit limited, executive power. Secondly, the previous government remains, which will work until a new one is created. Finally, the elections resulted in the formation of a parliament and all legislators in office.
Nevertheless, the current situation raises some and sometimes very serious concerns among observers. Culturally and linguistically, Belgium is divided in two: one part of the population is made up of Dutch-speaking Flemings, the other is French-speaking Walloons. The entire history of the state is connected with the relationship between the Walloons and the Flemings. In 1830, the Flemings and Walloons fought together for independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which ultimately led to the creation of the Kingdom of Belgium in 1831. In 2007, everything changed exactly the opposite, relations between the two groups became so tense that they could lead to a split in the country.
The internal political structure of Belgium, from the founding of the state to the present day, has gradually evolved to maintain parity between the interests of the two groups of the population. Although on the other hand, not for the same reasons, it can be said that the history of Belgium is the history of the confrontation between the Walloons and the Flemings, which, despite all the compromises, still continues. For example, in the 19th century there was a strong French influence in the country, and accordingly the French-speaking Walloons acquired a dominant position. French became the official language, and the Flemings were pushed into the background. The situation improved only in the 30s of the 20th century.
According to the constitution, the king appoints the head of the party that wins the parliamentary elections as prime minister, and the prime minister forms a government that includes seven French-speaking ministers and seven Dutch-speaking ministers. The Parliament is also elected with equal representation of the Flemish and Walloon populations. The administrative structure corresponds to the ethnic composition. Belgium is divided into three regions: Flanders in the north, Wallonia in the south and Brussels. Flanders is home to 58 percent of Dutch-speaking Belgians; Wallonia has 33 percent, mostly Francophones, and Brussels is bilingual.
However, some political forces in Belgium are not satisfied with such parity. First of all, we are talking about Flemish nationalists, and those Flemish politicians who believe that Flanders should enjoy greater advantages. Nationalists, as usual, are concerned about the preservation and development of national identity, and moderate nationalist politicians point to the increased economic role of Flanders compared to “backward” Wallonia, which lives on other people’s money. They insist on dividing the spheres of financial and political competence of the regions, which means turning the federation into a confederation.
In the parliamentary elections of June 2007, Flemish parties won a majority of seats in both houses of parliament. The most numerous was the Flemish Christian Democratic Party, led by Yves Leterme, which advocates greater regional autonomy and the transition to a confederal system. King Albert II entrusted Leterme with the formation of a coalition government. This, however, turned out to be practically impossible, since the parties put forward mutually exclusive demands: Flanders - greater autonomy and confederation, Walloon politicians, for their part, insisted on a strong federal state that guarantees the well-being of all citizens regardless of the “profitability” of their region.
However, this inability to agree, instead of prompting the parties to make concessions, only inflamed passions. On September 10, the far-right Flemish party “Vlaams Belang” tried to pass through the regional parliament a law on holding a referendum in Flanders on secession from Belgium. The conflict became particularly acute in Brussels.
In addition to the capital of Belgium, Brussels is also the capital of Flanders, but the majority of the population speaks French. The suburbs of Brussels, in particular Bruxelles-Hal-Vilvorde, again have a majority of Francophones. They are seeking to be extended the status of Brussels, which is bilingual. For their part, the Flemings, heated by the political crisis, perceive this as a slap at them, as a reluctance to integrate into Flemish society, as French-speaking arrogance. The conflict very quickly reached the everyday level: on signs, where names were duplicated in two languages, the French version was carefully covered up.
All this is happening in a country whose population in 2003 was 10.3 million. However, the paradox of the current situation is also in the fact that Brussels is the capital of a united Europe, and Belgium itself has long been an example of European integration. The split of Belgium can cause not only the strengthening of separatist sentiments on national grounds. The Belgian example is dangerous because, according to economist Henri Capron, it calls into question no less than the entire socio-economic structure of Europe. Following Flanders, other rich regions of Europe: such as Bavaria, Scotland, Catalonia, Carinthia may think about the “national” identity of their money and take measures not to give it to poor strangers in their neighborhood.
By the way, in 2005, the draft of a pan-European constitution failed precisely because many believed that it would be too market and liberal Europe, a Europe for the rich and very rich, and the social protection of citizens of individual states would be sacrificed to this unification.
Belgium, which is small in area, is to some extent a paradoxical state. “Sandwiched” between such European giants as France, Germany and Great Britain, it represents, on the one hand, a kind of center of modern Western Europe, and on the other, a transition zone, primarily in the ethnolinguistic sense.
Many people know about the conflict between the inhabitants of the northern part of Belgium, the Flemings, and the southern Walloons, but what its essence is is not so easy to understand. SPA hotel Rodina in Sochi is waiting for everyone who wants to immerse themselves in an atmosphere of comfort and tranquility. Highly qualified and friendly staff will meet you and accompany you throughout your holiday at the highest level, which will allow you to relax as much as possible and have a quality rest, forgetting about many worries and problems.
This work makes an attempt to analyze the available information about the problems associated with the confrontation between the two most important ethnic groups, as well as to highlight the individual components of the conflict between them. At the same time, Flemish-Walloon relations are considered not only as a conflict, but also as a possible stimulus for the development of the country.
The work is based on data from the General Directorate of Statistics and Economic Information of Belgium, as well as unique materials from linguistic censuses published on the website dedicated to Stefan Riyaert’s book “Long Live Belgium...?”. Another source of information was the publications of Belgian specialists, mainly sociologists and political scientists. The author repeatedly visited the country of study, which allowed him not only to gain access to books and journals in Belgian libraries, but also to conduct his own field research, which included meetings with experts on this issue and a survey of residents of the kingdom.
Causes of the conflict and features of the state structure and territorial division of the country. What is the reason for the current conflict situation?
The population of Belgium is divided into two large groups: the Flemings, who live in the northern part of the country, and the Walloons, who occupy the south of the kingdom. The population of the Brussels metropolitan area has a mixed ethnic composition. Germans live compactly in the east of the country.
Belgium is a country of federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy. Currently, a constitution adopted on February 7, 1831 is in force on its territory. The last changes were made to it on July 14, 1993 (the parliament approved a package of laws on the creation of a federal state).
A fundamental feature of Belgian federalism is the parallel existing dual system of administrative division. On one side, the country is divided into three districts: Flanders, Wallonia and the Brussels metropolitan area. In parallel, it is divided into three linguistic communities: Dutch-speaking (Flemish district and Brussels-Capital District), Francophone (Walloon-Capital District and Brussels-Capital District) and German-speaking (part of the province of Liege). All three languages in the country are official.
Currently, there is an active discussion on the issue of moving the capital of Flanders from Brussels to one of the “truly Flemish” cities. According to a sociological survey conducted by the Tell me more institute in March 2007, 70% of Flemings no longer want Brussels to be the capital of their district and linguistic community. The most likely candidate is Antwerp, the largest city in the northern part of the country. 94% of respondents were in favor of it.
Components of the conflict. Initially, only the language conflict over the almost 200 years of the existence of the Belgian state has spread to almost all spheres of life, as they say, “from geology to ideology.” Let's look at five of its most significant components.
1. Economic component. Economic contradictions that are not the most significant are often brought to the fore. The reason for this component of the conflict should be sought in Belgian history. Wallonia, which developed rapidly during the industrial era (mainly due to the coal and metallurgical industries), lost the “palm” to Flanders in the second half of the 20th century. Now it is the northern part of the country that actively invests in high-tech industries and is a kind of locomotive of the entire Belgian economy.
The gross regional product per capita (as of 2007) of Flanders exceeded the Walloon product by 1.4 times (31,651 and 22,606 € per person, respectively). And inter-district differences reached an even greater magnitude, just over three times. The most “productive” area besides Brussels is Antwerp (40,243 € per person), and the least productive is Thuen (13,217 € per person, province of Hainaut, Wallonia). The abolition of partial redistribution of income between districts is the main demand put forward by radical Flemish parties.
2. Social component. The consequences of economic contradictions are social ones. More developed Flanders is noticeably better off than Wallonia in terms of social development indicators, for example, in terms of real income per capita. In the southern part of the country this figure is 15,873 € per person, while in the northern part it is 18,564 € per person. The differences between individual areas are almost 1.5 times (with a maximum in the area of Halle Vilvoorde 21,175 € per person, province of Flemish Brabant, and a minimum in the area of Charleroi 14,443 € per person, province of Hainaut). Another indicator of uneven social development is the average life expectancy. In Flanders it is 78.1 years for men and 83.3 years for women. Whereas in Wallonia it is 75.1 years and 81.6 years respectively. The uneven social development of the north and south fuels xenophobic sentiments in both parts of the country.
3. Language component. Despite the formal equality of the French, Dutch and German languages, there are territorial differences between the areas of their use and those where they are officially recognized. Because of this, sometimes conflict situations arise.
Conclusions. Flemish-Walloon relations represent both a conflict and a stimulus for Belgian development. Existing contradictions are manifested in all spheres of life of the population. These are economic, social, linguistic, cultural, and political conflicts. But none of them are more or less significant. All these components of the conflict are closely intertwined. Its further development is hampered by various factors, including the special “peacekeeping” role of Belgium in the EU, “monarchical federalism”, Brussels as the capital of the country and the de facto EU, and much more.
Currently, on the one hand, separatist sentiments are intensifying, mainly in the northern part of the country: the Flemings are in the lead both in population and in many economic and social indicators. On the other hand, there is increasingly close interaction and interpenetration of different cultures, due to which common Belgian traditions and culture are being formed. Despite active debates and minor contradictions that arise from time to time, Belgium still remains a united country and the situation is unlikely to change in the near future.
IAA "Lev Gumilyov Center" begins publishing the most interesting works on the analysis of systemic ethnopolitical conflicts of our time. Today we present to you the work carried out using materials from the WORKSHOPCON project group at TNU. V. I. Vernadsky.
The Belgian ethnic conflict is a Walls-Flemish confrontation that arose on the basis of the linguistic factor back in the middle of the 19th century.
So, giving a brief description of this conflict, firstly, it is necessary to note the coexistence on the territory of the Belgian state of two large ethnic groups: the Dutch-speaking Flemings and the French-speaking Walloons. The Walloons are an ethnic group with a total population of 4 million 100 thousand people. The Flemings are a people of the Germanic linguistic group, descendants of the Franks, Saxons and Frisians. The total number is 7 million 230 thousand.
At the time of Belgium's independence (1830), the only official language was French, although, as at present, the number of Flemings outnumbered the Walloons. The natural reaction to this linguistic “distortion” was that already in 1847 a Flemish cultural movement emerged, demanding linguistic equality of the Flemish and French languages. The result of its activities was the introduction of changes to the constitution: in 1963, bilingualism was officially established in Belgium.
Subsequently, the political system was reformed: within the state, two types of federal subjects were formed - cultural communities (Flemish, Walloon and German) and economic regions (Flanders, Wallonia and Brussels).
However, the situation in Belgium does not boil down solely to the linguistic confrontation between the North (Flanders) and the South (Wallonia). The presence of an imbalance in socio-economic development can also be considered a factor increasing the potential for conflict. Until the middle of the twentieth century. Wallonia actually “fed” Flanders, providing the lion's share of Belgium's national product. After the Second World War, North and South changed roles. Flanders turned into the locomotive of the country's economy, and Wallonia was overwhelmed by a wave of unemployment. As a result, discontent on the part of the Flemish population increased, thereby catalyzing separatist sentiments.
Thus, today the situation is such that Belgium, torn by Flemish nationalism, is on the verge of collapse.
"Belgian problem". Chronology.
1830 - declaration of independence of Belgium.
1847 - the emergence of the Flemish cultural movement, which demanded linguistic equality between the Flemish and French languages, “extolling the Flemish past and its glorious historical traditions.”
1898 - a law was passed confirming the principle of “bilingualism” (but not equality of languages).
1920-1930s – ratification of a number of laws establishing equality between the Flemish and French languages.
? XX century — a “demographic birth boom” in the north, contributing to an increase in the share of Flemings in the structure of the Belgian population.
50-60s XX century - strengthening of the Flemish segment in the country's economic complex.
1968 – Louvain crisis: a crisis in the relations between two disparate groups of the population, which almost led to the collapse of the country. The reason was a language conflict: politicians could not agree on what language should be taught at the University of Louvain. The conflict was stopped through subsequent constitutional reforms.
1970 - the first revision of the country's constitution. It legally establishes the existence of three communities: Flemish, Francophone and German-speaking (all three languages became state) and three regions: Wallonia, Flanders and Brussels. However, the boundaries of these regions were not defined.
1971 - communities received broad cultural rights. At the first stage, communities received cultural autonomy. However, the competence of the regions in the economic sphere turned out to be insignificant. Most importantly, Flemish leadership, already achieved in the economic field, was not consolidated in the political field.
1980 - the constitution was revised for the second time. Flanders and Wallonia received autonomy status. Additional amendments to the constitution slightly expanded the financial and legislative powers of the regions. This was followed by the creation of two regional assemblies, drawn from existing members of the national parliament from the constituencies in their respective regions.
1989 - Brussels received regional rights. A regional assembly and government were created there. However, regional parliaments were formed from deputies of the national parliament from the corresponding regions. Consequently, they did not satisfy the demands for autonomy of the Walloon and Flemish sides.
1993 – signing of the Saint-Michel Agreements by the leading political groups of the Flemings and Francophones. They were enshrined in the Belgian Constitution of 1994, article 1 of which states: “Belgium is a federal state consisting of communities and regions.”
Autumn 2007 - 2008 - a government crisis in Belgium caused by the results of national parliamentary elections, as a result of which the Christian Democratic and Flemish Party led by Yves Leterme (one of the most consistent and influential nationalists) won. The cause of the crisis was the HDF's desire for further autonomy of Flanders (reducing Flanders' contributions to the federal budget, expanding the linguistic boundaries of the Flemish community, etc.), which was negatively received by both representatives of Walloon political forces and representatives of national structures.
Parties to the conflict.
Primary parties:
A) Flemish nationalist movement:
Inspired by the ideas of cultural, historical and political revenge, representatives of the Flemish nationalist movement (represented by right-wing Flemish parties, the most influential of which is the Flemish Interest (“Vlaams Belang”) of Philippe de Winter with a support base in Antwerp, are also increasingly inclined to accept the arguments of the right-wing Flemings - “centrists”, the New Flemish Alliance (Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie), having established themselves as the monopoly dominant political force in Flanders and transforming its political and cultural space for themselves, are actively promoting anti-Walloon and separatist ideas throughout Belgium, thereby representing the most active subject of the ethno-conflict under consideration.
B) Walloon nationalist movement:
The Francophone Movement of Belgium (the leading party of which is the Democratic Front of Francophones) is noticeably inferior to its Flemish competitors in political strength and passion and is unable to put forward and oppose expansive nationalism with a clear strategy for both the common Belgian construction and the protection of the culture, language and identity of the Francophones.
A feature of the long-term confrontation between these parties is that, despite emerging crisis situations, the conflict did not take on a violent form. Representatives of both poles of the conflict emphasize a peaceful solution to the problem.
Secondary, tertiary sides:
A specific feature of the “Belgian conflict” is the inconsistency, from the point of view, of its assessment by subjects interested in its resolution.
On the one hand, the expected collapse of Belgium, and thus the strengthening of national-cultural identities to the detriment of national-state ones, is a natural result of the development of the European Union and the regionalization policy it encourages. The strengthening of the central power of the EU occurs due to the parallel weakening of national states, their fragmentation, as can be seen in the example of Belgium - right up to their collapse.
On the other hand, the proposed disintegration of Belgium may not suit all EU countries, many of which are faced with problems of ethnic nationalism. In particular, Spain, France, and Great Britain are unlikely to be happy with a new example of regional self-determination. Especially after the Kosovo precedent. After all, the unification of Europe itself followed the model of Belgium, which means that the Belgian split will also have a strong impact on the image of the EU.
It is impossible not to note the likelihood of neighboring states being involved in the “Belgian conflict”:
Firstly, Germany, since with a possible solution to the Walloon-Flemish confrontation through separation, the question arises about the status of the German-speaking regions of Belgium. Currently they are part of the Walloon administrative region. However, Belgian Germans have their own German-speaking community, which has its own parliament and ministry. Theoretically, this area could become another “dwarf state” of Europe. Or he might raise the question of reunification with Germany. In the latter case, Berlin has a chance to regain the region lost after World War II. But this violates the terms of the Moscow Treaty of 1990, under which Germany promised not to expand after the reunification of the GDR and West Germany. European countries may recall their fears of “German expansionism.”
Secondly, the Netherlands, which is due to the fact that the population of the southern Dutch cities of Dordrecht and Rotterdam feels closer to the Flemish population of Antwerp than to the Dutch of Amsterdam. It cannot be ruled out that the declaration of Flemish independence will cause a surge in Flemish separatism in the Netherlands.
Thirdly, France. The Walloon administrative region of Belgium includes five French-speaking provinces. With the decline of the coal and metallurgical industries, it has long turned into a subsidized region. The main source of income is tourism in the Ardennes and historical cities. It is quite possible that a movement for reunification with France, which Belgian politicians of the 19th century so feared, will appear in Wallonia.
Thus, we can state that not only the fate of Belgium as a state, but also the stability of the “European organism” as a whole directly depends on the resolution of the Walloon-Flemish conflict.
