Among the cardinal state and social transformations associated with his name, in addition to the abolition of serfdom, were military reform, which ended conscription for 25 years with the introduction of universal military service; zemstvo, which put an end to the centralization of power; judicial - along with a complete change in the judicial system and legal proceedings, known for the emergence of the jury; censorship, etc.
In addition to the internal dynamic and large-scale “great reforms”, the reign of this monarch, killed by revolutionary terrorists, was marked by major achievements in foreign policy, a significant expansion of state borders and victorious wars, but also the sale of Alaska to the United States and a serious social split in society, increased revolutionary ferment and extremist sentiments.
Childhood
The future autocrat was born in Moscow on April 29, 1818 and became the first-born of Emperor Nicholas I and his wife Alexandra Feodorovna, before her marriage, Princess Charlotte of Prussia. The birth of the heir to the throne was announced by cannon fire. Later, the crown prince had three sisters and three brothers. 
Until the age of 6, the boy was raised by his mother and loved her very much, as a result, inheriting the good-heartedness and neatness of the Grand Duchess. His father was strict with him, making harsh remarks for the slightest offense. According to a number of historians, the emperor did not like his eldest son and even thought about depriving him of his right to succession to the throne. There is a known case when, wanting to show off his child to the guests, he took a three-year-old sleeping baby out of his crib and forced him to march, declaring that a soldier must be ready for duty at any time of the day. Later he called Sasha “too amorous and weak-willed.” One way or another, his upbringing was not in vain: from his father the young man inherited a discerning mind, a strong and strong-willed character, courage and nobility.
The young Tsarevich received an excellent education and mastered five foreign languages. Prominent scientists, statesmen and teachers took part in his upbringing. He was taught his native language and literature by his main mentor, the recognized poet Vasily Zhukovsky, mathematics by academician Edward Collins, economic relations by Minister of Finance Yegor Kankrin, military affairs by Colonel Karl Merder, and the basics of legislation by statesman Mikhail Speransky. The heir's teaching plan also included many other disciplines, including history, geography, logic, philosophy, fencing, dancing, and fine arts.
Activities before succession to the throne
After coming of age, Nicholas I introduced his son to the Senate (the highest state body of legislative, executive and judicial power), then to the Holy Governing Synod (a body of church and state government), to the State Council, to the Finance Committee and the Cabinet of Ministers. 
At the age of 19, in accordance with the training program, the young heir, accompanied by Zhukovsky, became acquainted with his kingdom. During the trip, he met in Siberia with the Decembrists and other “freethinkers” who were in exile. 1838-1839 were dedicated to his educational journey through European countries.
Then the heir to the crown prince underwent military service and by 1844 was already a general. In 1846 and 1848 he headed the Secret Advisory Bodies on the situation of peasants, in 1849 - several military educational institutions, during the Russian-Turkish War of 1853-1856. was responsible for the combat effectiveness of the militia in the capital.
Accession to the throne
After the death of his father due to pneumonia in 1855, Alexander ascended the throne. He was perfectly prepared to fulfill the duty of serving his homeland and immediately began to solve priority problems. In the conditions of international isolation and crisis within the country existing at that time, he was forced to sign the Treaty of Paris in March 1856, ending the Crimean War with the minimum possible losses for the fatherland. 
In September, his coronation ceremony took place in Moscow. In connection with this significant event, arrears in government payments were forgiven, conscription for recruits was abolished for 3 years, and an amnesty was declared for political exiles.
Reforms of Alexander II
The disastrous results of the Crimean War finally convinced the crown bearer of the need to reform the state and social structure. To resolve the peasant question, in 1861 he abolished serfdom for twenty million landowner peasants. Many of them joined the ranks of workers, which contributed to the growth of factory production and the gradual transformation of a backward agricultural country into an industrialized state. 
The next step towards the modernization of the empire was the implementation of judicial reform in 1863, which became the basis for the democratization of judicial proceedings. A year later, all-class and merciful jury trials were established, openness in judicial practice and the independence of judges were established.
In 1864, during the zemstvo reform, the creation of local government bodies began. Provincial assemblies and councils appeared, then city dumas.
Innovations did not bypass the education system, ensuring an increase in population literacy from five to fifteen percent and the development of university autonomy, as well as the press, limiting government control over the content and dissemination of information.
Military reform was very important for strengthening the defense capability of the empire, within the framework of which, by 1874, a whole set of organizational and technological measures was introduced to transform and improve the troops. In particular, along with technical re-equipment and reform of the officer training system, corporal punishment, shameful for a developing state, was abolished.
Thanks to skillful politics, the autocrat managed to restore Russia's status as a great country. He annexed Central Asia, the Caucasus, and the Ussuri region, expanding the territory of the empire by 200 thousand square kilometers, with a victory over the Ottomans in 1877-1878. he contributed to the liberation of the Balkan peoples.
However, according to a number of sources, the emperor often lacked the strength of character to change the order that had been established for centuries. He was too kind and did not consider it necessary to execute political opponents who were slowing down the process of transformation. This led to an increase in discontent among many residents, a surge in social activity, and aroused a reaction from the nobility and landowners.
Romanovs. Alexander II
At the end of the reign, reform activities to strengthen the state and autocratic power stopped somewhat. The sovereign dismissed many senior officials involved in preparing the reforms in order to relieve tension between the government and the opposition.
Family of Alexander II: women and children
The emperor was known as a ladies' man. Already at the age of 15, he was captivated by the beauty of his mother’s maid of honor, Natalya Borozdina. She was immediately married to a diplomat and removed from the palace. 
At the age of 18, Sofya Davydova, a representative of an old family and a relative of the poet Denis Davydov, became the object of his adoration. When Alexander went on a study tour to Europe and they separated, the girl went to a monastery.
Then he experienced a short affair with the heir to the British crown, Victoria, and at the age of 20 he fell in love with the Empress’s next maid of honor, Olga Kovalevskaya.
At the age of 23, the heir married the 17-year-old German princess Maximilian of Hesse-Darmstadt, who after converting to Orthodoxy took the name Maria Alexandrovna.
The Emperor passionately loved hunting; his only hobby was figure skating - he ordered the skating rink to be filled at the Mariinsky Palace. At the instigation of the sovereign, this hobby became even more popular among representatives of the capital's high society.
Death
During his reign, six attempts were made on the emperor’s life: in 1866, 1867, two attempts in 1879, in 1880 and, finally, in 1881. The last time the extremist Rysakov tried to blow up the royal crew. The autocrat was not injured and went out to protect the militant from the lynching of the crowd. But suddenly the second terrorist Grinevitsky approached him and threw explosives at his feet. The wounded Tsar-Liberator died from profuse blood loss. 
The murder of the crown bearer occurred on a significant day for the empire - when he was about to launch the draft constitution proposed by the Minister of Internal Affairs M. Loris-Melikov. The document provided for some limitation of autocracy and a transition to a constitutional monarchy.
April 29, 1818, born 190 years ago Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov, who in the history of Russia remained the emperor Alexander II Liberator. During his reign, significant reforms took place: peasant, zemstvo, judicial, urban and military. Descendants will always associate the name of Alexander II with February 19, 1861 - the day of the abolition of serfdom. It is unknown what the future fate of the Russian Empire would have been like if he had managed to promulgate the draft Constitution. But the day before this event, the emperor was killed by the terrorist Grinevitsky.
Personal data
Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov was born on April 29 (17), 1818, on Bright Wednesday, at 11 a.m. in the Bishop's House of the Chudov Monastery of the Moscow Kremlin, where the entire imperial family arrived in early April for fasting and celebrating Easter. In honor of the birth of the heir to the throne, Moscow was given a salute of 201 cannon salvos, and on May 5, the sacraments of baptism and confirmation were performed in the Church of the Chudov Monastery by Moscow Archbishop Augustine, after which a gala dinner was given by Empress Maria Feodorovna.
The future emperor was educated at home. His mentor (with the responsibility of supervising the entire process of upbringing and education) was Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, the teacher of the Law of God and Sacred History - Archpriest Gerasim Pavsky (until 1835), the military instructor - Karl Karlovich Merder, as well as: Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky (legislation ), Konstantin Ivanovich Arsenyev (statistics and history), Egor Frantsevich Kankrin (finance), Academician Collins (arithmetic), Karl-Bernhard Antonovich Trinius (natural history).
According to numerous testimonies, the future emperor was very impressionable and amorous in his youth. So, during a trip to London in 1839, he developed a fleeting but strong love for the young Queen Victoria, who would later become for him the most hated ruler in Europe. Upon reaching adulthood on April 22, 1834 (the day he took the oath), the heir-cresarevich was introduced by his father to the main state institutions of the Empire: in 1834 - to the Senate, in 1835 - to the Holy Governing Synod; from 1841 - member of the State Council, from 1842 - member of the Committee of Ministers. In 1837, Alexander made a long trip around the country and visited 29 provinces of the European part of Russia, Transcaucasia and Western Siberia, and in 1838-39 he visited Europe. The future emperor's military service was quite successful. In 1836 he already became a major general, in 1844 - a full general, commanding the guards infantry. Since 1849, Alexander was the head of military educational institutions, chairman of the Secret Committees on Peasant Affairs of 1846-1848. During the Crimean War of 1853-56, with the declaration of martial law in the St. Petersburg province, he commanded all the troops of the capital.
Work history
Emperor Alexander II ascended the throne on February 19, 1855, during one of the most difficult moments Russia had ever experienced. “I hand over my command to you, but, unfortunately, not in the order I wanted, leaving you with a lot of work and worries,” Nicholas I told him as he died. Indeed, the political and military situation in Russia at that time was close to catastrophic .
After the lost Crimean War of 1853-1856. all levels of society demanded change. It was then that the terms “thaw” and “glasnost” appeared. The Supreme Censorship Committee was closed, and discussion of government affairs became open. A polyamnesty was announced for the Decembrists, Petrashevites, and participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-1831. But the main issue remained the peasant one. In 1856, a secret committee was organized “to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants.” Alexander II addressed a speech to representatives of the nobles of the Moscow province: “The existing order of ownership of souls cannot remain unchanged. It is better to begin to destroy serfdom from above, rather than wait for the time when it begins to be destroyed of its own accord from below.” Overcoming the opposition of opponents of the reform, Alexander II was contradictory and inconsistent, and yet the Editorial Commissions managed to develop the basis of the “Regulations of February 19, 1861.” This reform failed to resolve the issues of either land ownership or personal rights of peasants. During the reign of Alexander II, the following reforms were also carried out: university (1863), judicial (1864), press (1865), military (1874); self-government was introduced in zemstvos (1864) and cities (1870). The “revolution from above,” which had a bourgeois character, was not only not consistent, but also could not reach its logical conclusion - a constitution. As a result, Alexander II becomes a target for terrorist revolutionaries (he survived six assassination attempts in total), which, in turn, contributed to the transition to protective principles in government policy, in particular, to strengthening the role of the III Department, headed by P.A. Shuvalov. The changes in Alexander II’s mood were also influenced by events in his personal life. In April 1865, Alexander suffered a severe blow both as a man and as an emperor. In Nice, his eldest son Nikolai, a young man who had just turned 21, had successfully completed his education, found a bride, and intended to begin government activities as an assistant and future successor to his father, died of spinal meningitis. The emperor's second son, Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich, was declared the new heir to the throne. Both in terms of abilities and education, he frankly did not correspond to his high purpose. Alexander II became apathetic and lost interest in state affairs. In the field of foreign policy, Alexander II sought to expand the empire and strengthen Russian influence. He contributed to the liberation of Bulgaria from the Ottoman yoke (1877-1878), went to the active army and left it only after the fall of Plevna, which predetermined the outcome of the war. Having won a military victory, Russia suffered a diplomatic defeat at the Berlin Congress in 1878. This war, which played a beneficial role for the southern Slavs and raised the military prestige of Russia, disrupted the implementation of the necessary monetary and exchange rate reform and thereby increased confrontation in society. The conquest and then the peaceful development of vast territories of Central Asia were successful. According to the agreements concluded with China, the Ussuri region was recognized as Russian territory.
On March 1, 1881, the Tsar was mortally wounded by the terrorist Grinevitsky. Alexander was killed on the very day when he was supposed to sign the draft of a broad program of administrative and economic reforms developed by M.T. Loris-Melikov.
Information about relatives
Father - Nicholas I (1796-1855), emperor since 1825, third son Emperor Paul I, honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1826). He ascended the throne after the sudden death of his brother - Emperor Alexander I. Suppressed the Decembrist uprising. Under Nicholas I, the centralization of the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the Third Department was created, the Complete Collection of Laws was published and the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire was compiled, and new censorship regulations were introduced (1826, 1828). Secret committees were repeatedly convened to discuss the issue of abolishing serfdom, but their work had no consequences. In 1837, traffic was opened on the first Tsarskoye Selo railway in Russia. The Polish uprising of 1830-1831 and the revolution in Hungary of 1848-1849 were suppressed. An important aspect of foreign policy was the return to the principles of the Holy Alliance. During the reign of Nicholas I, Russia took part in the Caucasian wars (1817-1864), Russian-Persian (1826-1828), Russian-Turkish (1828-1829), Crimean (1853-1856). Defeat in the last war became the reason for the reforms of the 1860-70s, carried out by Alexander II.
Mother - Alexandra Feodorovna (nee Princess Friederike Charlotte Wilhelmina, also known as Charlotte of Prussia). Friederike Charlotte Wilhelmina was born on July 13, 1798, the third child of Prussian King Frederick William III and his wife, Queen Louise. She was the sister of the Prussian kings Frederick William IV and Wilhelm I, later the first German emperor. On July 13, 1817, she married the brother of Russian Emperor Alexander I, Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich. Marriage presupposed the transition of the bride to the Orthodox confession and the naming of a new name, which is available in the Orthodox calendar. The marriage pursued primarily political goals: strengthening the political union of Russia and Prussia, but it turned out to be happy and with many children. After her husband's accession to the throne in 1825, Alexandra Feodorovna became the Russian Empress.
Personal life
The personal life of Alexander II was always full of bright novels and unforgettable hobbies. This handsome man broke more than one hundred women's hearts. Two women became truly significant in the life of the emperor.
Alexander's first wife was the daughter of the Grand Duke of Hesse, Louis II, whose maiden name was Maximilian-Wilhelmina-Augusta-Sophia-Maria. The future emperor, traveling during his time as crown prince in Western Europe (1838-1839), according to the attraction of his heart, chose Mary as his friend in life. In the summer of 1840 she arrived in Russia; On April 16, 1841 the marriage took place. Maria Alexandrovna gave birth to Alexandra two daughters, Alexandra and Maria, and six sons: Nicholas, Alexander (who became Emperor of Russia after his father), Vladimir, Alexei, Sergei and Pavel.
Alexander first saw his second wife, Katya Dolgorukova, in the summer of 1859, while visiting Prince Dolgorukov on the Teplovka estate. Soon, Catherine’s father went bankrupt and died, and her mother with four sons and two daughters found herself without funds. The Emperor took the children into his care: he facilitated the entry of the Dolgoruky brothers into St. Petersburg military institutions, and the sisters into the Smolny Institute. On March 28, 1865, Palm Sunday, Alexander II visited the Smolny Institute, where 18-year-old Ekaterina Dolgorukova was introduced to him. They began meeting secretly in the Summer Garden near the Winter Palace. On July 13, 1866, they met for the first time at Belvedere Castle near Peterhof, where they spent the night, after which they continued dating there.
At that time, Empress Maria Alexandrovna was already sick with consumption and did not get out of bed. The adulterous relationship caused acute displeasure among many Romanovs and, above all, the Tsarevich, the future Alexander III. By the end of the year, the Emperor was forced to send his mistress, accompanied by her brother, to Naples, followed by a visit to Paris, where they met in June 1867 in a hotel under the secret supervision of the French police.
During their relationship, Dolgorukova gave birth to three children to Alexander: a son, George, and two daughters, Olga and Ekaterina. Following the death of his wife on May 22, 1880, before the expiration of the protocol mourning period, on July 6, 1880, a wedding took place in the military chapel of the Tsarskoye Selo Palace, performed by Protopresbyter Xenophon Nikolsky.
Hobbies
Alexander II loved hunting. According to the classification of that time, hunters were divided into efficient, true, field and stupid. To be efficient meant: to take care of your dogs, to be quick-witted, dexterous and in no case a liar. Never appropriate someone else's animal, do not be greedy and do not run around in vain in the forest. Alexander II was considered the most efficient hunter of the Romanovs. Despite the fact that in the imperial dog hunting of Alexander II there were standard specimens of hunting dogs of various breeds, Alexander Nikolaevich loved Milord most of all. A detailed description of Milord as a representative of the hunting dog breed is given by the famous writer L. Sabaneev: “I saw the Imperial black dog in Ilyinsky after dinner, to which the sovereign invited members of the board of the Moscow Hunting Society. It was a very large and very beautiful indoor dog, with a beautiful head, well dressed, but there was little of the setter type in it, moreover, the legs were too long, and one of the legs was completely white. They say that this setter was given to the late emperor by some Polish gentleman, and there was a rumor that the dog was not entirely blood-born.”
Enemies
When asked whether Alexander II had enemies, we can say with confidence: yes. There were at least six attempts on his life alone.
The first attempt took place on April 4, 1866. Alexander II went for a walk with his nephews in the Summer Garden. Having enjoyed the fresh air, the tsar was already getting into the carriage when a young man came out from the crowd of onlookers watching the sovereign’s walk and shot at him, but missed. The shooter turned out to be nobleman Dmitry Karakozov. He called the motive for the assassination attempt the tsar’s deception of his people by the reform of 1861, in which, according to him, the rights of the peasants were only declared, but not actually implemented.
But it was not only in Russia that the sovereign was in danger. In June 1867, Alexander II arrived on an official visit to France. On June 6, after a military review at the Longchamps racecourse, he was returning in an open carriage with his children and a French Emperor Napoleon III. In the area of the Bois de Boulogne, among the jubilant crowd, a short, black-haired man, Anton Berezovsky, a Pole by origin, was already waiting for the official procession to appear. When the royal carriage appeared nearby, he fired a pistol at Alexander II twice. Thanks to the brave actions of one of Napoleon III’s security officers, who noticed a man with a weapon in the crowd in time and pushed his hand away, the bullets flew past the Russian Tsar, hitting only the horse. This time the reason for the assassination attempt was the desire to take revenge on the Tsar for the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863.
The third attempt took place on April 4, 1879: the sovereign was walking in the vicinity of his palace. Suddenly he noticed a young man walking quickly towards him. The stranger managed to shoot five times before he was captured by security. On the spot they found out that the attacker was teacher Alexander Solovyov. At the investigation, he, without hiding his pride, stated: “The idea of an attempt on the life of His Majesty arose in me after becoming acquainted with the teachings of the socialist revolutionaries. I belong to the Russian section of this party, which believes that the majority suffers so that the minority can enjoy the fruits of the people’s labor and all the benefits of civilization that are inaccessible to the majority.”
If the first three attempts on the life of Alexander II were carried out by unprepared individuals, then since 1879 the goal of destroying the Tsar has been set by an entire terrorist organization - “People's Will”. Having analyzed previous attempts to kill the Tsar, the conspirators came to the conclusion that the surest way would be to organize an explosion of the Tsar’s train when the Tsar was returning from vacation from Crimea to St. Petersburg. But this time too the conspirators were defeated. Once again, heavenly forces intervened in the fate of Alexander II. The Narodnaya Volya knew that the imperial cortege consisted of two trains: Alexander II himself and his retinue were traveling in one, and the royal luggage in the second. Moreover, the train with luggage is half an hour ahead of the royal train. However, in Kharkov, one of the locomotives of the baggage train broke down - and the royal train went first. Not knowing about this circumstance, the terrorists let the first train through, detonating a mine under the fourth carriage of the second. Having learned that he had once again escaped death, Alexander II, according to eyewitnesses, sadly said: “What do they have against me, these unfortunates? Why are they chasing me like a wild animal? After all, I have always strived to do everything in my power for the good of the people!”
The “unhappy” people, not particularly discouraged by the failure of the railway epic, after some time began preparing a new assassination attempt. The Executive Committee decided to blow up the emperor's chambers in the Winter Palace. The explosion was scheduled for six twenty minutes in the evening, when Alexander II was supposed to be in the dining room. And again, chance confused all the cards for the conspirators. The train of one of the members of the imperial family - the Prince of Hesse - was half an hour late, shifting the time of the gala dinner. The explosion found Alexander II near the security room, located near the dining room.
After the explosion in Zimny, Alexander II began to rarely leave the palace, regularly leaving only to change the guard at the Mikhailovsky Manege. The conspirators decided to take advantage of this punctuality of the emperor. The security department warned the tsar more than once about the impending assassination attempt. He was advised not to travel to the Manezh and not to leave the walls of the Winter Palace. To all the warnings, Alexander II replied that he had nothing to fear, since he firmly knew that his life was in the hands of God, thanks to whose help he survived the previous five assassination attempts.
On March 1, 1881, Alexander II left the Winter Palace for Manege. Having attended the guard duty and having tea with his cousin, the Tsar went back to Zimny through... the Catherine Canal. The royal cortege drove to the embankment. Further events developed almost instantly. The terrorist Rysakov threw his bomb towards the royal carriage. There was a deafening explosion. After traveling some distance, the royal carriage stopped. The Emperor was not injured. However, instead of leaving the scene of the assassination attempt, Alexander II wished to see the criminal. He approached the captured Rysakov... At this moment, Grinevitsky, unnoticed by the guards, throws a second bomb at the Tsar’s feet. The blast wave threw Alexander II to the ground, blood gushing from his crushed legs. With the last of his strength, he whispered: “Take me to the palace... There I want to die...”.
On March 1, 1881, at 15:35, the imperial standard was lowered from the flagpole of the Winter Palace, notifying the population of St. Petersburg about the death of Emperor Alexander II.
Companions
Loris-Melikov can be called a true ally of Alexander II. Together they prepared a draft constitution, wanting to radically change the future of Russia. They saw Russia as a great power moving with the times. Loris-Melikov’s plans included a broad program for modernizing the state and public life of Russia. In the 70s, the tsar decided that pacification had arrived and appointed Mikhail Tarielovich Minister of Internal Affairs. It was then that Loris-Melikov began to prepare a draft document, which, for tactical reasons, was not called the word “constitution”, so as not to aggravate relations with reactionary circles in the government and at court. Mikhail Tarielovich considered it fundamentally important to take the first step in limiting autocracy. This document was already ready for publication. But within a day of this, a fatal bomb interrupted the life of the emperor, forever canceling out Loris-Melikov’s plans. Perhaps the 1917 revolution would never have happened if Russia had become a constitutional monarchy at the end of the 19th century.
Weaknesses
“Alexander’s main weakness as a political figure was that all his life human problems were more important to him than state ones. This was his weakness, but also his superiority: he was, first of all, a kind and noble man, and often his heart took precedence over his mind. Unfortunately, for a person destined by fate to be the ruler of Russia, this was rather a disadvantage,” says historian Vsevolod Nikolaev, and it is difficult to disagree with him.
Strengths
Emperor Alexander II was rightly awarded the “title” of Tsar-Liberator: he freed not only the peasants, but the personality of the Russian people in general, putting it in conditions of independent existence and development. Previously, the personality was suppressed and absorbed: in the most distant times - by the tribal life, later - by the state, which it had to serve, for which it had to exist. Now the state ceases to be a goal, it itself turns into an official body, into a means for the free development of the individual and the satisfaction of his material and spiritual needs.
Merits and failures
The great merit of Alexander II can be called the five reforms he carried out: peasant, zemstvo, judicial, urban and military; together with the abolition of corporal punishment, they constitute the inalienable glory and pride of the emperor’s reign. “The peasant reform, despite all its imperfections, was a colossal step forward; it was also the greatest merit of Alexander himself, who during the years of its development withstood with honor the onslaught of feudal and reactionary aspirations and at the same time revealed such firmness that those around him apparently did not count on” (Kornilov). “With wise determination, following the instructions of the times, Emperor Alexander II left the traditional path of discussing reform in secret committees and called on society itself to develop the intended transformation, and then, vigilantly monitoring the progress of reform work, with extreme tact, chose the time and external forms for declaring his personal views on one side or another of peasant affairs. If the art of ruling consists in the ability to correctly determine the urgent needs of a given era, to open a free outlet for viable and fruitful aspirations lurking in society, from the height of wise impartiality to pacify mutually hostile parties with the power of reasonable agreements, then one cannot but admit that Alexander Nikolaevich correctly understood the essence of his calling in memorable (1855-1861) of his reign. He firmly maintained his post at the “stern of his native ship” during these difficult years of his voyage, rightfully earning the inclusion of the enviable epithet Liberator to his name” (Kiesewetter).
The classless zemstvo and the classless city, attracting different classes of the population to common work for the common benefit, significantly contributed to the consolidation of individual groups and social classes into a single state body, where “one for all, and all for one.” In this regard, the zemstvo and city reforms were as great a national cause as the peasant reform. They put an end to the predominance of the nobility, democratized Russian society, and attracted new and more diverse layers of society to common work for the benefit of the state.
Judicial reform, in turn, had enormous cultural significance in Russian life. Set up independently of external and random influences, enjoying public trust, ensuring the population in the fair enjoyment of their rights, protecting these rights or restoring them in case of violation, the new court educated Russian society in respect for the law, for the personality and interests of their neighbors, and elevated people in their own eyes, served as a restraining principle equally for both the rulers and the subordinates.
The military reform, inseparably associated with the name of Milyutin, is entirely imbued with the spirit of liberation and humanity. It complemented other great reforms and, together with them, created a new era in Russian history from the reign of Alexander II. The same can be said about the abolition of corporal punishment. The decree of April 17, 1863 had enormous educational significance, since the old whip and girders taught people to cruelty, made them indifferent to the suffering of others; Fist reprisals and punishment with canes, often arbitrary, belittled a person’s personality: it embittered some, while others, on the contrary, were deprived of self-esteem.
The failures of Alexander II include the fact that none of the above reforms were ever completed. But it is worth mentioning that in the entire history of Russia, not a single ruler has yet managed to fully implement his reforms.
Alexander II conducted his foreign policy quite successfully. In 1872 he joined the Alliance of the Three Emperors, which became the cornerstone of Russian foreign policy until the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1893. In 1877, Turkish policies led to the Russo-Turkish War, which ended in Russian victory in 1878. Under Alexander II, the annexation of the Caucasus was completed. Russia expanded its influence in the east; it included Turkestan, the Amur region, the Ussuri region, and the Kuril Islands in exchange for the southern part of Sakhalin.
Compromising evidence
Alexander II loved Ekaterina Dolgorukova so boundlessly that he settled her and her children in the Winter Palace during the life of his first wife, which further exacerbated the hostility of many Romanovs towards her. The court was divided into two parties: supporters of Dolgorukova and supporters of the heir Alexander Alexandrovich. Such an act by Alexander II was unheard of insolence. Only he could afford to openly house his wife and mistress under one roof.
KM.RU April 29, 2008
Russian Emperor Alexander II was born on April 29 (17 old style), 1818 in Moscow. The eldest son of the Emperor and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. After his father's accession to the throne in 1825, he was proclaimed heir to the throne.
Received an excellent education at home. His mentors were lawyer Mikhail Speransky, poet Vasily Zhukovsky, financier Yegor Kankrin and other outstanding minds of that time.
He inherited the throne on March 3 (February 18, old style) 1855 at the end of an unsuccessful campaign for Russia, which he managed to complete with minimal losses for the empire. He was crowned king in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin on September 8 (August 26, old style) 1856.
On the occasion of the coronation, Alexander II declared an amnesty for the Decembrists, Petrashevites, and participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-1831.
The transformations of Alexander II affected all spheres of Russian society, shaping the economic and political contours of post-reform Russia.
On December 3, 1855, by imperial decree, the Supreme Censorship Committee was closed and discussion of government affairs became open.
In 1856, a secret committee was organized “to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants.”
On March 3 (February 19, old style), 1861, the emperor signed the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom, for which they began to call him the “tsar-liberator.” The transformation of peasants into free labor contributed to the capitalization of agriculture and the growth of factory production.
In 1864, by issuing the Judicial Statutes, Alexander II separated the judicial power from the executive, legislative and administrative powers, ensuring its complete independence. The process became transparent and competitive. The police, financial, university and entire secular and spiritual educational systems as a whole were reformed. The year 1864 also marked the beginning of the creation of all-class zemstvo institutions, which were entrusted with the management of economic and other social issues locally. In 1870, on the basis of the City Regulations, city councils and councils appeared.
As a result of reforms in the field of education, self-government became the basis of the activities of universities, and secondary education for women was developed. Three Universities were founded - in Novorossiysk, Warsaw and Tomsk. Innovations in the press significantly limited the role of censorship and contributed to the development of the media.
By 1874, Russia had rearmed its army, created a system of military districts, reorganized the Ministry of War, reformed the officer training system, introduced universal military service, reduced the length of military service (from 25 to 15 years, including reserve service), and abolished corporal punishment. .
The emperor also established the State Bank.
The internal and external wars of Emperor Alexander II were victorious - the uprising that broke out in Poland in 1863 was suppressed, and the Caucasian War (1864) ended. According to the Aigun and Beijing treaties with the Chinese Empire, Russia annexed the Amur and Ussuri territories in 1858-1860. In 1867-1873, the territory of Russia increased due to the conquest of the Turkestan region and the Fergana Valley and the voluntary entry into vassal rights of the Bukhara Emirate and the Khanate of Khiva. At the same time, in 1867, the overseas possessions of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands were ceded to the United States, with which good relations were established. In 1877, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Türkiye suffered a defeat, which predetermined the state independence of Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro.
© Infographics
© Infographics
The reforms of 1861-1874 created the preconditions for a more dynamic development of Russia and strengthened the participation of the most active part of society in the life of the country. The flip side of the transformations was the aggravation of social contradictions and the growth of the revolutionary movement.
Six attempts were made on the life of Alexander II, the seventh was the cause of his death. The first shot was shot by nobleman Dmitry Karakozov in the Summer Garden on April 17 (4 old style), April 1866. By luck, the emperor was saved by the peasant Osip Komissarov. In 1867, during a visit to Paris, Anton Berezovsky, a leader of the Polish liberation movement, attempted to assassinate the emperor. In 1879, the populist revolutionary Alexander Solovyov tried to shoot the emperor with several revolver shots, but missed. The underground terrorist organization "People's Will" purposefully and systematically prepared regicide. Terrorists carried out explosions on the royal train near Alexandrovsk and Moscow, and then in the Winter Palace itself.
The explosion in the Winter Palace forced the authorities to take extraordinary measures. To fight the revolutionaries, a Supreme Administrative Commission was formed, headed by the popular and authoritative General Mikhail Loris-Melikov at that time, who actually received dictatorial powers. He took harsh measures to combat the revolutionary terrorist movement, while at the same time pursuing a policy of bringing the government closer to the “well-intentioned” circles of Russian society. Thus, under him, in 1880, the Third Department of His Imperial Majesty’s Own Chancellery was abolished. Police functions were concentrated in the police department, formed within the Ministry of Internal Affairs.
On March 14 (old style 1), 1881, as a result of a new attack by Narodnaya Volya, Alexander II received mortal wounds on the Catherine Canal (now the Griboyedov Canal) in St. Petersburg. The explosion of the first bomb thrown by Nikolai Rysakov damaged the royal carriage, wounded several guards and passers-by, but Alexander II survived. Then another thrower, Ignatius Grinevitsky, came close to the Tsar and threw a bomb at his feet. Alexander II died a few hours later in the Winter Palace and was buried in the family tomb of the Romanov dynasty in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg. At the site of the death of Alexander II in 1907, the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood was erected.
In his first marriage, Emperor Alexander II was with Empress Maria Alexandrovna (nee Princess Maximiliana-Wilhelmina-Augusta-Sophia-Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt). The emperor entered into a second (morganatic) marriage with Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukova, bestowed with the title of Most Serene Princess Yuryevskaya, shortly before his death.
The eldest son of Alexander II and heir to the Russian throne, Nikolai Alexandrovich, died in Nice from tuberculosis in 1865, and the throne was inherited by the emperor's second son, Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich (Alexander III).
The material was prepared based on information from open sources
from 2nd marriage
sons: St. book Georgy Alexandrovich Yuryevsky and Boris
daughters: Olga and Ekaterina
Alexander II Nikolaevich(April 17 (29), Moscow - March 1 (13), St. Petersburg) - Emperor of All Russia, Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland -. From the Romanov dynasty.
Origin
Alexander II is the eldest son of first the grand ducal, and since 1825, the imperial couple Nikolai Pavlovich and Alexandra Feodorovna.
Nikolai Pavlovich was the third son of Emperor Paul I. Alexandra Feodorovna is the daughter of the Prussian king Frederick William III, before her anointing - Princess Charlotte. She was the niece and goddaughter of Queen Charlotte of England, wife of King George III, and, therefore, a relative of the future reigning Queen of England, Victoria.
Childhood, education and upbringing
According to numerous testimonies, in his youth he was very impressionable and amorous. So, during a trip to London, he had a fleeting crush on the young Queen Victoria.
Beginning of government activities
Upon reaching adulthood on April 22 (the day he took the oath), the heir-cresarevich was introduced by his father into the main state institutions of the empire: into the Senate, into the Holy Governing Synod, as a member of the State Council, and into the Committee of Ministers.
The future emperor's military service was quite successful. In 1836 he already became a major general, and from 1844 a full general, commanding the Guards infantry. Since 1849, Alexander has been the head of military educational institutions, chairman of the Secret Committees on Peasant Affairs and Years. During the Crimean War of 1853-1856, with the declaration of martial law in the St. Petersburg province, he commanded all the troops of the capital.
Reign of Alexander II
Big title
By God's hastening grace, We, Alexander II, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauride Chersonis, Sovereign of Pskov and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volyn, Podolsk and Finland, Prince of Estonia , Livlyandsky, Kurlyandsky and Semigalsky, Samogitsky, Bialystok, Korelsky, Tver, Yugorsky, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgarian and others; Sovereign and Grand Duke of Novagorod, Nizovsky lands, Chernigov. Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozersky, Udora, Obdorsky, Kondiysky, Vitebsk, Mstislavsky and all Northern countries, Lord and Sovereign of Iversk. Kartalinsky, Georgian and Kabardian lands and Armenian regions, Cherkassy and Mountain Princes and other hereditary Sovereign and Possessor, Norwegian Heir, Duke of Schleswig-Holstinsky, Stormarnsky, Ditmarsensky and Oldenburgsky and so on, and so on, and so on.
Beginning of reign
In his life, Alexander did not adhere to any specific concept in his views on the history of Russia and the tasks of public administration. Having ascended the throne in 1855, he received a difficult legacy. None of the issues of his father’s 30-year reign (peasant, eastern, Polish, etc.) were resolved; Russia was defeated in the Crimean War.
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The first of his important decisions was the conclusion of the Peace of Paris in March 1856. A “thaw” has set in in the socio-political life of the country. On the occasion of his coronation in August 1856, he declared an amnesty for the Decembrists, Petrashevites, and participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-1831, suspended recruitment for 3 years, and in 1857 liquidated military settlements.
Abolition of serfdom
Alexander II
Peasant reform in Russia, also known as abolition of serfdom- a reform carried out in 1861 that abolished serfdom in the Russian Empire.
The first steps towards the abolition of serfdom were taken by Alexander I in 1803 by signing the Decree on Free Plowmen, which spelled out the legal status of freed peasants.
In the Baltic (Baltic Sea) provinces of the Russian Empire (Estonia, Courland, Livonia), serfdom was abolished back in the years.
Alexander II
Contrary to the existing erroneous opinion that the overwhelming majority of the population of pre-reform Russia was in serfdom, in fact, the percentage of serfs to the entire population of the empire remained almost unchanged at 45% from the second revision to the eighth (that is, from before), and by the 10th revision ( ) this share fell to 37%. According to the population census, 23.1 million people (of both sexes) out of 62.5 million people inhabiting the Russian Empire were in serfdom. Of the 65 provinces and regions that existed in the Russian Empire in 1858, in the three above-mentioned Baltic provinces, in the Land of the Black Sea Army, in the Primorsky region, the Semipalatinsk region and the region of the Siberian Kyrgyz, in the Derbent province (with the Caspian region) and the Erivan province there were no serfs at all; in another 4 administrative units (Arkhangelsk and Shemakha provinces, Transbaikal and Yakutsk regions) there were also no serfs, with the exception of several dozen courtyard people (servants). In the remaining 52 provinces and regions, the share of serfs in the population ranged from 1.17% (Bessarabian region) to 69.07% (Smolensk province).
The main provisions of the peasant reform
The main act - “General Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom” - contained the main conditions of the peasant reform:
- peasants received personal freedom and the right to freely dispose of their property;
- the landowners retained ownership of all the lands that belonged to them, but were obliged to provide the peasants with “sedentary estates” and field allotment for use;
- for the use of allotment land, peasants had to serve corvee or pay quitrent and did not have the right to refuse it for 9 years;
- the size of the field allotment and duties should have been recorded in the statutory charters of 1861, which were drawn up by landowners for each estate and verified by the peace intermediaries;
- peasants were given the right to buy out an estate and, by agreement with the landowner, a field allotment; until this was done, they were called temporarily obligated peasants;
- the structure, rights and responsibilities of peasant public administration bodies (rural and volost) and the volost court were also determined.
Four “Local Regulations” determined the size of land plots and duties for their use in 44 provinces of European Russia. From the land that was in the use of peasants before February 19, 1861, sections could be made if the peasants' per capita allotments exceeded the highest size established for the given area, or if the landowners, while maintaining the existing peasant allotment, had less than 1/3 of the total land of the estate left.
Allotments could be reduced by special agreements between peasants and landowners, as well as upon receipt of a gift allotment. If peasants had plots of less than a small size, the landowner was obliged to either cut off the missing land or reduce duties. For the highest shower allotment, a quitrent was set from 8 to 12 rubles. per year or corvee - 40 men's and 30 women's working days per year. If the allotment was less than the highest, then the duties were reduced, but not proportionally. The rest of the “Local Provisions” basically repeated the “Great Russian Provisions”, but taking into account the specifics of their regions. The features of the Peasant Reform for certain categories of peasants and specific areas were determined by the “Additional Rules” - “On the arrangement of peasants settled on the estates of small landowners, and on benefits to these owners”, “On people assigned to private mining factories of the Ministry of Finance”, “On peasants and workers serving work at Perm private mining factories and salt mines”, “About peasants serving work in landowner factories”, “About peasants and courtyard people in the Land of the Don Army”, “About peasants and courtyard people in the Stavropol province”, “ About peasants and courtyard people in Siberia”, “About people who emerged from serfdom in the Bessarabian region”.
The “Regulations on the Settlement of Household People” provided for their release without land, but for 2 years they remained completely dependent on the landowner.
The “Regulations on Redemption” determined the procedure for peasants buying land from landowners, organizing the redemption operation, and the rights and obligations of peasant owners. The redemption of a field plot depended on an agreement with the landowner, who could oblige the peasants to buy the land at his request. The price of land was determined by quitrent, capitalized at 6% per annum. In case of redemption by voluntary agreement, the peasants had to make an additional payment to the landowner. The landowner received the main amount from the state, to which the peasants had to repay it annually for 49 years with redemption payments.
The “Manifesto” and “Regulations” were published from March 7 to April 2 (in St. Petersburg and Moscow - March 5). Fearing the dissatisfaction of the peasants with the conditions of the reform, the government took a number of precautions (relocation of troops, sending members of the imperial retinue to places, appeal of the Synod, etc.). The peasantry, dissatisfied with the enslaving conditions of the reform, responded to it with mass unrest. The largest of them were the Bezdnensky uprising of 1861 and the Kandeyevsky uprising of 1861.
The implementation of the Peasant Reform began with the drawing up of statutory charters, which was largely completed by mid-1863. On January 1, 1863, peasants refused to sign about 60% of the charters. The purchase price of land significantly exceeded its market value at that time, in some areas by 2-3 times. As a result of this, in a number of regions they were extremely keen to receive gift plots and in some provinces (Saratov, Samara, Ekaterinoslav, Voronezh, etc.), a significant number of peasant gift-givers appeared.
Reforms continued, but sluggishly and inconsistently; almost all reform figures, with rare exceptions, were dismissed. At the end of his reign, Alexander was inclined to introduce limited public representation in Russia under the State Council.
Assassinations and murder
Several attempts were made on Alexander II's life:
On April 4, 1866, when Alexander II was heading from the gates of the Summer Garden to his carriage, a shot was heard. The bullet flew over the emperor's head - the shooter was pushed by the peasant Osip Komissarov, who was standing nearby. The crowd almost tore the young man in a dark coat to pieces. The gendarmes, who forcibly recaptured the nobleman Dmitry Karakozov from the crowd, brought him to the tsar. "You're polish?" - Alexander asked him. - “No, pure Russian.”
Results of the reign
Alexander II went down in history as a reformer and liberator.
During his reign, serfdom was abolished, universal military service was introduced, zemstvos were established, judicial reform was carried out, censorship was limited, autonomy was granted to the Caucasian highlanders (which greatly contributed to the end of the Caucasian War), and a number of other reforms were carried out.
The negative side usually includes the unfavorable results of the Berlin Congress for Russia, exorbitant expenses in the war of 1877-1878, numerous peasant uprisings (in 1861-1863, more than 1150 uprisings), large-scale nationalist uprisings in the kingdom of Poland and the North-Western region ( ) and in the Caucasus (1877-1878).
Family
- First marriage () with Maria Alexandrovna (07/1/1824 - 05/22/1880), nee Princess Maximiliana-Wilhelmina-Augusta-Sophia-Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt.
- The second, morganatic, marriage to a long-time (with) mistress, Princess Ekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgorukova (-), who received the title Your Serene Highness Princess Yuryevskaya.
Alexander II's net worth as of March 1, 1881 was about 12 million rubles. (securities, State Bank tickets, shares of railway companies); In 1880, he donated 1 million rubles from personal funds. for the construction of a hospital in memory of the Empress.
Children from first marriage:
- Alexandra (1842-1849);
- Nicholas (1843-1865), raised as heir to the throne, died of pneumonia in Nice;
- Alexander III (1845-1894) - Emperor of Russia in 1881-1894;
- Vladimir (1847-1909);
- Alexey (1850-1908);
- Maria (1853-1920), Grand Duchess, Duchess of Great Britain and Germany;
- Sergei (1857-1905);
- Pavel (1860-1919).
Children from a morganatic marriage:
- His Serene Highness Prince Georgy Alexandrovich Yuryevsky (1872-1913), married to Countess Alexandra von Zarnekau (1883-1957), daughter of Prince Konstantin of Oldenburg from a morganatic marriage;
- Olga Alexandrovna Yuryevskaya (1873-1925), married to Georg-Nikolai von Merenberg (1871-1948), son of Natalia Pushkina;
- Boris Alexandrovich (1876-1876), posthumously legitimized with the surname “Yuryevsky”;
- Ekaterina Alexandrovna Yuryevskaya (1878-1959), married to Prince Alexander Vladimirovich Baryatinsky, and after to Prince
Alexander II is one of the most prominent Russian monarchs. Alexander Nikolaevich was popularly nicknamed Alexander the Liberator.
People really have a reason to call Alexander II that way. The Emperor carried out a number of important reforms for the Russian Empire. The course of his policy was distinguished by a liberal tint.
Alexander II initiated many liberal initiatives in Russia. The paradox of his historical personality is that the monarch, who gave the people unprecedented freedom before the village, was killed by revolutionaries.
They say that the draft constitution and the convocation of the State Duma were literally on the emperor’s table, but his sudden death put an end to many of his endeavors.
Alexander II was born in April 1818. He was the son of Nicholas I and Alexandra Fedorovna. Alexander Nikolaevich was purposefully prepared for accession to the throne.
The future Emperor received a very decent education. The prince's teachers were the smartest people of their time.
Among the teachers were Zhukovsky, Merder, Speransky, Kankrin, Brunov. As you can see, science was taught to the future emperor by the ministers of the Russian Empire themselves.
Alexander Nikolaevich was a gifted man, he had equal abilities, he was a good-natured and sympathetic person.
Alexander Nikolaevich was well acquainted with the structure of affairs in the Russian Empire, as he actively worked in the public service. In 1834 he became a member of the Senate, a year later he began working in the Holy Synod.
In 1841 he became a member of the State Council. In 1842 he began working on the Committee of Ministers. Alexander traveled a lot around Russia, so the poet was well acquainted with the state of affairs in the Russian Empire. During the Crimean War, he was the commander of all armed forces of St. Petersburg.
Domestic policy of Alexander II
Domestic policy was aimed at modernizing the country. Alexander II was largely pushed towards a policy of reform by the Crimean War, the results of which were disappointing. In the period from 1860 to 1870, Zemstvo reform, Judicial reform and military reform were carried out.
History considers the abolition of serfdom (1861) to be the most important achievement of the reign of Alexander II. The significance of the reforms carried out over the decade is difficult to underestimate.
The reforms created the opportunity for the rapid development of bourgeois relations and rapid industrialization. New industrial regions are being formed, both heavy and light industry are developing, and wage labor is becoming widespread.
Foreign policy of Alexander II
Foreign policy had two distinct directions. The first is the restoration of Russia's shaky authority in Europe after the defeat in the Crimean War. The second is the expansion of borders in the Far East and Central Asia.
During his reign, Gorchakov showed himself excellently. He was a talented diplomat, thanks to whose skills Russia was able to break the Franco-Anglo-Austrian alliance.
Thanks to France's defeat in the war with Prussia, Russia abandoned the article of the Paris Peace Treaty prohibiting it from having a navy on the Black Sea. Russia also fought with Turkey, and on the battlefields of this war the military talent of Mikhail Dmitrievich Skobelev shone.
Attempts were made on Alexander II more than once. The revolutionaries longed to kill the Russian monarch and they nevertheless succeeded. More than once, by the will of fate, he remained alive and well. Unfortunately, on March 1, 1881, the Narodnaya Volya members threw a bomb at the carriage of Alexander II. The emperor died from his wounds.
Alexander II forever inscribed his name in the History of Russia, entered Russian history as an undeniably positive personality. Not without sin, of course, but which historical figure, or even ordinary people, can be called ideal?
The reforms of Alexander II were timely and gave a powerful impetus to the development of Russia. The Emperor could have done more for Russia, but fate decreed otherwise.
