Source: Central Maritime Club DOSAAF RSFSR. Publishing house DOSAAF. Moscow, 1987
§1. Spar.
A spar is the name given to all wooden, and on modern ships, metal parts that are used to carry sails, flags, raise signals, etc. The masts on a sailing ship include: masts, topmasts, yards, gaffs, booms, bowsprits, props, spears and shotguns.
Masts.
Salings and ezelgofts, depending on their location and belonging to a particular mast, also have their own names: for-saling, for-bram-saling, mast ezelgoft. for-sten-ezelgoft, kruys-sten-ezelgoft, bowsprit ezelgoft (connecting the bowsprit with the jib), etc.
Bowsprit.
A bowsprit is a horizontal or slightly inclined beam (inclined mast), protruding from the bow of a sailing ship, and used to carry straight sails - a blind and a bomb blind. Until the end of the 18th century, the bowsprit consisted of only one tree with a blind topmast (), on which straight blind and bomb blind sails were installed on the blind yard and bomb blind yard.
Since the end of the 18th century, the bowsprit has been lengthened with the help of a jib, and then a bom-blind (), and blind and bomb-blind sails are no longer installed on it. Here it serves to extend the stays of the foremast and its topmasts and to attach the bow triangular sails - jibs and staysails, which improved the propulsion and agility of the ship. At one time, triangular sails were combined with straight ones.
The bowsprit itself was attached to the bow of the ship using a water-vuling made of a strong cable, and later (19th century) and chains. To tie the wooling, the main end of the cable was attached to the bowsprit, then the cable was passed through the hole in the bowdiged, around the bowsprit, etc. Usually they installed 11 hoses, which were tightened in the middle with transverse hoses. From the sliding of the guards and stays along the bowsprit, several wooden attachments were made on it - bis ().
Bowstrits with a jib and bom-jib had a vertical martin boom and horizontal blind gaffs for carrying the standing rigging of the jib and bom-jib.
Rhea.
A ray is a round, spindle-shaped spar that tapers evenly at both ends, called noks ().
Shoulders are made on both legs, close to which perts, slings of blocks, etc. are pinned. Yards are used for attaching straight sails to them. The yards are attached in the middle to the masts and topmasts in such a way that they can be raised, lowered and rotated horizontally to set the sails in the most advantageous position relative to the wind.
At the end of the 18th century, additional sails appeared - foxes, which were placed on the sides of the main sails. They were attached to small yards - lisel-spirits, extended to the sides of the ship along the main yard through the yoke ().
Yards also take names depending on their belonging to one or another mast, as well as on their location on the mast. So, the names of the yards on various masts, counting them from bottom to top, are as follows: on the foremast - fore-yard, fore-mars-yard, fore-front-yard, fore-bom-front-yard; on the main mast - main-yard, main-marsa-ray, main-bram-ray, main-bom-bram-ray; on the mizzen mast - begin-ray, cruisel-ray, cruis-bram-ray, cruis-bom-bram-ray.
Gaffs and booms.
The gaff is a special yard, strengthened obliquely at the top of the mast (behind it) and raised up the mast. On sailing ships it was used to fasten the upper edge (luff) of the oblique sail - trysail and oblique mizzen (). The heel (inner end) of the gaff has a wooden or metal mustache covered with leather, holding the gaff near the mast and encircling it like a grab, both ends of which are connected to each other by a bayfoot. Bayfoot can be made of vegetable or steel cable, covered with leather or with balls placed on it, the so-called raks-klots.
To set and remove sails on ships with oblique rigs and mizzen oblique sails, the gaff is raised and lowered with the help of two running rigging gear - a gaff-gardel, which lifts the gaff by the heel, and a dirik-halyard, which lifts the gaff by the toe - the outer thin end ().
On ships with direct rigging, the oblique sails - trysails - are pulled (when they are retracted) to the gaff by gaffs, but the gaff is not lowered.
Booms are used to stretch the lower luff of oblique sails. The boom is movably fastened with a heel (the inner end to the mast using a swivel or mustache, like a gaff (). The outer end of the boom (knob) when the sail is set is supported by a pair of topenants, strengthened on one side and the other of the boom.
Gaffs and booms, armed with an oblique sail on the mizzen, began to be used in the Russian fleet approximately from the second half of the 18th century, and in the times of Peter the Great, a Latin yard (ryu) was hung obliquely on the mizzen to carry a Latin triangular sail. Such a yard was raised in an inclined position so that one leg (rear) was raised high, and the other was lowered almost to the deck ()
Having familiarized ourselves with each spar tree separately, we will now list all the spar trees according to their location on the sailing ship, with their full name ():
I - knyavdiged; II - latrine; III - crumble; IV - bulwark, on top of it - sailor's bunks; V - fore-beam and stay-stays; VI - mainsail channel and stay cables; VII - mizzen channel and shrouds; VIII - right sink: IX - balconies; X - main-wels-barhout; XI - chanel-wels-barhout: XII - shir-wels-barhout; XIII - shir-strek-barhout; XIV - rudder feather.
Rice. 9. Spar of a three-deck 126-gun battleship from the mid-19th century. |
1 - bowsprit; 2 - jig; 3 - bom-fitter; 4 - martin boom; 5 - gaff blind; 6 - bowsprit ezelgoft; 7 - rod guy; 8 - foremast; 9 - top of the foremast; 10 - fore-trisail mast; 11 - topmasts; 12 - mast ezelgoft; 13 - fore topmast; 14 - top fore topmast; 15 - for-saling; 16 - ezelgoft fore topmast; 17 - fore topmast, made into one tree with fore top topmast; 18-19 - top forebom topmast; 20 - klotik; 21 - fore-yard; 22 - for-marsa lisel-alcohols; 23 - fore-mars-ray; 24 - for-bram-lisel-alcohols; 25 - fore-frame; 26 - for-bom-bram-ray; 27 -for-trisel-gaff; 28 - mainmast; 29 - top of the mainmast; 30 - main-trisail-mast; 31 - mainsail; 32 - mast ezelgoft; 33 - main topmast; 34 - top of the main topmast; 35 - main saling; 36 - ezelgoft main topmast; 37 - main topmast, made into one tree with the main topmast; 38-39 - top main-bom-topmast; 40 - klotik; 41 - grottoes; 42 - grotto-marsa-lisel-spirits; 43 - main-marsa-ray; 44 - main-bram-foil-spirits; 45 - main beam; 46 - main-bom-bram-ray; 47 - mainsail-trisail-gaff; 48 - mizzen mast; 49 - top of the mizzen mast; 50 - mizzen-trysel-mast; 51 - cruise-mars; 52 - mast ezelgoft: 53 - topmast; 54 - top cruise topmast; 55 -kruys-saling; 56 - ezelgoft topmast; 57 - cruising topmast, made into one tree with cruising topmast; 58-59 - top cruise-bom-topmast; 60 - klotik; 61 - begin-ray; 62 - cruise-marsa-rey or cruisel-ray; 63 - cruise-bram-ray; 64 - cruise-bom-bram-ray; 65 - mizzen boom; 66 - mizzen-gaff: 67 - stern flagpole. |
§2. Basic proportions of spar trees for battleships.
The length of the mainmast is determined by the length of the ship along the gondeck, folded to its greatest width and divided in half. The length of the foremast is 8/9, and the mizzen mast is 6/7 the length of the mainmast. The length of the main and foremast tops is 1/6, and the mizzen mast top is 1/8-2/13 of their length. The largest diameter of the masts is located at the forward deck and is 1/36 for the foremast and main mast, and 1/41 of their length for the mizzen mast. The smallest diameter is under the top and is 3/5-3/4, and the spur has 6/7 of the largest diameter.
The length of the main topmast is equal to 3/4 of the length of the main mast. The length of the topmasts is 1/9 of the entire length of the topmast. The largest diameter of the topmasts is found in mast ezelgofts and is equal to 6/11 of the diameter of the mainmast for the main and fore topmasts, and 5/8 of the diameter of the mizzen mast for the cruising topmast. The smallest diameter under the top is 4/5 of the largest.
The length of the topmasts, made into one tree with the boom topmasts and their flagpoles (or tops), is made up of: the length of the topmast equal to 1/2 of its topmast, the boom topmast - 5/7 of its topmast topmast and flagstaff equal to 5/7 of its topmast. The largest diameter of the topmast at the ezelgoft wall is 1/36 of its length, the boom topmast is 5/8 of the topmast diameter, and the smallest diameter of the flagpole is 7/12 of the topmast diameter.
The length of the bowsprit is 3/5 of the length of the mainmast, the largest diameter (at the bulwark above the stem) is equal to the diameter of the mainmast or 1/15-1/18 less than it. The lengths of the jib and bom jib are 5/7 of the length of the bowsprit, the largest diameter of the jib is 8/19, and the bom jib is 5/7 of the diameter of the bowsprit is 1/3 from their lower ends, and the smallest is at the legs - 2/3 largest diameter.
The length of the main yard is equal to the width of the ship multiplied by 2 plus 1/10 of the width. The total length of both legs is 1/10, and the largest diameter is 1/54 of the length of the yard. The length of the main-tops-yard is 5/7 of the main-yard, the legs are 2/9, and the largest diameter is 1/57 of the length of the main-tops-yard. The length of the main top-yard is 9/14 of the main top-yard, the legs are 1/9 and the largest diameter is 1/60 of this yard. All sizes of the fore-yard and fore-tops-yard are 7/8 of the size of the mainsail and main-tops-yard. The Begin-ray is equal to the main-marsa-yard, but the length of both legs is 1/10 of the length of the yard, the cruisel-yard is equal to the main-bram-yard, but the length of both legs is 2/9 of the length of the yard, and the cruis-brow-yard equal to 2/3 of the main beam. All bom-bram-yards are equal to 2/3 of their bram-yards. Blinda-ray is equal to for-Mars-ray. The largest diameter of the yards is in their middle. The yards from the middle to each end are divided into four parts: on the first part from the middle - 30/31, on the second - 7/8, on the third - 7/10 and at the end - 3/7 of the largest diameter. The mizzen boom is equal to the length and thickness of the fore- or main-tops yard. Its largest diameter is above the tailrail. The mizzen gaff is 2/3 long and 6/7 boom thick, its largest diameter is at the heel. The length of the martin booms is 3/7, and the thickness is 2/3 of a jig (there were two of them until the second quarter of the 19th century).
The main topmast is 1/4 the length of the main topmast and 1/2 the width of the ship. The fore-topsight is 8/9, and the cruise-topsight is 3/4 of the main topsea. The main saling has long salings 1/9 the length of its topmast, and spreaders 9/16 the width of the topsail. For-saling is equal to 8/9, and kruys-saling is 3/4 of grot-saling.
§3. Standing spar rigging.
The bowsprit, masts and topmasts on a sailing ship are secured in a specific position using special rigging called standing rigging. Standing rigging includes: shrouds, forduns, stays, backstays, perths, as well as the jib and boom jib of the lifeline.
Once wound, the standing rigging always remains motionless. Previously it was made from thick plant cable, and on modern sailing ships it was made from steel cable and chains.
Shrouds are the name given to standing rigging gear that strengthens masts, topmasts and topmasts from the sides and somewhat from the rear. Depending on which spar tree the cable stays hold, they receive additional names: fore-stays, fore-wall-stays, fore-frame-wall-stays, etc. The shrouds also serve to lift personnel onto masts and topmasts when working with sails. For this purpose, hemp, wood or metal castings are strengthened across the cables at a certain distance from each other. Hemp bleachings were tied to the shrouds with a bleaching knot () at a distance of 0.4 m from one another.
The lower shrouds (hemp) were made the thickest on sailing ships, their diameter on battleships reached up to 90-100 mm, the wall-shrouds were made thinner, and the top-wall-shrouds were even thinner. The shrouds were thinner than their shrouds.
The topmasts and topmasts are additionally supported from the sides and somewhat from the rear by forduns. Forduns are also named after the masts and topmasts on which they stand. For example, for-sten-forduns, for-bram-sten-forduns, etc.
The upper ends of the shrouds and forduns are attached to the mast or topmast using ogons (loops) put on the tops of masts, topmasts and topmasts (). Guys, wall-guys and frame-wall-guys are made in pairs, i.e. from one piece of cable, which is then folded and cut according to the thickness of the top on which it is applied. If the number of shrouds on each side is odd, then the last shroud to the stern, including the forduns, are made split (). The number of shrouds and forearms depends on the height of the mast and the carrying capacity of the vessel.
The shrouds and forduns were stuffed (tightened) with cable hoists on deadeyes - special blocks without pulleys with three holes for a cable lanyard, with the help of which the shrouds and forduns are stuffed (tensioned). On modern sailing ships, the rigging is covered with metal screw shrouds.
In former times, on all military sailing ships and large merchant ships, in order to increase the angle at which the lower shrouds and forduns go to the masts, powerful wooden platforms - rusleni () - were strengthened on the outer side of the ship, at deck level.
Rice. 11. Tightening the shrouds with deadeyes. |
The shrouds were secured with shrouds forged from iron strips. The lower end of the shrouds was attached to the side, and the deadeyes were attached to their upper ends so that the latter almost touched their lower part with the channel.
The upper deadeyes are tied into the shrouds and forduns using lights and benzels (marks) (). The root end of the lanyard is attached to the hole in the shroud-jock using a turnbuckle button, and the running end of the lanyard, after tightening the shrouds, having made several slags around them, is attached to the shroud using two or three benzels. Having established turnbuckles between all the deadeyes of the lower shrouds, they tied an iron rod to them on top of the deadeyes - vorst (), which prevented the deadeyes from twisting, keeping them at the same level. The topmast shrouds were equipped in the same way as the lower shrouds, but their deadeyes were somewhat smaller.
The standing rigging gear that supports the spars (masts and topmasts) in the center plane in front is called forestays, which, like the lower shrouds, were made of thick cable. Depending on which spar tree the stays belong to, they also have their own names: fore-stay, fore-stay-stay, fore-stay, etc. The headlights of the stays are made the same as those of the shrouds, but their sizes are larger (). The forestays are stuffed with lanyards on forestay blocks ().
Standing rigging also includes perths - plant ropes on yards (see), on which sailors stand while working with sails on yards. Usually one end of the perts is attached to the end of the yardarm, and the other in the middle. The perths are supported by props - sections of cable attached to the yard.
Now let's see what the complete standing rigging will look like on a sailing 90-gun, two-deck battleship of the late 18th and early 19th centuries with its full name (): 1 - water stays; 2 - Martin stay; 3 - Martin stay from the boom stay (or lower backstay); 4 - forestay; 5 - for-elk-stay; 6 - fore-elk-stay-stay (serves as a rail for the fore-top-staysail); 7 - fore-stay-stay; 8 - jib-rail; 9 - fore-gateway-wall-stay; 10 - boom-jib-rail; 11 - fore-bom-gateway-wall-stay; 12 - mainstay; 13 - main-elk-stay; 14 - main-elk-wall-stay; 15-mainsail-stay; 18 - mizzen stay; 19 - cruise-stay-stay; 20 - cruise-brow-stay-stay; 21 - cruise-bom-bram-wall-stay; 22 water tank stays; 23 - jib-backstays; 24 - boom-jumper-backstays; 25 - fore shrouds; 26 - fore-wall-shrouds; 27-fore-frame-wall-shrouds; 28 - for-sten-fortuns; 29 - for-bram-wall-forduns; 30 - for-bom-bram-sten-forduns; 31 - main shrouds; 32 - main-wall-shrouds; 33 - main-frame-wall-shroud; 34 - main-sten-forduns; 35 - grotto-gateway-wall-forduny; 36 - grotto-bom-bram-wall-forduny; 37 - mizzen shrouds; 38 - cruise-wall-shroud; 39 - cruise-bram-wall-shroud; 40 - kruys-sten-forduny; 41 - kruys-bram-sten-forduny; 42 - kruys-bom-bram-sten-fortuny.
§4. The order of application, places of traction and thickness of hemp standing rigging.
Water stays, 1/2 thick of the bowsprit, are inserted into a hole in the leading edge of the bowsprit, attached there and raised to the bowsprit, where they are pulled by cable turnbuckles located between the deadeyes. The water backstays (one on each side) are hooked behind the butts, driven into the hull under the crimps, and are pulled from the bowsprit like water stays.
Then the shrouds are applied, which are made in pairs, with a thickness of 1/3 of their mast. Each end assigned to a pair of cables is folded in half and a bend is made at the bend using a benzel. First, the front right, then the front left pair of shrouds, etc. are put on the top of the mast. If the number of cables is odd, then the latter is made split, i.e. single. The shrouds are pulled by cable lanyards, based between the deadeyes tied into the lower ends of the shrouds, and the deadeyes fastened at the channel with the shrouds. Fore and main stays are made 1/2 thick, mizzen stays - 2/5 of their masts, and elk stays - 2/3 of their stays (hemp cables are measured along the circumference, and spars - according to the largest diameter).
They are put on the tops of the masts so that they cover the long-salings with the lights. The forestay and forestay are pulled by cable turnbuckles on the bowsprit, the mainstay and mainstay are on the deck on the sides and in front of the foremast, and the mizzen stay branches into legs and is attached to the deck on the sides of the mainstay. mast or passes through the thimble on the mainmast and stretches on the deck.
The main-shrouds, 1/4 thick of their topmasts, are pulled on the top platform by turnbuckles, mounted between the deadeyes tied into the main-shrouds and the deadeyes fastened to the eye-shrouds. The topmasts, 1/3 of the thickness of their topmasts, stretch on the channels like shrouds. The mainstays have a thickness of 1/3, and the elk-stays have a thickness of 1/4 of their topmasts, the fore-stay-stay is carried into a pulley on the right side of the bowsprit, and the fore-stay-stay - on the left. The main-stay-stay and the main-elk-stay-stay are carried through the pulleys of the blocks on the foremast and are pulled by the gypsum on the deck. The stay-stay cruise passes through the block pulley on the mainmast and extends on the topsail.
The standing rigging of the jib and boom jib is made 1/4 thick of its spar trees. Each marin stay is passed sequentially into the holes of its martin boom (there are two of them), where it is held with a button, then into the pulley of the block on the toe of the jig, into the pulley on the martin boom and on the bowsprit, and is pulled onto the forecastle. The jib backstays (two on each side) are tied with the middle end to the jib of the jib, their ends are inserted into thimbles near the legs of the blind yard and are pulled on the forecastle. The bom-jugger-backstay is also applied and pulled. The Martin stay from the boom jib is attached with the middle end to the end of the jib jib. and passing through the pulleys on the martin boom and bowsprit, it stretches to the forecastle.
The top stays and top stays are made 2/5 thick, and the top stays are made 1/2 of their top topmasts. The top shrouds are passed through holes in the saling spreaders, pulled up to the topmast and descended along the top shrouds to the top, where they are pulled by turnbuckles through thimbles at their ends. The fore-forestay passes into a pulley at the end of the jib and stretches on the forecastle, the main-forestay goes into a pulley on the fore-topmast, and the cruise-forestay goes into a pulley at the top of the mainmast and both are pulled on the deck.
Bom-bram-rigging is carried out and pulled like a bram-rigging.
§5. Running rigging spar.
Running rigging of a spar refers to all movable gear through which work is carried out related to lifting, selecting, pickling and turning spar trees - yards, gaffs, shots, etc.
The running rigging of the spar includes girdles and driers. halyards, braces, topenants, sheets, etc.
On ships with direct sails, the guards are used to raise and lower the lower yards with sails (see) or gaffs (its heels); dryropes for lifting the topsails, and halyards for lifting the top-yards and boom-yards, as well as oblique sails - jibs and staysails.
The tackle with which the toe of the gaff is raised and supported is called a dirik-halyard, and the tackle that lifts the gaff by the heel along the mast is called a gaff-gardel.
The gear that serves to support and level the ends of the yards is called topenants, and for turning the yards - brahms.
Now let's get acquainted with all the running rigging of the spar, with its full names, according to its location on the ship ():
Gear used for raising and lowering yards: 1 - fore-yard girdle; 2 - for-marsa-drayrep; 3 - fore-tops-halyard; 4 - fore-bram-halyard; 5 - fore-bom-bram-halyard; 6 - gardel of the mainsail; 7 - main-marsa-drayrep; 8 - mainsail-halyard; 9 main halyard; 10 - main-bom-brow-halyard; 11 - gardel-begin-rea; 12 - cruise-topsail-halyard; 13 - cruise-marsa-drairep; 14 - cruise halyard; 15 - cruise-bom-bram-halyard; 16 - gaff-gardel; 17 - dirk-halyard.
Gear used to support and level the ends of the yards: 18 - blind-toppenants; 19 - foka-topenants; 20 - fore-mars-topenants; 21 - for-bram-topenants; 22 - for-bom-bram-topenants; 23 - mainsail-topenants; 24 - mainsail-topenants; 25 - main-frame-topenants; 26 - main-bom-bram-topenants; 27 - beguin-topenants; 28 - cruise-marsa-topenants; 29 - cruis-bram-topenants; 30-kruys-bom-brahm-topenants; 31 - mizzen-geek-topenants; 31a - mizzen-boom-topenant pendant.
Gear used for turning the yards: 32 - blind-tris (bram-blinda-yard); 33 - fore-braces; 34 - fore-tops-braces; 35 - fore-braces; 36 - fore-bom-braces; 37 - main-contra-braces; 38 - mainsail braces; 39 - main-topsail-braces; 40 - main-frame-braces; 41 - main-bom-braces; 42 - beguin braces; 43 - cruise-tops-braces; 44 - cruise-braces; 45 - cruise-bom-braces; 46 - Erins backstays; 47 - blockage; 48 - mizzen-jig-sheet.
§6. Wiring of the running rigging shown in.
The foresail and mainsail are based between two or three pulley blocks, two are strengthened under the topsail and two near the middle of the yard. The begin-gardel is based between one three-pulley block under the topsail and two single-pulley blocks on the yard. The running ends of the guards are mounted on bollards.
The fore- and main-mars-drires are attached with the middle end to the topmast, their running ends are each carried into their own blocks on the yardarm and under the saling, and blocks are woven into their ends. Marsa halyards are based between these blocks and the blocks on the riverbeds. Their flaps are pulled through the side bollards. The cruisel-marsa-drayrep is taken with its root end in the middle of the yard, and the running gear is passed through a pulley in the topmast under the saling and a block of the top-sailing halyard is inserted into its end, which is based on a mantyl - the root end is attached to the left channel, and the hoist to the right.
The top and boom halyards are taken with the root end in the middle of their yard, and the running ends are guided into the pulley of their topmast and pulled by the hulls: the top halyards are on the deck, and the boom halyards are on the topside.
The gaff-gardel is based between the block on the heel of the gaff and the block under the cruise-top. The main end of the halyard is attached to the top of the topmast, and the running end is carried through the blocks on the gaff and the top of the mast. Their running ends are attached to bollards.
The blind-toppings are based between the blocks on both sides of the bowsprit eselgoft and on the ends of the blind-yard, and their flaps stretch on the forecastle. The foresail and main-topenants are based between three- or two-pulley blocks, and the beguin-topenants are based between two- or single-pulley blocks on both sides of the mast ezelgoft and on both ends of the yards. Their running ends, passed through the “dog holes”, are attached to bollards. The middle end of the top-stops is attached to the topmast, and the running ends, taken with a half-bayonet by the front shrouds, are inserted into blocks on the yard legs, into the lower pulleys of the butt blocks. through the “dog holes” and are attached next to the lower topenants. The bram- and bom-bram-topenants are put on with a point on the legs of the yard and, carried through the blocks on their topmasts, stretch: the bram-toppenant on the deck, and the bom-bram-topenants on the topsail. The boom topendants are taken with the middle end of the boom leg, carried out on both sides of it, as shown in the figure, and pulled with grips at the heel of the boom.
The fore-braces are attached with the middle end to the top of the mainmast, are carried, as can be seen in the figure, and are pulled on the bollards of the mainmast. The main-braces are based between the blocks at the side of the poop and on the legs of the main-yard and extend through the side bollards. The main-contra-braces are based on top of the fore-braces between the blocks on the foremast and the yard legs and extend at the foremast. The main ends of the begin braces are taken by the rear main shrouds, and the running gears are passed through blocks on the yard legs and on the rear main shrouds and are attached to the tile strip at the side. Mars braces are attached at the middle end to the topmast, are carried into the shrouds, as shown in the figure, and are pulled on the deck. The fore- and main-braces are attached with the middle end to the gate or boom-brow-topmast and are carried into blocks at the ends of the yards and into blocks near the main end and stretch along the deck. Cruys-brams and all bom-brass are put on the ends of their yards, held as shown in the figure, and pulled on the deck.
17th Century Navy The 17th century was a rich period in the history of shipbuilding. Ships have become faster, more maneuverable, and more stable. Engineers learned to design the best examples of sailing ships. The development of artillery made it possible to equip battleships with reliable, accurate guns. The need for military action determined progress in shipbuilding. The most powerful ship at the beginning of the century The beginning of the 17th century marks the dawn of the era of battleships. The first three-decker was the British HMS Prince Royal, which left the Woolwich shipyard in 1610. The British shipbuilders took the prototype from the Danish flagship, and subsequently rebuilt and improved it several times.
HMS “Prince Royal” 4 masts were erected on the ship, two each for straight and lateen sails. The three-deck, originally 55-gun, ship in its final version in 1641 became 70-gun, then changed its name to Resolution, returned the name, and in 1663 already had 93 guns in its equipment. Displacement about 1200 tons; Length (keel) 115 feet; Beam (midship) 43 feet; Interior depth 18 feet; 3 full artillery decks. As a result of battles with the Dutch, the ship was captured by the enemy in 1666, and when they tried to recapture it, it was burned and scuttled. The most powerful ship at the end of the century
Soleil Royal The French “Soleil Royal” was built by shipbuilders at the Brest shipyard 3 times. The first 1669 three-masted with 104 guns, created as an equal opponent to the British "Royal Sovereign", died in 1692. And in the same year, a new battleship was already built with an armament of 112 guns and had: 28 x 36-pound guns, 30 x 18-pound guns (on the middeck), 28 x 12-pound guns (on the front deck); Displacement 2200 tons; Length 55 meters (keel); Width 15 m (midship frame); Draft (interior) 7 m; A team of 830 people. The third was built after the death of the previous one, as a worthy heir to the glorious traditions associated with this name. New types of ships of the 17th century The evolution of past centuries shifted the emphasis of shipbuilding from the need to simply move safely across the seas, from the merchant ships of the Venetians, Hanseatics, Flemings and, traditionally, the Portuguese and Spaniards to overcome significant distances, to the affirmation of the importance of dominance at sea and, as a result, defending their interests through military action. Initially, merchant ships began to be militarized to counteract pirates, and by the 17th century, a class of only warships was finally formed, and a separation of the merchant and military fleets took place. The shipbuilders of England and, of course, the Dutch provinces of the Netherlands succeeded in building a navy. The galleon, the basis of the power of the squadrons of Spain and England, originates from the Portuguese shipbuilders.
17th century galleon Shipbuilders in Portugal and Spain, who played a significant role until recently, continued to improve traditional ship designs. In Portugal at the beginning of the century, 2 types of ships appeared with new hull proportions in the ratio of length to width - 4 to 1. These are a 3-masted pinnace (similar to a flute) and a military galleon. On galleons, guns began to be installed above and below the main deck, highlighting battery decks in the design of the ship, port-cells for guns were opened on board only for combat, and were battened down to avoid flooding with waves of water, which, given the solid mass of the ship, would inevitably flood it; warheads were hidden in holds below the waterline. The displacement of the largest Spanish galleons of the early 17th century was about 1000 tons. The Dutch galleon had three or four masts, up to 120 feet long, up to 30 feet wide, 12 feet low. draft and up to 30 guns. For ships with such a proportion of long hulls, speed was added by the number and area of sails, and additionally by foils and underlisels. This made it possible to cut the wave steeper towards the wind compared to rounded hulls. Linear multi-deck sailing ships formed the backbone of the squadrons of Holland, Britain, and Spain. Three- and four-deck ships were the flagships of squadrons and determined military superiority and advantage in battle. And if battleships constituted the main combat power, then frigates began to be built as the fastest ships, equipped with a small number of guns of one closed firing battery. To increase speed, the sail area was increased and the curb weight was reduced.
"Sovereign of the Seas" The English ship "Sovereign of the Seas" became the first classic example of a battleship. Built in 1637, armed with 100 guns. Another classic example was the British frigate - reconnaissance and escort of merchant ships. Actually, these 2 types of ships became an innovative line in shipbuilding and gradually replaced the European galleons, galliots, flutes, and pinnaces, which were obsolete by the middle of the century, from shipyards. New technologies of the navy The Dutch for a long time maintained the dual purpose of the ship during construction; shipbuilding for trade was their priority. Therefore, regarding warships, they were clearly inferior to England. In the middle of the century, the Netherlands built the 53-gun ship Brederode, similar to the Sovereign of the Seas, its flagship of the fleet. Design parameters: Displacement 1520 tons; Proportions (132 x 32) ft.; Draft - 13 ft.; Two artillery decks.
Flutes "Schwarzer Rabe" At the end of the 16th century, the Netherlands began to build flutes. Due to the new design, the Dutch flute had excellent seaworthiness and had: Shallow draft; Fast sailing rig that allowed steep sailing to the wind; High speed; Large capacity; A new design with a length-to-width ratio starting from four-to-one; Was cost effective; And the crew is about 60 people. That is, in fact, a military transport ship to transport cargo, and on the high seas to repel an enemy attack, and to quickly break away. Flutes at the beginning of the 17th century were built: About 40 meters long; About 6 or 7 m wide; Draft 3÷4 m; Load capacity 350÷400 tons; And a weaponry of 10÷20 guns. For a century, flutes dominated all seas and played a significant role in wars. They were the first to use a steering wheel. From the sailing running equipment, topmasts appeared on them, the yards were shortened, the length of the mast became longer than the ship, and the sails became narrower, more convenient to control, and small in size. Sails of the main, foresails, topsails, topsails on the main and foremasts. On the bowsprit there is a rectangular blind sail, a bomb blind. The mizzen mast has a slanting sail and a straight cruising sail. A smaller upper crew was required to operate the sailing rig. Designs of warships of the 17th century The gradual modernization of artillery pieces began to allow their successful use on board a ship. Important characteristics in the new battle tactics were: Convenient, fast reloading during the battle; Conducting continuous fire with intervals for reloading; Conducting targeted fire over long distances; An increase in the number of crew, which made it possible to fire during boarding conditions. Since the 16th century, the tactics of dividing combat missions within a squadron continued to develop: some of the ships retreated to the flanks to conduct long-range artillery fire on a concentration of large enemy ships, and the light vanguard rushed to board the damaged ships. British naval forces used such tactics during the Anglo-Spanish War.
The wake column during a review in 1849. Ships are classified according to the purpose of their use. Rowing galleys are being replaced by sailing cannon ships, and the main emphasis is transferred from boarding to destructive gunfire. The use of heavy large-caliber guns was difficult. Increased number of artillery crews, significant weight of the gun and charges, destructive recoil force for the ship, which is why it was impossible to fire salvos simultaneously. The emphasis was on 32...42-pound guns with a barrel diameter of no more than 17 cm. For this reason, several medium guns were preferable to a pair of large ones. The most difficult thing is the accuracy of the shot in conditions of pitching and recoil inertia from neighboring guns. Therefore, the artillery crew needed a clear sequence of salvos with minimal intervals, and the training of the entire crew of the team. Strength and maneuverability have become very important: it is necessary to keep the enemy strictly on board, not allow them to go to the rear, and be able to quickly turn the ship around on the other side in case of serious damage. The length of the ship's keel was no more than 80 meters, and in order to accommodate more guns, they began to build upper decks; a battery of guns was placed on each deck along the side.
Galley 17th century The coherence and skill of the ship's crew were determined by the speed of maneuvers. The highest manifestation of skill was considered to be the speed with which a ship, having fired a salvo from one side, managed to turn its narrow bow into the oncoming salvo of the enemy, and then, turning on the opposite side, fired a new salvo. Such maneuvers made it possible to receive less damage and inflict significant and rapid damage to the enemy. It is worth mentioning the galleys - numerous military rowing vessels used throughout the 17th century. The proportions were approximately 40 by 5 meters. Displacement is about 200 tons, draft is 1.5 meters. A mast and lateen sail were installed on the galleys. For a typical galley with a crew of 200 people, 140 oarsmen were placed in groups of three on 25 banks on each side, each with his own oar. The oar bulwarks were protected from bullets and crossbows. Guns were installed at the stern and bow. The purpose of the galley attack is boarding combat. Cannons and throwing weapons began the attack, and when they approached, boarding began. It is clear that such attacks were designed for heavily loaded merchant ships. The most powerful army at sea in the 17th century If at the beginning of the century the fleet of the winner of the Great Spanish Armada was considered the strongest, then later the combat effectiveness of the British fleet fell catastrophically. And failures in battles with the Spaniards and French, the shameful capture of 27 English ships by Moroccan pirates finally diminished the prestige of British power. At this time, the Dutch fleet takes a leading position. This is the only reason why its rapidly growing neighbor encouraged Britain to build up its fleet in a new way. By the middle of the century, the flotilla consisted of up to 40 warships, six of which were 100-gun. And after the Revolution, combat power at sea increased until the Restoration. After a period of calm, towards the end of the century Britain was again asserting its power at sea. From the beginning of the 17th century, the flotillas of European countries began to be equipped with battleships, the number of which determined their combat strength. The first 3-deck linear ship is considered to be the 55-gun ship HMS Prince Royal of 1610. The next 3-deck HMS “Sovereign of the Seas” acquired the parameters of the production prototype: Proportions 127x46 feet; Draft - 20 feet; Displacement 1520 tons; The total number of guns is 126 on 3 artillery decks. Placement of guns: 30 on the lower deck, 30 on the middle deck, 26 with a smaller caliber on the upper deck, 14 under the forecastle, 12 under the poop. In addition, the superstructures have many embrasures for the guns of the remaining crew on board. After three wars between England and Holland, they united in an alliance against France. By 1697, the Anglo-Dutch alliance was able to destroy 1,300 French naval units. And at the beginning of the next century, led by Britain, the alliance achieved an advantage. And the blackmail of the naval power of England, which became Great Britain, began to determine the outcome of the battles. Tactics of naval battles Previous naval wars were characterized by disorderly tactics, there were skirmishes between ship captains, and there were no schemes or unified command. Since 1618, the British Admiralty introduced the ranking of its warships Ships Royal, 40...55 guns. Great Royals, about 40 guns. Middle Ships. 30...40 guns. Small Ships, including frigates, less than 30 guns. Next, the ranks were numbered. And later the 1st rank consisted of up to 100 guns, a crew of up to 600 sailors; 6th rank - a dozen guns and less than 50 sailors.
The British developed linear combat tactics. According to its rules, peer-to-peer formation in wake columns was observed; Building an equal-strength and equal-speed column without breaks; Unified command. What should ensure success in battle. The tactics of equal-rank formation excluded the presence of weak links in the column; the flagships led the vanguard, the center, the command and brought up the rear. A unified command was subordinate to the admiral, and a clear system for transmitting commands and signals between ships appeared. Naval battles and wars Battle of Dover 1659 The first battle of the fleets a month before the start of the 1st Anglo-Dutch War, which formally gave it its beginning. Tromp with a squadron of 40 ships set off to escort and protect Dutch transport ships from English corsairs. Being in English waters close to a squadron of 12 ships under command. Admiral Burn, the Dutch flagships did not want to salute the English flag. When Blake approached with a squadron of 15 ships, the British attacked the Dutch. Tromp covered a caravan of merchant ships, did not dare to get involved in a long battle, and lost the battlefield. Battle of Plymouth 1652 Took place in the First Anglo-Dutch War. de Ruyter took command of the Zeeland squadron of 31 troops. ship and 6 fire ships in defense of the trade caravan convoy. He was opposed by 38 soldiers. ships and 5 fire ships of the British forces. When the Dutch met, they divided the squadron; some of the English ships began to pursue them, breaking the formation and losing the advantage in firepower. The Dutch, using their favorite tactic of shooting at masts and rigging, disabled some of the enemy ships. As a result, the British had to retreat and go to the ports for repairs, and the caravan safely left for Calais. Newport battles of 1652 and 1653 If in the battle of 1652, Ruyter and de Witt, having united 2 squadrons of 64 ships into a single squadron - the vanguard of Ruyter and the center of de Witt - a squadron, gave an equal battle to Black's 68 ships. Then in 1653, the squadron of Tromp, who had 98 ships and 6 fire ships against the 100 ships and 5 fire ships of the English admirals Monk and Dean, was significantly destroyed when trying to attack the main forces of the British. Ruyter, rushing into the wind as a vanguard, attacked the English. the vanguard of Admiral Lauzon, he was energetically supported by Tromp; but Admiral Dean managed to come to the rescue. And then the wind subsided, an artillery exchange began until darkness, when the Dutch, having discovered a lack of shells, were forced to quickly leave for their ports. The battle showed the superiority of the equipment and weapons of the English ships. Battle of Portland 1653 Battle of the First Anglo-Dutch War. Convoy under command. Admiral M. Tromp of 80 ships was accompanied in the English Channel by a returning caravan of 250 merchant ships loaded with colonial goods. Having met with a fleet of 70 British ships under command. Admiral R. Blake, Tromp was forced into battle. For two days of fighting, changing winds did not allow groups of ships to line up; The Dutch, pinned down by the defense of transport ships, suffered losses. And yet, at night, the Dutch were able to break through and leave, ultimately losing 9 military and 40 merchant ships, and the British 4 ships. Battle of Texel 1673 Victory of de Ruyter with Admirals Bankert and Tromp over the Anglo-French fleet at Texel in the third Anglo-Dutch War. This period was marked by the occupation of the Netherlands by French troops. The goal was to recapture the trade caravan. 92 ships and 30 fire ships of the Allies were opposed by a Dutch fleet of 75 ships and 30 fire ships. Ruyter's vanguard managed to separate the French vanguard from the British squadron. The maneuver was a success and, due to the disunity of the allies, the French chose to keep the flotilla, and the Dutch managed to crush the British center in a brutal battle that lasted many hours. And as a result, having ousted the French, Bankert came to reinforce the Dutch center. The British were never able to land troops and suffered heavy losses in manpower. These wars of advanced sea powers determined the importance of tactics, formations and firepower in the development of the navy and the art of warfare. Based on the experience of these wars, classes of division into ranks of ships were developed, the optimal configuration of a linear sailing ship and the number of weapons were tested. The tactics of combat between enemy ships was transformed into a combat formation of a wake column with coordinated artillery fire, quick formation and unified command. Boarding combat was becoming a thing of the past, and strength at sea influenced success on land. Spanish fleet of the 17th century Spain continued to form its armadas with large galleons, the unsinkability and strength of which were proven following the battles of the Invincible Armada with the British. The artillery the British had was unable to inflict damage on the Spaniards. Therefore, Spanish shipbuilders continued to build galleons with an average displacement of 500 ÷ 1000 tons and a draft of 9 feet, creating exactly an ocean ship - stable and reliable. Such ships were equipped with three or four masts and about 30 guns.
In the first third of the century, 18 galleons with up to 66 guns were launched. The number of large ships exceeded 60 against 20 large royal ships of England and 52 of France. The features of durable, heavy ships are their high resistance to staying in the ocean and combating water elements. Installing straight sails in two tiers did not provide maneuverability and ease of control. At the same time, the lack of maneuverability was compensated by excellent survivability during storms in terms of strength parameters, and the versatility of galleons. They were used simultaneously for trade and military operations, which were often combined during an unexpected meeting with the enemy in the vast waters of the ocean. The extraordinary capacity made it possible to equip ships with a decent number of weapons and take on board a large crew trained for combat. This made it possible to successfully carry out boarding - the main naval tactics of battles and capture of ships in the arsenal of the Spaniards. French fleet of the 17th century In France, the first battleship "Crown" was launched in 1636. Then rivalry with England and Holland at sea began. Ship characteristics of the three-masted, two-deck “La Couronne” of the 1st rank: Displacement of more than 2100 tons; Length on the upper deck is 54 meters, along the waterline 50 m, along the keel 39 m; Width 14 m; 3 masts; Mainmast 60 meters high; Sides up to 10 m high; The sail area is about 1000 m²; 600 sailors; 3 decks; 72 different-caliber guns (14x 36-pounders); Oak body.
The construction required about 2 thousand dried trunks. The shape of the barrel was matched to the shape of the ship part by matching the bends of the fibers and the part, which gave special strength. The ship is famous for eclipsing the Sovereign of the Seas, the British masterpiece Sovereign of the Seas (1634), and is now considered the most luxurious and beautiful ship of the sailing era. Fleet of the United Provinces of the Netherlands in the 17th century In the 17th century, the Netherlands fought endless wars with neighboring countries for independence. The maritime confrontation between the Netherlands and Britain had the character of internecine rivalry between neighbors. On the one hand, they were in a hurry to control the seas and oceans with the help of the fleet, on the other, to oust Spain and Portugal, while successfully carrying out robbery attacks on their ships, and on the third, they wanted to dominate as the two most militant rivals. At the same time, dependence on corporations - the owners of the ships, which financed shipbuilding, overshadowed the importance of victories in naval battles, which stopped the growth of the Dutch maritime industry. The development of the power of the Dutch fleet was facilitated by the liberation struggle with Spain, the weakening of its strength, and numerous victories of Dutch ships over the Spaniards during the Thirty Years' War by its end in 1648. The Dutch fleet was the largest, numbering 20 thousand merchant ships, and a huge number of shipyards were operating. Actually, this century was the Golden Age of the Netherlands. The Netherlands' struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire led to the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648). After the completion of the war of liberation of the Seventeen Provinces from the rule of the Spanish monarchy, there were three Anglo-Gol. wars, a successful invasion of England, and wars with France. 3 Anglo-Dutch wars at sea tried to determine a dominant position at sea. By the beginning of the first, the Dutch fleet had 75 warships along with frigates. The available warships of the United Provinces were scattered around the world. In case of war, warships could be chartered, or simply hired from other European states. The designs of the “pinnace” and “Flemish carrack” were easily upgraded from a merchant vessel to a military vessel in case of war. However, apart from Brederode and Grote Vergulde Fortuijn, the Dutch could not boast of their own warships. They won battles through courage and skill. By the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1665, van Wassenaar's squadron was able to assemble 107 ships, 9 frigates and 27 lower ships. Of these, 92 are armed with more than 30 guns. The number of crews is 21 thousand sailors, 4800 guns. England could oppose 88 ships, 12 frigates and 24 inferior ships. A total of 4,500 guns, 22 thousand sailors. In the most disastrous battle in the history of Holland, the Battle of Lowestoft, the Flemish flagship, the 76-gun Eendragt, was blown up along with van Wassenaar. British fleet of the 17th century In the middle of the century, there were no more than 5 thousand merchant ships in Britain. But the navy was significant. By 1651, the Royal Navy squadron already had 21 battleships and 29 frigates, with 2 battleships and 50 frigates being completed on the way. If we add the number of free-hire and chartered ships, the fleet could reach up to 200 ships. The total number of guns and caliber were unrivaled. Construction was carried out at the royal shipyards of Britain - Woolwich, Davenport, Chatham, Portsmouth, Deptford. A significant part of the ships came from private shipyards in Bristol, Liverpool, etc. Over the course of the century, growth gradually increased with the predominance of the regular fleet over the chartered one. In England, the most powerful battleships were called Manovar, as the largest, with the number of guns exceeding a hundred. To increase the multi-purpose composition of the British fleet in the middle of the century, more warships of smaller types were created: corvettes, sloops, bombards. During the construction of frigates, the number of guns on two decks increased to 60. In the first Battle of Dover with the Netherlands, the British fleet had: 60 guns. James, 56-push. Andrew, 62-push. Triumph, 56-push. Andrew, 62-push. Triumph, 52-push. Victory, 52-push. Speaker, five 36-guns, including President, three 44-guns, including Garland, 52-guns. Fairfax and others. What the Dutch fleet could counter: 54 push. Brederode, 35-push. Grote Vergulde Fortuijn, nine 34-guns, the rest of lower ranks. Therefore, the reluctance of the Netherlands to engage in open water combat according to the rules of linear tactics becomes obvious. Russian fleet of the 17th century As such, the Russian fleet did not exist before Peter I, due to the lack of access to the seas. The very first Russian warship was the two-deck, three-masted "Eagle" built in 1669 on the Oka River. But the first flotilla was built at the Voronezh shipyards in 1695 - 1696 from 23 rowing galleys, 2 sailing-rowing frigates and more than 1000 ships, barques, and plows.
Bomber ship
Sailing 2-, 3-masted ship of the late 17th - early 19th centuries. with increased hull strength, armed with smooth-bore guns. They first appeared in France in 1681, in Russia - during the construction of the Azov Fleet. Bombardier ships were armed with 2-18 large-caliber guns (mortars or unicorns) to fight against coastal fortifications and 8-12 small-caliber guns. They were part of the navies of all countries. They existed in the Russian fleet until 1828
Brig
A military 2-masted ship with a square rig, designed for cruising, reconnaissance and messenger services. Displacement 200-400 tons, armament 10-24 guns, crew up to 120 people. It had good seaworthiness and maneuverability. In the XVIII - XIX centuries. brigs were part of all the world's fleets
Brigantine
2-masted sailing ship of the 17th - 19th centuries. with a straight sail on the front mast (foresail) and an oblique sail on the rear mast (mainsail). Used in European navies for reconnaissance and messenger services. On the upper deck there were 6- 8 small caliber guns
Galion
Sailing ship of the 15th - 17th centuries, predecessor of the sailing ship of the line. It had fore and main masts with straight sails and a mizzen with oblique sails. Displacement is about 1550 tons. Military galleons had up to 100 guns and up to 500 soldiers on board
Caravel
A high-sided, single-deck, 3-, 4-mast vessel with high superstructures at the bow and stern, with a displacement of 200-400 tons. It had good seaworthiness and was widely used by Italian, Spanish and Portuguese sailors in the 13th - 17th centuries. Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama made their famous voyages on caravels
Karakka
Sailing 3-mast ship XIV - XVII centuries. with a displacement of up to 2 thousand tons. Armament: 30-40 guns. It could accommodate up to 1200 people. Cannon ports were used for the first time on the karakka and guns were placed in closed batteries
Clipper
A 3-masted sailing (or sail-steam with a propeller) ship of the 19th century, used for reconnaissance, patrol and messenger services. Displacement up to 1500 tons, speed up to 15 knots (28 km/h), armament up to 24 guns, crew up to 200 people
Corvette
A ship of the sailing fleet of the 18th - mid-19th centuries, intended for reconnaissance, messenger service, and sometimes for cruising operations. In the first half of the 18th century. 2-masted and then 3-masted vessel with square rig, displacement 400-600 tons, with open (20-32 guns) or closed (14-24 guns) batteries
Battleship
A large, usually 3-deck (3 gun decks), three-masted ship with square rigging, designed for artillery combat with the same ships in the wake formation (battle line). Displacement up to 5 thousand tons. Armament: 80-130 smoothbore guns along the sides. Battleships were widely used in wars of the second half of the 17th - first half of the 19th centuries. The introduction of steam engines and propellers, rifled artillery and armor led in the 60s. XIX century to the complete replacement of sailing battleships with battleships
Flutes
A 3-masted sailing ship from the Netherlands of the 16th - 18th centuries, used in the navy as a transport. Armed with 4-6 cannons. It had sides that were tucked inward above the waterline. A steering wheel was used for the first time on a flute. In Russia, flutes have been part of the Baltic Fleet since the 17th century.
Sailing frigate
A 3-masted ship, second in terms of armament power (up to 60 guns) and displacement after the battleship, but superior to it in speed. Intended mainly for operations on sea communications
Sloop
Three-masted ship of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. with straight sails on the forward masts and a slanting sail on the aft mast. Displacement 300-900 tons, artillery armament 16-32 guns. It was used for reconnaissance, patrol and messenger services, as well as a transport and expedition vessel. In Russia, the sloop was often used for circumnavigation of the world (O.E. Kotzebue, F.F. Bellingshausen, M.P. Lazarev, etc.)
Shnyava
A small sailing ship, common in the 17th - 18th centuries. in the Scandinavian countries and in Russia. Shnyavs had 2 masts with straight sails and a bowsprit. They were armed with 12-18 small-caliber cannons and were used for reconnaissance and messenger service as part of the skerry fleet of Peter I. Shnyava length 25-30 m, width 6-8 m, displacement about 150 tons, crew up to 80 people.
Schooner
A sea sailing vessel with a displacement of 100-800 tons, having 2 or more masts, is mainly armed with oblique sails. Schooners were used in sailing fleets as messenger ships. The schooners of the Russian fleet were armed with up to 16 guns.
For now, let’s quickly and briefly “run” to the 15th century, and then we’ll discuss the issue in more detail. So let's start:
The first sailing ships appeared in Egypt around 3000 BC. e. This is evidenced by the paintings decorating ancient Egyptian vases. However, the birthplace of the boats depicted on the vases is apparently not the Nile Valley, but the nearby Persian Gulf. This is confirmed by a model of a similar boat found in the Obeid tomb, in the city of Eridu, which stood on the shores of the Persian Gulf.
In 1969, the Norwegian scientist Thor Heyerdahl made an interesting attempt to test the assumption that a ship equipped with a sail, made from papyrus reeds, could sail not only along the Nile, but also on the open sea. This vessel, essentially a raft, 15 m long, 5 m wide and 1.5 m high, with a 10 m high mast and a single square sail, was steered by a steering oar.
Before the use of wind, floating craft either moved with oars or were pulled by people or animals walking along the banks of rivers and canals. The ships made it possible to transport heavy and bulky cargo, which was much more productive than transporting animals by teams on land. Bulk cargo was also transported primarily by water.
Papyrus vessel
The large naval expedition of the Egyptian ruler Hatshepsut, undertaken in the first half of the 15th century, is historically attested. BC e. This expedition, which historians also consider a trading expedition, traveled across the Red Sea to the ancient country of Punt on the east coast of Africa (roughly modern Somalia). The ships returned heavily laden with various goods and slaves.
When sailing short distances, the Phoenicians used mainly light merchant ships that had oars and a straight rack sail. Vessels designed for long-distance voyages and warships looked much more impressive. Phenicia, unlike Egypt, had very favorable natural conditions for the construction of a fleet: near the coast, on the slopes of the Lebanese mountains, forests grew, dominated by the famous Lebanese cedar and oak, as well as other valuable tree species.
In addition to improving sea vessels, the Phoenicians left another remarkable legacy - the word “galley”, which probably entered all European languages. Phoenician ships set sail from the large port cities of Sidon, Ugarit, Arvada, Gebala, etc., where there were also large shipyards.
Historical materials also speak of the Phoenicians sailing south through the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. The Phoenicians are credited with the honor of the first voyage around Africa at the end of the 7th century. BC e., i.e. almost 2000 years before Vasco da Gama.
The Greeks already in the 9th century. BC e. They learned from the Phoenicians to build ships that were remarkable for that time and began colonizing the surrounding territories early. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. the area of their penetration covered the western shores of the Mediterranean Sea, the entire Pont Euxine (Black Sea) and the Aegean coast of Asia Minor.
Not a single wooden antique ship or part of it has survived, and this does not allow us to clarify the idea of the main types of galleys, which has developed on the basis of written and other historical materials. Divers and scuba divers continue to survey the seabed at the sites of ancient naval battles in which hundreds of ships were lost. Their shape and internal structure can be judged by indirect evidence - for example, by accurate sketches of the location of clay vessels and metal objects preserved where the ship lay. And yet, in the absence of wooden parts of the hull, one cannot do without the help of painstaking analysis and imagination.
The ship was kept on course using a steering oar, which compared to the later rudder had at least two advantages: it made it possible to turn a stationary ship and to easily replace a damaged or broken steering oar. Merchant ships were wide and had ample hold space to accommodate cargo.
The ship is a Greek war galley, approximately 5th century. BC e., the so-called bireme. With rows of oars located on the sides in two tiers, she naturally had greater speed than a ship of the same size with half the number of oars. In the same century, triremes, warships with three “floors” of rowers, also became widespread. A similar arrangement of galleys is the contribution of ancient Greek craftsmen to the design of sea vessels. Military kinkerems were not “long ships”; they had a deck, internal quarters for soldiers and a particularly powerful ram, bound with copper sheets, located in front at water level, which was used to break through the sides of enemy ships during naval battles. The Greeks adopted a similar combat device from the Phoenicians, who used it in the 8th century. BC e.
Although the Greeks were capable, well-trained navigators, sea travel at that time was dangerous. Not every ship reached its destination as a result of either a shipwreck or a pirate attack.
The galleys of ancient Greece plied almost the entire Mediterranean and Black Seas; there is evidence of their penetration through Gibraltar to the north. Here they reached Britain, and possibly Scandinavia. Their voyage routes are shown on the map.
At their first big clash with Carthage (in the First Punic War), the Romans realized that they could not hope to win without a strong navy. With the help of Greek specialists, they quickly built 120 large galleys and transferred to the sea their method of combat, which they used on land - individual combat of warrior against warrior with personal weapons. The Romans used the so-called "crows" - boarding bridges. Along these bridges, which were pierced with a sharp hook into the deck of the enemy ship, depriving it of the ability to maneuver, the Roman legionnaires burst onto the enemy deck and started a battle in their characteristic manner.
The Roman fleet, like its contemporary Greek fleet, consisted of two main types of ships: “rounded” merchant ships and slender war galleys
Certain improvements can be noted in sailing equipment. On the main mast (mainmast) a large quadrangular straight sail is retained, which is sometimes supplemented by two small triangular upper sails. A smaller quadrangular sail appears on the forward inclined mast - the bowsprit. Increasing the total area of the sails increased the force used to propel the ship. However, the sails continue to be an additional propulsion device; the main one remains the oars, not shown in the figure.
The importance of the sail, however, undoubtedly increased, especially on long voyages, which took place as far as India. In this case, the discovery of the Greek navigator Hippalus helped: the August southwest and January northeast monsoons contributed to the maximum use of sails and at the same time reliably indicated the direction, much like a compass much later. The road from Italy to India and the return journey, with an intermediate crossing by caravans and ships along the Nile from Alexandria to the Red Sea, lasted about a year. Previously, the rowing journey along the shores of the Arabian Sea was much longer.
During their trading voyages, the Romans used numerous Mediterranean ports. Some of them have already been mentioned, but one of the first places should be Alexandria, located in the Nile Delta, whose importance as a transit point increased as Rome’s trade turnover with India and the Far East grew.
For more than half a millennium, the Viking knights of the high seas kept Europe in fear. They owe their mobility and omnipresence to drakars - true masterpieces of shipbuilding art
The Vikings made long sea voyages on these ships. They discovered Iceland, the southern coast of Greenland, and long before Columbus they visited North America. The inhabitants of the Baltic, Mediterranean and Byzantium saw the snake heads on the stems of their ships. Together with the squads of the Slavs, they settled on the great trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks.
The main propulsion device of the drakar was a rack sail with an area of 70 m2 or more, sewn from separate vertical panels, richly decorated with gold braid, drawings of the coats of arms of leaders or various signs and symbols. Ray rose with the sail. The high mast was supported by stays running from it to the sides and to the ends of the ship. The sides were protected by richly painted shields of warriors. The silhouette of the Scandinavian vessel is one of a kind. It has many aesthetic advantages. The basis for recreating this vessel was a drawing of the famous carpet from Baye, telling about the landing of William the Conqueror in England in 1066.
At the beginning of the 15th century, two-masted coggs began to be built. The further development of world shipbuilding was marked by the transition to three-masted ships in the mid-15th century. This type of vessel first appeared in northern Europe in 1475. Its foremast and mizzen masts were borrowed from Mediterranean Venetian ships.
The first three-masted ship to enter the Baltic Sea was the French ship La Rochelle. The plating of this ship, which had a length of 43 m and a width of 12 m, was not laid face to face, like tiles on the roof of a house, as was done before, but smoothly: one board close to the other. And although this method of plating was known before, nevertheless, the merit of its invention is attributed to a shipbuilder from Brittany named Julian, who called this method “carvel” or “craveel”. The name of the casing later became the name of the type of ship - “caravel”. Caravels were more elegant than coggs and had better sailing equipment, so it was no coincidence that medieval discoverers chose these durable, fast-moving and capacious ships for overseas campaigns. Characteristic features of caravels are high sides, deep sheer decks in the middle part of the ship and mixed sailing equipment. Only the foremast carried a quadrangular straight sail. The lateen sails on the slanting yards of the main and mizzen masts allowed the ships to sail steeply to the wind.
In the first half of the 15th century, the largest cargo ship (possibly up to 2000 tons) was a three-masted, double-decker carrack, probably of Portuguese origin. In the 15th-16th centuries, composite masts appeared on sailing ships, which carried several sails at once. The area of the topsails and cruises (upper sails) was increased, making it easier to control and maneuver the vessel. The ratio of body length to width ranged from 2:1 to 2.5:1. As a result, the seaworthiness of these so-called “round” ships improved, which made it possible to make safer long-distance voyages to America and India and even around the world. There was no clear distinction between sailing merchant ships and military ships at that time; For a number of centuries, the typical military vessel was only a rowing galley. The galleys were built with one or two masts and carried lateen sails.
"Vasa" Swedish warship
At the beginning of the 17th century. Sweden has significantly strengthened its position in Europe. The founder of the new royal dynasty, Gustav I Vasa, did a lot to bring the country out of medieval backwardness. He freed Sweden from Danish rule and carried out a reformation, subordinating the previously all-powerful church to the state.
There was a Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. Sweden, which claimed to be one of the leading countries in Europe, sought to finally consolidate its dominant position in the Baltic.
Sweden's main rival in the western part of the Baltic Sea was Denmark, which owned both banks of the Sound and the most important islands of the Baltic Sea. But it was a very strong opponent. Then the Swedes focused all their attention on the eastern shores of the sea and, after long wars, captured the cities of Yam, Koporye, Karela, Oreshek and Ivan-gorod, which had long belonged to Russia, thus depriving the Russian state of access to the Baltic Sea.
However, Gustav II Adolf, the new king of the Vasa dynasty (1611-1632), wanted to achieve complete Swedish domination in the eastern part of the Baltic Sea and began to create a strong navy.
In 1625, the Stockholm Royal Shipyard received a large order for the simultaneous construction of four large ships. The king showed the greatest interest in the construction of a new flagship. This ship was named "Vasa" - in honor of the Swedish royal Vasa dynasty, to which Gustav II Adolf belonged.
The best shipbuilders, artists, sculptors, and woodcarvers were involved in the construction of Vasa. The Dutch master Hendrik Hibertson, a well-known shipbuilder in Europe, was invited as the main builder. Two years later, the ship was safely launched and towed to the outfitting pier, located just under the windows of the royal palace.
Galion "Golden Hind" ("Golden Hind")
The ship was built in the 60s of the 16th century in England and was originally called "Pelican". On it, the English navigator Francis Drake, in 1577-1580, as part of a squadron of five ships, undertook a pirate expedition to the West Indies and made his second circumnavigation of the world after Magellan. In honor of the excellent seaworthiness of his ship, Drake renamed it the "Golden Hind" and installed a figurine of a doe made of pure gold in the bow of the ship. The length of the galleon is 18.3 m, width 5.8 m, draft 2.45 m. This is one of the smallest galleons.
Galleasses were much larger ships than galleys: they had three masts with lateen sails, two large steering oars in the stern, two decks (the lower one for oarsmen, the upper one for soldiers and cannons), and a surface ram in the bow. These warships turned out to be durable: even in the 18th century, almost all maritime powers continued to replenish their fleets with galleys and galleasses. During the 16th century, the appearance of the sailing ship as a whole was formed and preserved until the mid-19th century. Ships increased significantly in size; if in the 15th century ships over 200 tons were rare, then by the end of the 16th century single giants appeared reaching 2000 tons, and ships with a displacement of 700-800 tons ceased to be rare. From the beginning of the 16th century, oblique sails began to be used more and more often in European shipbuilding, at first in their pure form, as was done in Asia, but by the end of the century mixed sailing equipment had spread. Artillery was improved - the bombards of the 15th and the culverins of the early 16th centuries were still unsuitable for arming ships, but by the end of the 16th century the problems associated with casting were largely resolved and a naval cannon of the usual type appeared. Around 1500, cannon ports were invented; it became possible to place cannons in several tiers, and the upper deck was freed from them, which had a positive effect on the stability of the ship. The sides of the ship began to roll inward, so the guns on the upper tiers were closer to the axis of symmetry of the ship. Finally, in the 16th century, regular navies appeared in many European countries. All these innovations gravitate towards the beginning of the 16th century, but, given the time required for implementation, they spread only towards the end. Again, the shipbuilders also needed to gain experience, because at first ships of the new type had the annoying habit of capsizing immediately upon leaving the slipway.
During the 16th century, the appearance of the sailing ship as a whole was formed and preserved until the mid-19th century. Ships increased significantly in size; if in the 15th century ships over 200 tons were rare, then by the end of the 16th century single giants appeared reaching 2000 tons, and ships with a displacement of 700-800 tons ceased to be rare. From the beginning of the 16th century, oblique sails began to be used more and more often in European shipbuilding, at first in their pure form, as was done in Asia, but by the end of the century mixed sailing equipment had spread. Artillery was improved - the bombards of the 15th and the culverins of the early 16th centuries were still unsuitable for arming ships, but by the end of the 16th century the problems associated with casting were largely resolved and a naval cannon of the usual type appeared. Around 1500, cannon ports were invented; it became possible to place cannons in several tiers, and the upper deck was freed from them, which had a positive effect on the stability of the ship. The sides of the ship began to roll inward, so the guns on the upper tiers were closer to the axis of symmetry of the ship. Finally, in the 16th century, regular navies appeared in many European countries. All these innovations gravitate towards the beginning of the 16th century, but, given the time required for implementation, they spread only towards the end. Again, the shipbuilders also needed to gain experience, because at first ships of the new type had the annoying habit of capsizing immediately upon leaving the slipway.
In the first half of the 16th century, a ship appeared with fundamentally new properties and a completely different purpose than the ships that existed before. This ship was intended to fight for supremacy at sea by destroying enemy warships on the high seas with artillery fire and combined significant autonomy at that time with powerful weapons. The rowing ships that existed up to this point could only dominate over a narrow strait, and even then if they were based in a port on the shore of this strait, in addition, their power was determined by the number of troops on board, and artillery ships could act independently of infantry. The new type of ships began to be called linear - that is, main (like "linear infantry", "linear tanks", the name "battleship" has nothing to do with lining up in a line - if they were built, it was in a column).
The first battleships that appeared on the northern seas, and later on the Mediterranean Sea, were small - 500-800 tons, which approximately corresponded to the displacement of large transports of that period. Not even the biggest ones. But the largest transports were built for themselves by wealthy merchant companies, and battleships were ordered by states that were not rich at that time. These ships were armed with 50 - 90 guns, but these were not very strong guns - mostly 12-pounders, with a small admixture of 24-pounders and a very large admixture of small-caliber guns and culverins. Seaworthiness did not stand up to any criticism - even in the 18th century, ships were still built without drawings (they were replaced by a mock-up), and the number of guns was calculated based on the width of the ship measured in steps - that is, it varied depending on the length of the legs of the shipyard's chief engineer. But this was in the 18th, and in the 16th the correlation between the width of the ship and the weight of the guns was not known (especially since it does not exist). Simply put, ships were built without a theoretical basis, only on the basis of experience, which was almost non-existent in the 16th and early 17th centuries. But the main trend was clearly visible - guns in such numbers could no longer be considered as auxiliary weapons, and a purely sailing design indicated the desire to obtain an ocean-going ship. Even then, battleships were characterized by armament at the level of 1.5 pounds per ton of displacement.
The faster the ship was, the fewer guns it could have in relation to its displacement, since the more the engine and masts weighed. Not only did the masts themselves, with a mass of ropes and sails, weigh a fair amount, but they also shifted the center of gravity upward, therefore they had to be balanced by placing more cast-iron ballast in the hold.
Battleships of the 16th century still had insufficiently advanced sailing equipment for sailing in the Mediterranean Sea (especially in its eastern part) and the Baltic. The storm playfully blew the Spanish squadron out of the English Channel.
Already in the 16th century, Spain, England and France together had about 60 battleships, with Spain more than half of this number. In the 17th century, Sweden, Denmark, Türkiye and Portugal joined this trio.
Ships of the 17th and 18th centuries
In northern Europe, at the beginning of the 17th century, a new type of vessel appeared, similar to a flute - a three-masted pinnace (pinnace). The same type of ship includes the galion, which appeared in the mid-16th century - a warship of Portuguese origin, which later became the basis of the fleets of the Spaniards and the British. On a galleon, for the first time, guns were mounted both above and below the main deck, leading to the construction of battery decks; the guns stood on the sides and fired through the ports. The displacement of the largest Spanish galleons of 1580-1590 was 1000 tons, and the ratio of hull length to width was 4:1. The absence of high superstructures and a long hull allowed these ships to sail faster and steeper to the wind than “round” ships. To increase speed, the number and area of sails were increased, and additional sails appeared - foxes and underlisels. At that time, decorations were considered a symbol of wealth and power - all state and royal ships were luxuriously decorated. The distinction between warships and merchant ships became more distinct. In the middle of the 17th century, frigates with up to 60 guns on two decks, and smaller warships such as a corvette, sloop, bombard and others began to be built in England.
By the middle of the 17th century, battleships had grown significantly, some already up to 1500 tons. The number of guns remained the same - 50-80 pieces, but 12-pounder guns remained only on the bow, stern and upper deck; guns of 24 and 48 pounds were placed on the other decks. Accordingly, the hull became stronger - it could withstand 24-pound shells. In general, the 17th century is characterized by a low level of confrontation at sea. England throughout almost its entire period could not deal with internal troubles. Holland preferred small ships, relying more on their numbers and the experience of the crews. France, powerful at that time, tried to impose its hegemony on Europe through wars on land; the French were of little interest in the sea. Sweden reigned supreme in the Baltic Sea and did not lay claim to other bodies of water. Spain and Portugal were ruined and often found themselves dependent on France. Venice and Genoa quickly turned into third-rate states. The Mediterranean Sea was divided - the western part went to Europe, the eastern part to Turkey. Neither side sought to upset the balance. However, the Maghreb found itself within the European sphere of influence - English, French and Dutch squadrons put an end to piracy during the 17th century. The greatest naval powers of the 17th century had 20-30 battleships, the rest had only a few.
Türkiye also began building battleships from the end of the 16th century. But they were still significantly different from European models. Especially the shape of the hull and sailing equipment. Turkish battleships were significantly faster than European ones (this was especially true in Mediterranean conditions), carried 36 - 60 guns of 12-24 pound caliber and were weaker armored - only 12 pound cannonballs. Armament was pound per ton. The displacement was 750 -1100 tons. In the 18th century, Türkiye began to lag significantly behind in terms of technology. Turkish battleships of the 18th century resembled European ones of the 17th century.
During the 18th century, the growth in the size of battleships continued unabated. By the end of this century, battleships had reached a displacement of 5,000 tons (the limit for wooden ships), armor had been strengthened to an incredible degree - even 96-pound bombs did not harm them enough - and 12-pound half-guns were no longer used on them. Only 24 lbs for the upper deck, 48 lbs for the middle two and 96 lbs for the lower deck. The number of guns reached 130. There were, however, smaller battleships with 60-80 guns, with a displacement of about 2000 tons. They were often limited to the 48-pound caliber, and were protected from it.
The number of battleships has also increased incredibly. England, France, Russia, Turkey, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Spain and Portugal had linear fleets. By the middle of the 18th century, England seized almost undivided dominance at sea. By the end of the century, it had almost a hundred battleships (including those that were not in active use). France scored 60-70, but they were weaker than the English. Russia under Peter churned out 60 battleships, but they were made in a hurry, somehow, carelessly. In a rich way, only the preparation of wood - so that it would turn into armor - should have taken 30 years (in fact, Russian ships later were built not from bog oak, but from larch, it was heavy, relatively soft, but did not rot and lasted 10 times longer than oak). But their sheer number forced Sweden (and all of Europe) to recognize the Baltic Sea as Russian internal. By the end of the century, the size of the Russian battle fleet even decreased, but the ships were brought up to European standards. Holland, Sweden, Denmark and Portugal each had 10-20 ships, Spain - 30, Turkey - also about that, but these were not ships of the European level.
Even then, the property of battleships was evident that they were created most of all for numbers - to be there, and not for war. It was expensive to build and maintain them, and even more so to staff them with a crew, all kinds of supplies and send them on campaigns. This is where they saved money - they didn’t send it. So even England used only a small part of its battlefleet at a time. Equipping 20-30 battleships for a voyage was also a task on a national scale for England. Russia kept only a few battleships in combat readiness. Most battleships spent their entire lives in port with only a minimal crew on board (capable of moving the ship to another port if urgently needed) and unloaded guns.
The ship next in rank to the battleship was a frigate, designed to capture water space. With the accompanying destruction of everything (except for battleships) that existed in this space. Formally, the frigate was an auxiliary ship for the battle fleet, but given that the latter was used extremely sluggishly, frigates turned out to be the most popular of the ships of that period. Frigates, like cruisers later, could be divided into light and heavy, although such a gradation was not formally carried out. A heavy frigate appeared in the 17th century; it was a ship with 32-40 guns, including falconets, and displacing 600-900 tons of water. The guns were 12-24 pounds, with a predominance of the latter. The armor could withstand 12-pound cannonballs, the armament was 1.2-1.5 tons per pound, and the speed was greater than that of a battleship. The displacement of the latest modifications of the 18th century reached 1,500 tons, there were up to 60 guns, but usually there were no 48-pounders.
Light frigates were already common in the 16th century, and in the 17th they made up the vast majority of all warships. Their production required wood of significantly lower quality than for the construction of heavy frigates. Larch and oak were considered strategic resources, and pine trees suitable for making masts in Europe and the European part of Russia were counted and registered. Light frigates did not carry armor, in the sense that their hulls could withstand wave impacts and mechanical loads, but did not pretend to be more, the thickness of the plating was 5-7 centimeters. The number of guns did not exceed 30, and only on the largest frigates of this class there were 4 24-pounders on the lower deck - they did not even occupy the entire floor. The displacement was 350-500 tons.
In the 17th and early 18th centuries, light frigates were simply the cheapest warships, ships that could be made in a whole bunch and quickly. Including by re-equipping merchant ships. By the middle of the 18th century, similar ships began to be specially produced, but with an emphasis on maximum speed - corvettes. There were even fewer guns on the corvettes, from 10 to 20 (on 10-gun ships there were actually 12-14 guns, but those that looked at the bow and stern were classified as falconets). The displacement was 250-450 tons.
The number of frigates in the 18th century was significant. England had little more of them than ships of the line, but it still amounted to a lot. Countries with small battle fleets had several times more frigates than battleships. The exception was Russia; it had one frigate for every three battleships. The fact was that the frigate was intended to capture space, and with it (space) in the Black and Baltic Seas it was a little tight. At the very bottom of the hierarchy were sloops - ships intended for patrol service, reconnaissance, anti-piracy, and so on. That is, not for fighting other warships. The smallest of them were ordinary schooners weighing 50-100 tons with several guns less than 12 pounds in caliber. The largest had up to 20 12-pound guns and a displacement of up to 350-400 tons. There could be any number of sloops and other auxiliary ships. For example, Holland in the mid-16th century had 6,000 merchant ships, most of which were armed.
By installing additional guns, 300-400 of them could be converted into light frigates. The rest are in sloops. Another question is that the merchant ship brought profit to the Dutch treasury, and the frigate or sloop consumed this profit. England at that time had 600 merchant ships. How many people could there be on these ships? A - in different ways. In principle, a sailing ship could have one crew member for every ton of displacement. But this worsened living conditions and reduced autonomy. On the other hand, the larger the crew, the more combat-ready the ship was. In principle, 20 people could control the sails of a large frigate. But only in good weather. They could do the same thing in a storm, while simultaneously working on the pumps and battening down the port covers knocked out by the waves, for a short time. Most likely, their strength would have run out earlier than the wind. To conduct a battle on a 40-gun ship, a minimum of 80 people were required - 70 loaded the guns on one side, and another 10 ran around the deck and directed. But if the ship performs such a complex maneuver as a turn, all the gunners will have to rush from the lower decks to the masts - when turning, the ship will certainly have to tack against the wind for some time, but for this, all straight sails will need to be tightly reefed, and then, naturally, open them again. If the gunners have to either climb the masts or run into the hold for cannonballs, they won’t shoot much.
Typically, sailing ships intended for long passages or long cruising had one person on board for 4 tons. This was enough to control the ship and for combat. If the ship was used for landing operations or boarding, the crew size could reach one person per ton. How did they fight? If two approximately equal ships under the flags of warring powers met at sea, then both of them began to maneuver in order to take a more advantageous position from the wind. One tried to get behind the other - this way it was possible to take away the wind from the enemy at the most interesting moment. Considering that the guns were aimed by the hull, and the maneuverability of the ship was proportional to its speed, no one wanted to move against the wind at the time of the collision. On the other hand, if there was too much wind in the sails, it was possible to slip forward and let the enemy pass to the rear. All these dances were original in the sense that it was practically possible to maneuver only by direction.
Of course, the whole story did not fit into the framework of LiveJournal, so read the continuation on InfoGlaz -