China is one of the largest and most populous countries in the world, it also occupies a leading position in the export of products. In addition, the Celestial Empire can easily boast of a multi-thousand-year history of the state, which, according to various estimates, begins from 3,500 to 5,000 years ago.
History of existence
To a large extent, Ancient China was an imperial country, but some other eras can also be distinguished.
So, the largest periods of existence:
- pre-imperial time (from the beginning of the Paleolithic to the appearance of the first state);
- Ancient China (early forms of government and early empires);
- classical period (from the 3rd century to 1912);
- modern era.
Five emperors and three dynasties
Somewhat mythical is the early history of China during the reign of five emperors, who changed one after another:
- Yellow emperor;
- Zhuan-hsu;
- Gao Xin;
- Shun.
These emperors at various times fought a fierce struggle for power in order to be at the throne. This has been going on since the 27th century BC. e. and up to the 23rd century BC. e.
After that, a lull came in the form of the first Xia dynasty, which ruled from the beginning of the 23rd century BC. e. and until the middle of the 18th century BC.
The eastern country began its active development during the reign of the next dynasty - Shang-Yin, which ruled in the 17-11 centuries. BC e. and was divided into two eras - the early Shang-Yin and the late.
At this time, writing was born, so more is already known about this period. The first political foundations of the state were also formed, and agriculture acquired a new form of soil cultivation.
The struggle for power of the next dynasty - Zhou - led to the fact that Shang-Yin was overthrown.
The Zhou era in the early stages of the Western period (11th century BC - 771 BC) had exclusively central authority. But the decentralization of power gradually took place, especially in the Eastern period (771-475 BC).
The Zhou Dynasty in ancient China is replaced by a period of warring kingdoms, where several independent states begin to struggle for power and territory. The biggest ones were:
- Zhao;
- Qin;
- Han.
The development of the eastern country
Despite the constant struggle that was waged during the time of the warring kingdoms, Ancient China is changing in all areas of life. Bronze is replaced by iron, new crafts appear, cities grow.
Many works of art were created, which are still very popular.
There are two main philosophical and religious schools - Confucianism and Taoism - thanks to Confucius and Lao Tzu. Both schools have grown in popularity over time, and in today's China most of the population professes these teachings.
Unification under the rule of the Qin kingdom
In 221 BC. e. The Qin dynasty manages to unite all the lands in a single state, which was facilitated by a single language, culture, and religion.
The Kingdom of Qin has probably the shortest period of rule - only 11 years, but during this time incredible reforms were carried out that touched almost all spheres of life of ordinary people. 
Emperor Qin Shi Huang was able to do what no other early emperor could do. In addition, the construction of one of the wonders of the world, which has survived to this day - the Great Wall of China, began precisely under this emperor.
Han era in Chinese history
The Han Empire quickly replaced Qin, but during this period nothing was lost, but on the contrary, there was a significant expansion of the territory: from the Gobi Desert to the South China Sea, from the Pamir Mountains to the Liaodong Peninsula.
Ancient China was great and militant in the Han era, because it was possible to crush the strong Huns and establish the Great Silk Road, which began to bring great profits to the state.
It is in the Han Dynasty that the history of Ancient China ends and the classical era begins.
If you want to know more about the existence of Ancient China and its rule, we advise you to watch the following video:
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War elephants are an effective weapon of antiquity in capable hands. And even though now these animals are used only for peaceful purposes, they have already fulfilled their role in the history of battles and conquests. You can read about how war elephants were used in ancient wars in our article.
When exploring the political system of any state, one should pay attention to its origins, because in the course of the historical evolution of civilization, social ties between people became more and more complicated. New needs and interests were formed, the natural and social environment, internal and external conditions for the existence of politically organized peoples changed. And it was in the political system, first of all, that the mechanisms of adaptation of society to the environment appeared, which changed, that is, it acted as a guarantor of a stable society.Today, the features of the development of China's traditional political system are not clearly covered. It seems to us that the disclosure of the stages of the historical formation of the political system, in particular through the institutional and ideological components, will contribute to understanding the phenomenon of the PRC.
Depending on a certain historical period, people, type of its culture, ruling elite or dominant ideology, both the methods and the “slogans” of political modernization changed: the subjugation of the barbarians; civilizing mission; decolonization and development of a sovereign state; "Christianization of the Gentiles"; "Islamization of the infidels"; export of the "world revolution", democratization of politics and liberalization of the economy, remission of market relations and others
The history of public administration, especially in the era of the Ancient East, when this institution arose, and the foundation of public service in the modern sense of the word was laid, has not been sufficiently studied until that time. This also applies to Ancient China, where in the basin of the Yellow River, and later the Yangtze in the II-I millennium BC. e. an ancient Chinese civilization was formed with its religious and philosophical teachings (Confucianism, Legalism, Taoism).
The first sprouts of state administration and elements of public service arose in Ancient China as early as the period of the birth of the first state of Shang-Yin (XVIII-XII centuries BC). On the basis of tribal leadership, hereditary royal power (vans) was gradually formed, to which the rulers of the lands (kings of the lands) were subordinate. In the state of Shang-Yin, local rulers had unlimited rights in their domains. However, in the Shang-Yin era, there was virtually no centralized state apparatus, and the state was a union of Chinese tribes. The power of the van was limited to the council of the nobility and the popular assembly. In the XII century. BC e. The state of Shang-Yin was conquered by the Zhou tribes. During the XII-VIII centuries. BC e. on the territory of China there was a state of Western Zhou, and in the VIII-VII centuries. BC e. - East. At this time, 5 highest titles of the nobility were formed - gong, hou, bo, chi, nan, which had 5 levels of land holdings for service - 4 external and 1 internal. The outer domains were ruled by princes, the inner ones by dignitaries.
During the heyday of the Western Zhou (X-IX centuries BC), a hierarchical structure of power was gradually formed, when some officials were subordinate to others. Dignitaries (shanku), who were at the van, headed the administration, the army. On the lands of the van, the so-called “land watchers” operated, which had local departments and monitored the development of the ruler’s economy. During this period, an office headed by a chief was created at the court of the van. A separate department was engaged in the collection of taxes. The lowest level of the administrative-territorial division of China, uniting 5 and 10 villages each, was led by special officials appointed by the van.
In the IV century. BC e. in most of the kingdoms into which ancient China fell apart, reforms are being carried out, thanks to which the rich common people gained access to power. At the courts of the rulers, the leading role in the administration of the state belonged to professional administrators who received salaries for public service. In many kingdoms, administrative districts were formed, where trusted officials were appointed by the rulers. Gradually, a bureaucratic administrative apparatus is being formed in China.
During the V-IV centuries. BC e. in ancient China, the main religious and philosophical currents arose, a prominent place in the teachings of which was occupied by public administration and public service. An important place among them belonged to Confucianism and Legalism. So, in the 5th c. BC e. Confucius (Kung Fu Tzu, 551-479 BC) formulated the philosophical and ethical system of Confucianism, which over the next few millennia became the official imperial ideology and laid the foundations for building a system of public administration and public service in Ancient China. The political ideas of Confucius are aimed at achieving an internal connection between the top and bottom of society and the stabilization of governance. The regulation of political relations according to the norms of virtue in the teachings of Confucius is sharply opposed to management based on laws.
The disciple of Confucius Mencius (372-289 BC) formulated 12 principles of successful government: subjugation of people not by force, but by charity; prevention of debauchery; respect for the wise; reduction of customs duties, taxes and fees; non-distraction of the people from their deeds; winning the hearts of subjects; love for the people; respect for the respectful; preservation of the good nature of man; motivating people to do good; search for the lost consciousness; justice. In general, Confucians defended the doctrine of humane government and the right of hereditary aristocratic families to political domination.
Legalists (lawyers) criticized Confucianism. They developed their own doctrine of the technique of exercising power, based on a rigid system of administrative orders. Legist ideology, in addition to building a totalitarian state based on the blind implementation of laws, mutual responsibility, denunciations, total espionage of the population, defended the interests of civil servants in the conditions of the political omnipotence of the tribal aristocracy. Having proclaimed the primacy of law over moral and ethical norms, they entrusted the protection of legality to officials whom they recommended to recruit not necessarily from professionals, but so that civil servants were blindly devoted to the laws.
Emperor U-Di combined Confucianism with legalism when building a system of state administration, came up with an original system for recruiting personnel for the administrative apparatus, which consisted in the fact that an applicant for the position of a civil servant must enlist the recommendations of local authorities and pass a competitive exam. ; For Emperor Wu Di, the huge power was divided into 13 districts, which included regions. At the beginning of the 1st century BC e. the state consisted of 83 regions, which were led by a huge apparatus of civil servants, which was built on a complex hierarchical system.
In general, it can be seen that the state power of Ancient China was at the extreme positions from weak centralization, the presence of independent principalities to a pronounced form of totalitarianism with a high level of centralization of state power (the reign of Emperor Qin Shi Huang).
In ancient China, for the first time, religious and philosophical currents (Confucianism, Taoism, legalism) were formed, a prominent place in the teachings of which was occupied by public administration and public service. The most influential among them was Confucianism, which developed especially in the Middle Ages and paid little or no attention to the moral qualities of civil servants and the construction of an administrative hierarchy. Finally, in ancient China, state exams were introduced for the first time, passing which officials could advance in their careers. In addition, a system of training and retraining of civil servants was formed, for the purpose of which a special Academy was created, and the developed hieroglyphic writing created by the ancient Chinese only contributed to the further development of the system of public administration and public service.
A bright stage in the development of China's political system appears to be agrarian, bureaucratic-authoritarian. China, being a kind of center of the Asian world, was the focus of those values that determined the originality of the industrialization processes in such countries as Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong. The rulers of the Chinese Qing Dynasty failed to achieve in the XIX century. rapid economic growth of the country, but China's fundamental Confucian values of group duties, purposefulness, self-denial, knowledge, long-term planning have undoubtedly had a decisive influence on its economic and political development in our era of global political transformation. The agrarian, bureaucratic-authoritarian regime of China collapsed only at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, when China survived foreign invasions and was defeated in the world war. The nationalist military regime of Chiang Kai-shek appealed mainly to the conservative landed aristocracy, military leaders, stock speculators, bankers and local elites. However, its fall is not due to the huge amount of resources, but to how they were used. The power was overthrown based on personal rule, and not on well-organized and functioning institutions of the political system, the population was alienated from making political decisions, therefore, finally, the deinstitutionalization of government institutions took place. "Political paralysis" led to a weakening of the legitimacy of the Chiang Kai-shek government in China and contributed to the overthrow of the bureaucratic-authoritarian regime, where the state exercised strict control over social groups; material interests and moral (including political) values were sharply separated from one another. It is worth noting that the state policy of China was based on a family that brought up a loyal attitude towards the state, the political elite was characterized by isolation and hierarchy, dynasties, feudal lords, Confucian scholars had a great influence [8, p.105-106].
It is appropriate to note that the ideological direction of Confucianism is promising at the present time. Thus, according to A. Toynbee, traces of the Confucian system, dating back more than two thousand years, are also found in the life of post-revolutionary China.
Consequently, religious and philosophical teachings that were involved in public administration, the cult of a charismatic ruler, and deep reverence for the traditions and customs of ancestors played a significant role in the formation of the political system of China.
The political thought of China is a set of early political ideas, views and teachings of the ancient Chinese. A characteristic feature of ancient Chinese political thought is that it stood out early from religious and mythological literature and placed the organization of the state and the problems of the relationship of man with society at the center of study. Already in the early political teachings reflected in the book "Shujing", the oldest parts of which originate in the XIV-XI centuries. BC, the core idea of "tan-ming" is being carried out - the right of Heaven, which controls the entire Celestial Empire, to revoke the ruler's mandate and transfer it to a more worthy one.
The father of ancient Chinese political thought is considered to be Zhou Gong (XI-X centuries BC), who developed the formula for the succession of dynasties. In accordance with his teachings, Heaven gives the mandate of the lord to the one who embodies the greatest number of “de” (honesty, grace, justice) in his person. The ruler himself transfers power to successors, and not necessarily to heirs, until the "de" in them is exhausted. Signs of the loss of "de" are the immorality of the ruler, neglect of subjects, violation of the norms of justice. Then Heaven again begins to influence the Celestial Empire, chooses the ruler-sage, filled with de, and a new power cycle is established.
At the turn of the VIII-VII centuries. BC. Guan Zhong developed a theory about two possible ways of government: "ba-dao" - rule based on force, and "wang-dao" - rule based on honesty. Moreover, the state was considered by analogy with a huge family in which people should build relationships on the principle of "senior-junior".
Political thought reached its heyday in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. At this time, the main political teachings of Ancient China were formed, which have not lost their significance to this day. Among them: Confucianism, Moism, Legalism, Taoism. The significance of the political heritage of Confucius (551-479 BC) is especially great.
The views of Confucius (Kun-qiu, or Kung fu-tzu, means sage, teacher) were not only elevated to the rank of official ideology several centuries later, but to this day are a characteristic feature of the general and political culture of China (until 1949 - official ideology), an integral part of the cultural matrix of the Far Eastern, Confucian civilization. This is the only civilization on Earth named after a specific person.
The basis of the socio-political and ethical teachings of Confucius, set forth in the collection "Lun Yu" ("Conversations and Sayings", compiled by students after the death of Confucius), is the principle of virtue - "de". This principle applies to all people involved in management. According to Confucius, the ruling elites must be perfect (“jun-tzu” - noble) and subject to the strict norms of the “li” ritual: a sense of duty and justice, the desire for knowledge, fidelity, respect for elders, humane treatment of subordinates. A noble official always follows justice ("dao" - the path, service) and is ready for resignation. “The one who rules with virtue is like the pole star, which takes its place in the constellation.”
The teachings of Confucius are permeated with nostalgia for the golden ancient times, when the sovereign - the ruler, revered by the people as the most virtuous and wisest person, used to choose the most virtuous and wise of his subordinates as his successors. Everything that Confucius wrote about and taught was based on the wisdom of ancient Chinese customs. “I transmit, I don’t create,” he said. “I believe in antiquity and love it.” Confucius interpreted the norms of antiquity creatively, very thoughtfully, taking into account the reality in which he lived. Approximately in the same way as modern Chinese follow the teachings of Confucius, for whom he is an antiquity and tradition.
Recognizing the divine and natural side of the origin of power, teacher Kun saw his main interest in how to arrange people's lives, to ensure a wise and fair order in the state.
This order involves five heterogeneous relationships: ruler and subordinates, husband and wife, father and son, elder brother and younger, friends. In the first four there must be command on the one hand, and complete submission on the other. Rule should be just and with good will, but obey the same truthfully and sincerely. In friendship, mutual virtue should be the guiding principle.
Based on traditional views, Confucius developed the patriarchal-paternalistic concept of the state. He likened the state to a giant family: the king (“son of heaven”) is the father, the older brothers are officials, the younger ones are workers. The goal of the state and royal power is the common good of the family.
The socio-political structure depicted by Confucius is based on the principle of inequality of people: “common people”, “low”, “junior” must obey the “best”, “senior”. Thus, the aristocratic concept of oriental rule was substantiated. Along with morality, Confucius notes the great importance of a clear organization and formalization of natural activities so that everyone observes his duties and is in his assigned place, position, post.
Confucius tried to restore the whole complex of customs that had developed over the centuries, which determined every step of the Chinese “li”, but the highest and middle officials should have shown an example in their performance. It is characteristic that he was rather skeptical about attempts to control by creating new cruel laws. In this way, fear can be aroused, but moral renewal cannot be achieved.
Following the ritual, the custom made it possible, in his opinion, to avoid violence and acute social conflicts. Confucius also drew attention to the importance of using the principle of "correcting names": bringing the designation of various status groups of society in accordance with their reality. Many of the aphorisms of Confucius are widely circulated:
“Don't worry about not being in a high position. Worry about whether you serve well in the place where you are. Don't worry about not being known. Worry about whether you are worthy of being known. “The secret of good government: let the ruler be the ruler, the subject be the subject, the father be the father, and the son be the son.” “A noble man takes duty as his basis, puts it into practice through ritual, reveals it to the world in his modesty, and brings it to completion with the truthfulness of his words.” “When the authorities honor the ritual, none of the commoners will dare to be disrespectful; when the leaders honor their duty, none of the common people will dare to be rebellious; when the top loves trust, none of the commoners will dare to be dishonest.” “When wealth is evenly distributed, there will be no poverty; when harmony reigns in the country, the people will not be small; when peace reigns in relations between the top and the bottom, there will be no danger of overthrowing the ruler.” “In the family circle, honor your parents. Outside the family, honor the elders. Be honest and merciful with people, love the good. If, observing these rules, you still have leisure, use it for teaching.
The political ideas of Mo Tzu (479-400 BC) are also widespread. A collection of his sayings, named after the enlightener himself - "Mo-tzu", was compiled in the VI century. BC.
This collection notes the importance of the contractual theory of the creation of the state (voluntary choice of the first ruler), strict discipline and centralization of state power, and ideas of social equality. Mo Tzu condemned aristocracy and advocated reforms in the interests of the people. He introduced into Chinese political thought the idea of egalitarianism, associated with the rejection of luxury. Mo-tzu believed that the implementation of transformations involves not only the use of customs, but also the establishment of new rules in the form of laws, which Confucius did not always approve of. It was from the time of Mo Tzu that the right began to be associated in China not only with the Li ritual, but also with the Xing punishment and the Fa law. He was the forerunner of Legalism, an important current of Chinese political thought that rivaled Confucianism.
Shang Yang (390-338 BC, the ruler of the Shang region, the work - “The Book of the Ruler of the Shang Region”) is considered the founder of Legalism. Shang Yang states that the people have dissolved, strive for pleasures, forget their main occupation - agriculture, the treasury revenues are falling. General appeals no longer help, speeches in the style of Confucius - too. That is why it is necessary to establish uniformity in thoughts and actions: to strengthen the bureaucratic and punitive apparatus, to introduce strict norms that define all spheres of life, mandatory for everyone and provided with the “fa” punishment, and not the “li” ritual, and put things in order. The Latinized name of the school (“fa” - order) is “Legalism”. In the writings of the "legists", the state was considered as a self-sufficient institution, the meaning and purpose of the existence of society, oriental despotism.
Han Fei-tzu (280-233 BC) is considered one of the prominent representatives of the legalist school. The collection "Han Fei-tzu" consists of 55 chapters (sections) on the art of government. Key Ideas: “People are naturally selfish and only respond to punishment or rewards.” "Effective government requires the presence of laws, the authority of government and the art of management." "Clear and well-articulated laws of the ruler should replace vague moral norms as the standard of conduct." "Political power should belong only to the ruler and cannot be shared with the aristocracy and ministers." "The ruler governs with the help of a complex but well-designed bureaucratic system, which is under his complete control." "Just as nature without visible effort gives rise to the darkness of things, the ruler must manage everything without taking a visible active part in management."
If we try to succinctly formulate the ideas of Han Fei-tzu, we can say that he proposed to govern with the help of laws that affirm the absolute power of the ruler. He singled out the main factors influencing the effectiveness of management: the law "fa", power, or strength "shi", and the political art "shu". Thanks to him, the rule (thesis) that “Law, power and political art are the three main components of effective government” entered into political thought and science.
Since the days of legalism, knowledge of the laws and rules of political management has been considered mandatory for a political scientist and politician.
An important trend in early Chinese political thought is also Taoism (the founder of Lao Tzu, the book "Tao-te Ching" of the 6th-2nd centuries BC). In contrast to the traditional theological interpretations of "dao" as a manifestation of "heavenly will", Lao Tzu characterizes "dao" as a natural course of things independent of the heavenly ruler, a natural pattern. "Tao" defines the laws of heaven, nature and society. It represents the highest virtue and natural justice. In relation to "dao" all are equal. All the shortcomings of contemporary culture, the socio-political inequality of people, the plight of the people, etc., Lao Tzu attributes to a deviation from the true Tao. protesting against the existing state of affairs, at the same time, he pins all his hopes on the spontaneous action of the "tao", which is attributed to the ability to restore justice.
A significant role in Taoism is assigned to the principle of non-action, refraining from active actions. Inaction appears in this doctrine, first of all, as a condemnation of the anti-people activity of the rulers and the rich, as a call to refrain from oppressing the people and leave them alone. “If the palace is luxurious, then the fields are covered with weeds and the granaries are completely empty. All this is called robbery and bragging. It is a violation of the Tao. The people are starving because the authorities take too much taxes.” Everything unnatural (artificial-human establishments in the field of government, legislation, etc.), according to Taoism, is a deviation from the "tao" and a false path. In a certain sense, "dao" meant rather the rejection of culture and a simple return to naturalness, rather than the further improvement of society, the state and laws.
Lao Tzu sharply criticizes all kinds of violence, wars, and the army. “Where the troops have been,” he remarks, “thorns and thorns grow there. After the great wars come the hungry years. Victory should be celebrated with a funeral procession." However, non-action, praised by Taoism, at the same time meant also the preaching of passivity, the rejection of the active struggle of the masses of the people against their oppressors and oppressors. Taoist criticism of culture and the achievements of civilization has conservative utopian features. Lao Tzu calls for the patriarchal simplicity of past times, for life in small, scattered settlements with a small population, for the rejection of writing, tools and everything new. These aspects of Taoism significantly blunted his criticism of real socio-political orders.
A prominent representative of the political thought of Ancient China is Xun-tzu (313-238 BC, author of the books "Xun Tzu", "Treatise on the Art of War"), who believed that between the views of the "legists" and "Confucians" special there are no contradictions and that they can be combined. He also paid considerable attention to the analysis of the problems of political organization and management.
Of particular interest are Sun Tzu's arguments about the political art of stratagems - the ability to clothe preliminary strategic calculations and plans in the form of traps, in clever political traps hidden from the enemy.
Stratagemism to some extent is a feature of the national character, Chinese psychology. The Chinese like to think “stratagemically” and widely use stratagem traps to achieve success. Stratagemism is a school of psychological and political confrontation, which has its own laws and requirements.
Examples of Chinese stratagems: “Unite with a distant enemy to beat a neighbor”, “Make noise in the East, attack in the West”, “Wait at ease for a weary enemy”, “To neutralize a band of robbers, you must first catch the leader”, “Secretly put brushwood into another's cauldron", "Lure to the roof and remove the ladder", "Steal the beams and replace them with rotten props".
After the 2nd century BC. The official ideology of China began to combine both the principles of Legalism and Confucianism. The peculiarity of the ancient Chinese political science texts is that in these sources the actual political, state-legal elements of knowledge are not always clearly identified.
Ancient China - the largest center of civilization and culture of world significance - for centuries retained the relative isolation, indivisibility of its socio-economic structures, political institutions, as well as the patriarchal nature of social relations, family and life, a special mentality.
All this is reflected in the texts that amaze us with their originality, depth of content, imagery, metaphor. Ancient Chinese documents have systemic, ideological significance.
So, the formation of political ideas and doctrines in the East - the cradle of ancient civilizations, religions, states, political and legal documents, could not but have an impact on the surrounding regions. Followed already from the VI century. BC. The rise of ancient Greek political thought was also associated with the possibility of creative use by ancient Greek thinkers of the potential of Eastern political experience and ideas, since in these times the cultures and peoples of antiquity had the opportunity to come into contact and enrich each other.
The outstanding thinker K. Jaspers noted that from the VIII centuries. BC. according to the II century. BC. “A person of the type that has survived to this day was formed, when great cultures arose and interacted: Indian - the Vedas, Buddhism; Chinese - Confucianism, Taoism, Iranian - Zoroastrianism; Palestinian - the time of the prophets Elijah, Isaiah; Greek - the time of Homer, Heraclitus, Plato. It was in this era, in the axial time, that the main categories were developed, in which we think to this day, the foundations of world religions were laid.
LITERATURE
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Reader on the general history of state and law. - M.: Legal literature, 1996. - P.10.
Rigveda. - M.: Nauka, 1989. - S.14-17.
Vivekananda Swami. Practical Vedanta. Selected works. - M.: Thought, 1993. - S.348-356.
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ancient Chinese philosophy. - M., 1962. - T.1. - P.231-239.
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Monuments of the written language of the East. - M., 1968. - S.141-173.
Anthology of world legal thought / In 5 volumes - M.: Legal Literature, 1999. - V.1. - P.494-496.
Anthology of world political thought / in 5 volumes - M .: Legal Literature, 1997. - V.1. - 140 s.
Zenger H. Stratagems. About the Chinese art of living and surviving. The famous 36 stratagems for three millennia. - M.: Nauka, 1995. - S.348.
Jaspers K. The meaning and purpose of history. - M., 1994. - S. 32-33.
Ancient China- the legendary ancient empire on the territory of modern China, as if formed around 3000 BC. According to ON THE. Morozov, the history of this empire is borrowed from the Byzantine; according to the new chronological reconstruction, the Chinese empire was a fragment of the Russian-Horde state, namely, its Amur part, the Piebald Horde. The mythological ancient history of China is partially taken from the history of Rus'-Scythia-China, and contains many duplicated fragments of the Manchurian period of the Chinese empire (from the 17th to the 19th centuries)
“Behold the Grand Duke of China, named in holy baptism Andrei Yuryevich ...” from the charter of the book. Bogolyubsky Kiev Caves Monastery
origin of name
Word "China", for the name of the Asian state is used only among the Slavs and Turks, and comes, as if from the Tungus people of the Kitans (Khitans), who conquered this country in the 10th century AD, but this use arose no earlier than the 17th century. Prior to this, modern China in Rus' was called the "Bogdo Khanate."
In Latin, the country is called China or Sinai, and the peoples inhabiting it - Seri or Sini. There is a hypothesis that the name China arose in honor of an ancient dynasty Qin(supposedly III century BC). The New Chronology assumes that this word is a distorted name of the "Blue Horde", the Far Eastern part of the Russian-Horde state, with its capital in Beijing (named after the Pegoy Horde).
The Chinese themselves never called their country either China or China, but built the name according to a template "The Great-Such-Dynasty-State": dai ching guo, Dai-ming-go, dai yuan guo. Or they used a geographic description of their country:
- tian-xia(Celestial Empire)
- Si-hai(Four seas)
- Zhong-hua-guo(Middle flourishing state)
- Zhong Yuan(Middle Plain)
- zhong-guo(Middle state)
Nickname "China" was widespread in Rus' in the pre-Roman era. According to the Kyiv Synopsis of the year, China the name of the holy prince of Vladimir Andrey Bogolyubsky, son of the Grand Duke Yuri Dolgoruky. The same nickname was worn by the boyar Ivan III Vasily Ivanovich (Feodorovich) Shuisky. China-city also called the middle part of Russian cities, adjacent to the citadel, the citadel, the Kremlin, which served as a second defensive fence. One of the meanings of the Russian word "china" is "fortress".
mythic story
«... Fuxi ... with good reason, in my opinion, deserves to be considered the king of all philosophers - both because he lived in such a deep antiquity, and for the clarity, simplicity, strength and universality of his system, and I can say this without putting the Chinese are higher, in the field of science, than all other peoples of the world. God forbid that I allow such a terrible injustice in relation to Europe, my dear homeland, which, in terms of high sciences, is as superior to China as China is geographically removed from Europe! For although this people revere this great man as their first ruler and founder of the state, there are serious reasons recognized by very capable scientists (I speak of the prevailing number of them) proving that Fuxi never set foot on Chinese soil. But on the contrary, most of what is reported about such a distant time when he lived, and about what he did, is such that it is not difficult to judge by the coincidence, almost complete, of all this with what our ancient writers tell us, and also Middle Eastern Zoroaster , Mercury Trismegistus and even Enoch , what Fuxi was none other than one of these great characters; ..."(Letter from a Jesuit missionary Joachim Bouvet Leibniz from Beijing, November 4)The historical dynasties on which Chinese historians rely, and which are most likely the product of the literary imagination of the writers of the 17th century AD, are as follows:
- Fairy Xia Dynasty, 2953–1523 BC: Fu Xi- creator of trigrams, Shen-Nong- creator of agriculture and tea drinking, Huang Di- Creator of writing Great Yu- flood tamer
- shang, 1523–1028 BC: The Book of Changes was written ( I Ching)
- Zhou, 1027–256 BC: Laoji and Confucius, invention of crossbows and chopsticks, beginning of serfdom
- Qin, 221–207 BC: Shi Huang Di, the burning of all books, the murder of philosophers, the beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China, the unification of China, the unification of writing
- Early Han, 202 BC - 25 AD: end of serfdom, canonization of Confucianism, conquest of Central Asia, eunuch historian Sima Qian writes "Historical Chronicles", the introduction of metallic money, in 122 BC. philosopher Huainanzi invented equal-tempered musical scale
- Syn, 9–23 years AD: usurper Wang Ming
- Later Han, 25–220 AD AD: the conquest of Mongolia, the opening of the Great Silk Road, the emergence of Buddhism, the invention of paper and the compass
- Three Kingdoms, 220–265 AD: Troubles
- Northern and Southern Empires, 265–589 AD: Invasion of the barbarians, the birth of Chan Buddhism
- Sui, 590–618 AD: Chinese unification, construction of the Grand Canal
- Tan, 618–906 AD: Conquest of Manchuria and Central Asia, creation of a professional army, great era of poetry and science, invention of porcelain, printing and the tea ceremony
- Five Dynasties, 907–960 AD: Troubles, Mongol attacks, the invention of gunpowder and bandaging of women's feet
- Northern Song, 960–1126 AD: Chinese unification, economic reform, Mongol invasion, flourishing of painting and navigation, invention of locks and printing, state banks
- Southern Song, 1127–1279 AD: invasion Genghis Khan, the birth of Neo-Confucianism
- Mongol Yuan dynasty (John), 1260–1368 AD: Chinese Journey Marco Polo, the heyday of Chinese drama, the invasion of Japan
- Min (clear), 1368– AD: reconstruction of Beijing, sea expeditions to India and Africa, arrival of the Portuguese and Jesuit missionaries, invention of the novel genre, export of porcelain
- Manchu Qing dynasty, - yrs. AD: transfer of the capital to Beijing (and its real foundation), emperor-reformer kangxi(–), relations with Russia, the completion of the Great Wall of China, the emergence of organized crime (“Triads” - about a year), the opium war, modernization, the construction of the railway and the opening of Peking University in the year, the revolution of the year
Hieroglyphics and Chinese
"Of all peoples, the Chinese wrote the most to report the least." F.–M. Voltaire “Until the 17th century, China was ahead of Europe in terms of technological development. China had more developed mathematics and more advanced technology in general. This technical superiority of China was brought to naught in Europe only after the beginning of the scientific revolution ... "Having learned Chinese dialects, in a year J. Needham came to China as an emissary of the British Royal Society and began to serve as scientific adviser to the British Embassy in Chongqing. Traveling around the country, he collected legends about ancient Chinese science. In Chinese texts J. Needham he looked for all sorts of vague references to the technical devices of antiquity, thought out for the ancient Chinese the scientific discoveries behind these inventions. The result of his search was The Chinese Science and Civilization, published by the University of Cambridge. Its first volume was printed in a year, and in the next 30 years 14 more volumes were published. This is where it is claimed that almost all outstanding discoveries or inventions in the fields of science, medicine, agriculture and engineering were first made in China, starting from 1400 B.C.
Mythical chronology of ancient Chinese inventions:
- guiding wagon with a compass, according to a German sinologist Julius Klaproth, 2364 BC
- spyglass, 23rd century BC.
- noodles, 20th century BC.
- manuscripts, 12th century BC.
- smallpox inoculation, 11th century BC.
- silk, 11th century BC.
- philosophy, 6th century BC.
- macaroni, 490 BC
- crossbows, stirrups, IV c. BC.
- chopsticks, 4th c. BC.
- opening of the Taoist Academy of Sciences (Jixia, from the Chinese "Scholar's Court at the Western Gate") in the city of Linzi, 318 BC.
- canals, paper, thimble, III c. BC.
- opening of the imperial university, 124 BC
- toilet, in 50-100 BC
- metal money, crossbow trigger, 1st c. BC.
- paper, 100 AD
- compass, II century. AD (for Feng Shui divination, Chinese geomancy)
- seismoscope Zhang Heng, 132 AD
- matrices, for solving systems of linear equations by the method K.F. Gaussian, III c. AD
- steel and steel weapons, 5th c. AD
- Unified State Examination, VII century. AD
- yoke, 7th century AD
- ships with human-powered wheel engines, 9th century AD
- typography using wooden boards, 868 AD
- porcelain kilns, 1004 AD
- printed paper money, 1024 AD
- type-setting cash desk Bi Sheng with clay characters, 1045 AD
- porcelain, 8th century AD
- tea ceremony, 8th century AD
- gunpowder, 10th century AD (to scare away evil spirits with fireworks)
- land reclamation, 11th century AD
- locks, 11th century AD
- toothbrush, 1498 AD
- novel, 16th century AD
Critics of his theory noted that many ideas Needham borrowed from Marxism, many provisions of his socio-cultural theory contain Maoist rhetoric. However, the time of writing the first volumes of his fundamental work coincided with the growing interest and sympathy for the Chinese revolution among European intellectuals, and his critics had to accept the victory of fantastic hypotheses.
Quotes about Chinese inventions and their propagandist J. Needhame
“I know nothing about China, but I do know that the work of Marxists on the history of science in the West is unreliable, as follows from the very nature of Marxist historiography. Needham is a Marxist, and his work is a Marxist history of Chinese science, shaped by Marxism from beginning to end. Therefore, Needham's conception of the history of Chinese science is unreliable."(C. Gillispie) “It is significant that the most important inventions - the horse collar, the clock, the compass, the steering post of the sternpost, gunpowder, paper and printing - did not originate in feudal Europe. All of them, apparently , came from the East, and most of them - ultimately from China. As we learn more about the history of science in China (the great research of Dr. Joseph Needham about the origins and history of Chinese technology and science), we we begin to understand the significance of Chinese technological achievements for the whole world. Already what we know is enough to show that the whole concept of the superiority of Western Christian civilization is based on an arrogant disregard for the rest of the globe. It is always difficult to prove the transfer of cultural achievements, but the fact remains that many inventions that appeared in Europe only in the 10th century or later , were described in detail in China already at the very beginning of our era. What still needs to be explained why, after such a promising start, this early technical progress in China, and to a lesser extent in India and Muslim countries, completely ceased by the 15th century, and why it resulted in the formation of Eastern civilizations with a high but frozen technical level. The reason for this, especially in relation to China, Dr. Needham sees in the growth of a literary educated bureaucracy - mandarins, not interested in improving technology and anxious to prevent the development of the merchant class, which alone could move technology forward, opening up new markets. This is what should have happened in Europe. ... Of all the inventions introduced in the West during the Middle Ages, the most destructive - gunpowder - was to have the greatest influence in political, economic and scientific terms. The original invention of gunpowder is attributed to both the Arabs and the Byzantine Greeks, but, Most likely , it was invented in China. The secret to making it is to add<к углю и сере>saltpeter, prepare a substance that burns without air. Saltpeter occurs naturally in some deposits, as well as in overfertilized land. May be , for the first time it was accidentally used in the manufacture of rockets for fireworks, or it was noticed that using it instead of soda (sodium carbonate) in the form of a flood with charcoal caused a bright flash and a slight explosion. In China for several centuries it was used only for fireworks and rockets. Gunpowder began to play a role in military affairs when it was first used in a cannon, which, Maybe , originated from the fire pipe of the Byzantines, but quicker - from a Chinese bamboo cracker. ... Even during the late Middle Ages, few people felt the need for a large number of paper books. Indeed, printing probably , would not have been created primarily for literary purposes only. The full value of printing is felt only when a large number of cheap copies of one text are needed. That's why not surprising that it first arose in the East for the reproduction of Taoist and Buddhist prayers, where quantity is a decisive spiritual advantage, and later for the printing of paper money, which also required a large number. ... Printing with movable wood type was originally a Chinese invention in the 11th century. Movable metal type was first used by Koreans in the 14th century. It appeared in Europe in the middle of the 15th century and spread exceptionally quickly ... " ()ancient chinese science
“There is only one way to reliably learn something from ancient history - to consider a few indisputable monuments, if they have survived. There are only three of them in writing ... The second monument is a total eclipse of the Sun, calculated in China in 2155BC and recognized as correct by all our astronomers. The same must be said about the Chinese as about the peoples of Babylonia; they certainly already lived in a large enlightened empire. The Chinese are placed above all the peoples of the Earth by the fact that neither the laws, nor their customs, nor the language spoken by scientists there have changed for about 4thousand years."(Voltaire "Encyclopedia Diderot and D "Alambera»)The astronomical and geographical representations of Ancient China are expressed in the notions of their state that have persisted until very recently, as Middle Empire, Celestial occupying the main and central part of the land. The outskirts of the Earth and the islands in the Ocean belong to the barbarians, in their savagery not subject to the Chinese emperor. The growing beard of the barbarians makes them look like monkeys.
“The sky is like an umbrella, and the Earth is like an upside down plate. Both the Heaven and the Earth in the center are stretched upwards, and towards the edges they become even. The point under the North Pole is the center of both the Earth and the Sky. This is the highest point of the Earth, from here the edges of the Earth descend like a falling stream of water. The sun, moon and stars alternately shine, then hide, and from this there is day and night. The highest point in the center of the sky, where the sun is at the winter solstice, reaches 60,000 li, if counted from the horizontal line that indicates the level of the edge of the sky. The height of the Earth at its highest point under the north pole is also 60,000 li. The highest point of the Earth is separated from the horizontal line of the level of the edges of the Sky by 20,000 li. Since the highest points of Heaven and Earth coincide, the Sun is constantly at the same distance from the Earth - 80,000 li. (Zhang Heng, allegedly AD 78–139 )Chinese opinions about their own ancient science come from the New Age, and most likely inspired by European missionaries. Their erroneousness is fully confirmed by the lack of something new and unexpected for a European among the Chinese, except for chopsticks, but the Chinese, according to their statements, invented the same thing as the Europeans, but much earlier. This idea was born under the second Manchu emperor kangxi, he is Shen Zu and Xuan Ye ( –):
“Although the Chinese generally recognize the superiority of Western sciences, discoveries and inventions of modern times, sometimes they justify such recognition with a very unexpected argument. Thus, many of the scientists and educated Chinese are ready to assert that they owe some of the inventions that the Europeans are so proud of to the Chinese scientists, who thought of them even when the Western peoples were in a primitive state. Inventions and discoveries, as well as many sciences, were created in China and then only were transferred to the West. Here they developed, separated themselves and formed the so-called sciences and arts. The first to proclaim such an original theory was a certain Mei Wuan, who lived in the reign of the god Kangxi. ... The defenders of the above theory reinforce it with curious examples from ancient chronicles, for example, they prove that the European science called optics was known to the Chinese 500 years before the birth of Christ, because the historical monuments of that time mention reflection through mirrors. Foreigners, they say, claim that the earth is spherical - the Chinese scientist proved the same Chu Yuan who lived long before this discovery in the West. (Korostovets I.Ya., )Europeans got acquainted with the beginnings of Chinese astronomy thanks to the Augustinian theologian, director of the Observatory of the Abbey. St. genevieve in Paris Alexandru Guy Pengre (A.G. Pingre, -), who published in - years the two-volume "Cometography" ( Cometographie ou Traité historique et théorique des Cometes), in which he included comet lists collected in the 18th century by Jesuit missionaries in China Joseph de Mailla (J.A.M. de Moyria de Mailla, -) and Antoine Gobil (R.P.A. Gaubil, -). The published cometary data were included in the "ancient Chinese" work "Tun Jian Kan Mukh" ( All-reflecting mirror) and apparently composed Mayla and Gobile or their predecessors in China, the 17th-century Jesuit missionaries. It is in these works that the first legendary information about the origin of Chinese astronomy under the emperor Yao, allegedly in the XXIV century. BC: the emperor ordered the scientists Heh and Ho (plan and drawing) start observing the stars, make a telescope and an astrolabe, create a calendar and determine the dates of the equinoxes and solstices. With this task, scientists Heh and Ho handled successfully. Subsequently Heh and Ho were executed for neglecting their duties - they failed to predict the total solar eclipse that occurred on the first day of autumn in the head of Scorpio. Dutch astronomer and historian of science Anthony Pannekoek(-) gives the date of this event - allegedly, it happened on October 22, 2137 BC. Modern calculations give the position of the Moon and the Sun at this time - 12 ° Libra with the sign system of the Zodiac, which, taking into account the precession by this time (57 °), falls into the middle of the constellation Scorpio, so this solution does not fully satisfy the specified conditions, even if we accept that that October 22 is the first day of autumn. However, he himself Pannekoek devalues his message by saying:
“However, it is clear that in such ancient times it was still impossible to talk about the prediction of solar eclipses; the accuracy of the details in the original narrative is also difficult to judge." () "The Fighter is about the Fight. Philosophy and practice of struggle of the Great Empire», - M .: Astrel, ACT, , 352 p. “The beginning of a reliable written history of China is the era when the Manchurian dynasty came to power in China. It happened in the seventeenth century AD. ()Outstanding ancient Chinese scientists are either phantoms of European scientists, or originally mythological. Since the reliably recorded beginning of Chinese science is associated with the mission of the Jesuits, the ancient Chinese scientists must first of all be sought among them. Yes, the prototype confucius (kung tzu, allegedly 551-470. BC), most likely served Matteo Ricci, and its romanized alias comes from the Latin confusion- "disorderly, confused." Similarly, the Latinized nickname mencius(allegedly, 372-288 BC), Mencius, comes from the Latin mentor- "lie, invent, fantasize." These sorts of nicknames are obviously given by critics and competitors.
News of Ancient China
- per year Florian Cajora (Florian Cajori, -), a historian of mathematics from Colorado Springs (USA), first voiced the idea of the invention of zero by the ancient Chinese (The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 10, February, , p. 35). This idea was suggested to him in a private letter dated December 15, a little-known historian Mikami (Y. Mikami) from Tokyo, who came to this conclusion after studying unnamed Chinese historical works.
ancient chinese football players
- FIFA President J. Blatter in the year at the opening ceremony of the Asian Cup in Beijing acknowledged that China is the birthplace of football. He agreed with the data provided by officials of the China Football Federation, according to which football was invented 2,300 years ago in the capital of the Ki kingdom, Linzi, in modern Shandong province. Vice President of China Football Federation Chang Zhilong on this he said:
- In July) modern wristwatches were discovered. Archaeologist Jiang Yanyu said:
Opinions on Ancient China
- Professor at the University of London Lucas Nickel, studying ancient Chinese chronicles, read a message that to the west of China in the twenty-sixth year of the reign Qin Shi Huangdi"giant statues in foreign dress" were brought in. The emperor was so impressed that he ordered them to be cast in bronze (for which part of the weapons were melted) and their copies displayed in front of his palace. Neither the statues nor their copies have survived, but Nickel suggests that we are talking about ancient Greek sculptures that came to China from Asian possessions Alexander the Great. The professor sees Greek influence in the statues of warriors and especially in the elaboration of anatomical details on the sculptures of athletes and dancers. ("Science and Life", No. 4,)
- German Enlightener Baron Friedrich Melchior von Grimm(-) in his Literary, Philosophical and Critical Bulletin ( La Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique, -) September 15, 1766 noted:
- Candidate of Historical Sciences Leonid Abramovich Yuzefovich(b.) in the year wrote a book about the baron R.F. Ungern-Sternberg"The Autocrat of the Desert", in which he draws the following lines about Chinese culture:
- Academician IN AND. Arnold in the book "Stories of Old and Recent" (M .: FAZIS, , 96 p.), among other things, he wrote the following about Ancient China:
- Professor of the Department of Higher Algebra and Number Theory of Mathematics, St. Petersburg State University Vavilov Nikolai Alexandrovich(G.R.) in a pretentious 325-page manual “Not Quite Naive Set Theory. MENGENLEHRE" narrates:
- Doctor of Law, Professor of the Faculty of Law of Moscow State University, Senior Researcher of the Institute of State and Law of the Russian Academy of Sciences Vladimir Georgievich Grafsky, in addition, heading the Department of Theory and History of Law and State of the Moscow Financial and Industrial Academy, in his textbook "The General History of Law and State" () fantastically projected modern realities into the distant past:
- Secretary of the Union of Military Sinologists Colonel of Intelligence (retired) Andrey Petrovich Devyatov lays out his geopolitical doctrine based on dubious opinions about Chinese history:
News
- BBC video: Archaeologists resume excavation of the Terracotta Army, 15 June
Ancient China is one of the most mysterious countries on our planet. Even now, this state is strikingly different from its neighbors in almost everything. But the main distinguishing feature of the Chinese is that they are not mystics, but practitioners. Nowhere has so much invention been made as in this country. And the religion and philosophy of ancient China shows the extraordinary wisdom of this people.
The emergence of the state of Shan-Yin
The most ancient period in the history of China, which can be studied on the basis of materials obtained by archaeologists, as well as on the basis of available documents, is the era belonging to the 18th-12th centuries BC. e. At that time, the state of Shang-Yin existed here. His story remained in the legends, which say that around 1400 BC. e. A certain leader named Pan Geng, along with his tribe, came to Anyang and built the beautiful city of Shang on the Yellow River. The name of the settlement was given not only to the state, but also to the whole dynasty of kings.
Further, the legend says that the Chou tribes, who lived near the Wei River, in the XII century BC. e. conquered the ancient country. After the defeat of the Shang capital, which occurred in 1124 BC. e., the conquerors also gave him the name Yin. Also in the legend it was said that the ruler Pan Geng lived peacefully and did not fight with anyone.
Evidence for the existence of the state
Until the 30s of the last century, the Shan-Yin era was studied only on the basis of a legend. But in 1928, archaeological excavations began, during which they found monuments of material culture that confirmed the legend of the existence of the Shan state. The ruins of the city were discovered in Anyang County, near the village of Xiaotun, in the north of Henan province (China). The history of the ancient world appeared here in all its glory. In addition to the remains of numerous houses, craft workshops, a temple and the royal palace, about 300 tombs were found, 4 of which belonged to the royal dynasty. The latest burials stood out among the rest for their impressive size and luxurious decoration.
Thanks to the excavations, scientists concluded that already at that time there was a significant class stratification of society. In addition to the tombs of aristocrats, archaeologists have discovered simpler burials, as well as those that belonged to obvious poor people. In addition, the royal tomb turned out to be a real treasury. About 6,000 objects made of bronze, gold, mother-of-pearl, jade and turtles were found in it. With these archaeological finds, new opportunities have opened up in the study of the centuries-old history of China.
Nature
This country is 80% mountains and plateaus. The nature here is extraordinarily beautiful. Western China is the world's largest highland, so it has a sharply continental climate. The eastern part of the country is located slightly lower and has access to the sea, and there are also vast river valleys, which led to the emergence of important trade routes in these places. This region has a mild climate, so it differs from Western China in a large variety of vegetation. Naturally, it was in the east that the most ancient state with its own agricultural culture was formed.
The nature of ancient China is somewhat different from modern. So, in the northern part of this state, an incomparably larger area was covered with forests than now. This could be determined from the inscriptions on fortune-telling bones, which told about hunts, often organized for deer. And in the "Book of Songs" there are references to vast forests. The green massifs largely contributed to a more uniform precipitation. This gave the local inhabitants the opportunity to hunt. In addition, they had a lot of wood for making tools and building houses.
Natural conditions described in the legends
Ancient China has always been famous for its legends. They often told about the struggle of the people with the dangerous river and their stubborn struggle for the organization of the agricultural economy. From ancient legends it can be seen that the Chinese constantly fought against floods, the cause of which was the Yellow River. Overflowing waters brought with them catastrophic disasters, destroying populous villages and destroying crops. In addition, the inhabitants of ancient China tried to use the artificial irrigation system to distribute water as evenly as possible throughout the country.
Population
The mountainous regions, plateaus and steppes that adjoined the river valleys have always been inhabited by numerous nomadic tribes. The people of Ancient China, who inhabited the fertile plains, constantly defended themselves from the predatory raids of the mountain, steppe and nomadic tribes, and this significantly hampered the development of not only culture, but also statehood. Gradually, the Chinese were able to colonize those regions where the backward warlike peoples were in charge. But nomadic pastoralism was preserved on these lands for a long time, since it was of great importance in the life of ancient states.
Nationalities inhabiting the country
Ancient China was quite diverse in its ethnic composition. It is known that this country occupies a vast territory, where a quarter of the population of the entire planet lives. Therefore, it seems natural that in ancient times it was not so homogeneous. Historical documents mention various tribes that constantly clashed with each other, fought and traded. On the north and northwest side, the Chinese coexisted with the Mongols, Tungus and Manchus, and in the south and southwest - with the tribes of Tibet, India and Burma.
Beliefs
The religion of ancient China was not personalized. Unlike other countries of the world, temples dedicated to any particular deity were not built here, and the role of priests was most often performed by government officials. Most of all, the Chinese revered various kinds of spirits that personified nature itself, as well as the dead ancestors of the Shang-di.
The most important place in the life of this people was occupied by a cult dedicated to the spirits of the earth. They made constant sacrifices, accompanied by prayers and requests for a good harvest. Most often they were recorded on tortoise shells or lamb shoulder blades. And all this was accompanied by special rituals, which were equated with matters of national importance. These ceremonies were always seriously and carefully prepared.
The religion of ancient China divided everything that exists into two parts - yin (male) and yang (female). The first of them personified the bright, light, strong, that is, everything positive that is in life, and the second, on the contrary, was associated with the Moon and embodied darkness and weakness.
Teachings
The peoples inhabiting Ancient China had their own system of worldview. They believed that the world is chaos, and there are life-giving particles in it - tsy. The sky was considered the progenitor of all life that is on earth. But he was not revered as a God to whom one could turn and ask for anything. The sky for the Chinese is just some kind of abstract entity, absolutely indifferent to people. That is why there are many philosophies that deities replace them with.
The teachings of ancient China are very diverse. It is impossible to describe them all in one article. Therefore, we briefly consider the three most common.
- Confucianism is a system based on ancient traditions, including duty and humanism. For his followers, the main thing is the strict observance of all rituals and rules. The founder of this teaching was an official belonging to the ancient family of Kung Fu Tzu.
- Chinese Buddhism appeared due to its close proximity to India around the 1st century BC. e. The very ideas of Buddhism to the Chinese came mostly to taste. But two aspects of this teaching they accepted without enthusiasm. The fact is that Indian monks could beg for alms, and for the Chinese, such behavior was considered shameful. The second point was the idea of monasticism. Before the advent of Buddhism, this way of life was not known here. The monastic order demanded to give up the name, and for the Chinese this meant renunciation of their ancestors.
- Taoism has something in common with Confucianism. The doctrine is based on the concept of Tao - a rather complex and multifaceted concept, with which its followers must connect. This goal can only be achieved by observing the laws of morality, meditating and refusing unnecessary material values. The founder of the doctrine is the archivist Lao Tzu.
Discovery #1
The first of the greatest inventions of ancient China is paper. Confirmation of this fact can be found in Chinese chronicles dating back to the Eastern Han Dynasty. The document says that in 105 the court eunuch Tsai Lun invented the paper. Prior to this, records were made on special rolled scrolls made of bamboo strips, on clay or wooden tablets, on silk scrolls, etc. Older writings dated to the 2nd century BC. e. (the reign of the Shang Dynasty), were written on the shells of turtles.
As early as the 3rd century, paper, invented by Cai Lun, was widely used. The technology of its production was as follows: a mixture of mulberry bark, hemp, fabrics and nets unsuitable for catching fish was boiled until it turned into pulp. Then it was ground to a homogeneous mass and a little water was added. The resulting mixture was loaded into a special reed sieve and shaken. After this procedure, an even and thin fibrous layer was formed on the bottom. Then it was thrown back on flat boards. They made several such castings at once. Then the boards were laid on top of each other and tightly tied, while the load was still placed on top. The use of this technology made the paper sheet strong, light, even and comfortable for writing.
Discovery #2
After the invention of Ancient China No. 1, printing appeared. For the first time, its entire technological process was described by the Chinese scientist Shen Ko in 1088. The book says that the invention of typesetting and fired clay letters belongs to a certain master Bi Sheng.
The discovery of printing in the 9th century brought with it a change in the technique of weaving. At the end of the Tang era, books that had previously looked like scrolls turned into a stack of paper that resembled a brochure familiar to everyone. During the reign of the Yuan Dynasty, and this is 1271-1368, the spine of the book began to be made from stiffer paper, and later stitched with thread. Fortunately, many books from ancient China have survived to this day. The Diamond Sutra is considered the first full-fledged printed edition. It was made during the Tang Dynasty, which ruled from 618 to 907. The length of the scrolls of the Diamond Sutra is 5.18 m.
Discovery #3
The next most important invention is gunpowder, which appeared in the 10th century. It was used as a filling for incendiary projectiles. Judging by the Chinese chronicles, barrel gunpowder weapons were first used in battles in 1132. It was a bamboo tube into which gunpowder was placed and set on fire. Thus, tangible burns were inflicted on the enemy. After 125 years, the Chinese invented a gun, but already firing bullets. It was a bamboo tube loaded with gunpowder and bullets. Around the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th century, iron cannons appeared in China that fired stone cannonballs.
But gunpowder was used not only for military purposes. It was used as a disinfectant in the treatment of all kinds of wounds and ulcers, as well as during numerous epidemics. Almost the entire Ancient East, China was no exception, believed that all evil spirits are afraid not only of a loud sound, but also of a bright glow. Therefore, from time immemorial, on the Chinese New Year, bonfires were traditionally lit in the courtyards, in which bamboo was burned. Starting to burn, it hissed and burst with a crash. With the advent of powder charges, which created much more noise and light, the old way of celebrating began to be abandoned. Nowadays, it is already difficult to imagine the New Year without colorful fireworks, which are used almost all over the world.
Discovery #4
The next invention is the compass. Its prototype appeared in the era of the Han Dynasty, which ruled from 202 BC. e. before 220 AD But its original purpose was divination, not navigation. The ancient compass looked like a plate with a spoon placed on it, the handle of which pointed due south. This device, which determines the cardinal points, was first described in the Chinese book Wujing Zongyao in 1044. Another kind of compass was cast from iron or steel ingots in the form of a fish, which was placed in water. To accurately determine the course, two of the above-mentioned devices were usually used at once.
A more advanced design of this device was described by the same Chinese scientist Shen Ko in 1088 in the Notes on the Stream of Dreams. In his work, he described in detail the magnetic declination, which indicates the true north, as well as the device of the compass itself with a needle.
Other inventions
Some of the discoveries of the Chinese in many ways contributed to the fact that most areas of culture and art became accessible not only to rich people, but also to the general population. Absolutely all the inventions of Ancient China are hard to list. Here are just a few of them: tea, silk, fork, porcelain, toothbrush, money, noodles, gong, drum, playing cards, crossbow and more. etc. But most scientists believe that the main inventions were still paper, printing, compass and gunpowder.
