Ancient China: history. Inventions and books of ancient China. History of ancient China report, message Political sphere of ancient China briefly

Ancient China is one of the most mysterious countries on our planet. Even now, this state is strikingly different from its neighbors in almost everything. But the main distinguishing feature of the Chinese is that they are not mystics, but practitioners. Nowhere has so much invention been made as in this country. And the religion and philosophy of ancient China shows the extraordinary wisdom of this people.

The emergence of the state of Shan-Yin

The most ancient period in the history of China, which can be studied on the basis of materials obtained by archaeologists, as well as on the basis of available documents, is the era belonging to the 18th-12th centuries BC. e. At that time, the state of Shang-Yin existed here. His story remained in the legends, which say that around 1400 BC. e. A certain leader named Pan Geng, along with his tribe, came to Anyang and built the beautiful city of Shang on the Yellow River. The name of the settlement was given not only to the state, but also to the whole dynasty of kings.

Further, the legend says that the Chou tribes, who lived near the Wei River, in the XII century BC. e. conquered the ancient country. After the defeat of the Shang capital, which occurred in 1124 BC. e., the conquerors also gave him the name Yin. Also in the legend it was said that the ruler Pan Geng lived peacefully and did not fight with anyone.

Evidence for the existence of the state

Until the 30s of the last century, the Shan-Yin era was studied only on the basis of a legend. But in 1928, archaeological excavations began, during which they found monuments of material culture that confirmed the legend of the existence of the Shan state. The ruins of the city were discovered in Anyang County, near the village of Xiaotun, in the north of Henan province (China). The history of the ancient world appeared here in all its glory. In addition to the remains of numerous houses, craft workshops, a temple and the royal palace, about 300 tombs were found, 4 of which belonged to the royal dynasty. The latest burials stood out among the rest for their impressive size and luxurious decoration.

Thanks to the excavations, scientists concluded that already at that time there was a significant class stratification of society. In addition to the tombs of aristocrats, archaeologists have discovered simpler burials, as well as those that belonged to obvious poor people. In addition, the royal tomb turned out to be a real treasury. About 6,000 objects made of bronze, gold, mother-of-pearl, jade and turtles were found in it. With these archaeological finds, new opportunities have opened up in the study of the centuries-old history of China.

Nature

This country is 80% mountains and plateaus. The nature here is extraordinarily beautiful. Western China is the world's largest highland, so it has a sharply continental climate. The eastern part of the country is located slightly lower and has access to the sea, and there are also vast river valleys, which led to the emergence of important trade routes in these places. This region has a mild climate, so it differs from Western China in a large variety of vegetation. Naturally, it was in the east that the most ancient state with its own agricultural culture was formed.

The nature of ancient China is somewhat different from modern. So, in the northern part of this state, an incomparably larger area was covered with forests than now. This could be determined from the inscriptions on fortune-telling bones, which told about hunts, often organized for deer. And in the "Book of Songs" there are references to vast forests. The green massifs largely contributed to a more uniform precipitation. This gave the local inhabitants the opportunity to hunt. In addition, they had a lot of wood for making tools and building houses.

Natural conditions described in the legends

Ancient China has always been famous for its legends. They often told about the struggle of the people with the dangerous river and their stubborn struggle for the organization of the agricultural economy. From ancient legends it can be seen that the Chinese constantly fought against floods, the cause of which was the Yellow River. Overflowing waters brought with them catastrophic disasters, destroying populous villages and destroying crops. In addition, the inhabitants of ancient China tried to use the artificial irrigation system to distribute water as evenly as possible throughout the country.

Population

The mountainous regions, plateaus and steppes that adjoined the river valleys have always been inhabited by numerous nomadic tribes. The people of Ancient China, who inhabited the fertile plains, constantly defended themselves from the predatory raids of the mountain, steppe and nomadic tribes, and this significantly hampered the development of not only culture, but also statehood. Gradually, the Chinese were able to colonize those regions where the backward warlike peoples were in charge. But nomadic pastoralism was preserved on these lands for a long time, since it was of great importance in the life of ancient states.

Nationalities inhabiting the country

Ancient China was quite diverse in its ethnic composition. It is known that this country occupies a vast territory, where a quarter of the population of the entire planet lives. Therefore, it seems natural that in ancient times it was not so homogeneous. Historical documents mention various tribes that constantly clashed with each other, fought and traded. On the north and northwest side, the Chinese coexisted with the Mongols, Tungus and Manchus, and in the south and southwest - with the tribes of Tibet, India and Burma.

Beliefs

The religion of ancient China was not personalized. Unlike other countries of the world, temples dedicated to any particular deity were not built here, and the role of priests was most often performed by government officials. Most of all, the Chinese revered various kinds of spirits that personified nature itself, as well as the dead ancestors of the Shang-di.

The most important place in the life of this people was occupied by a cult dedicated to the spirits of the earth. They made constant sacrifices, accompanied by prayers and requests for a good harvest. Most often they were recorded on tortoise shells or lamb shoulder blades. And all this was accompanied by special rituals, which were equated with matters of national importance. These ceremonies were always seriously and carefully prepared.

The religion of ancient China divided everything that exists into two parts - yin (male) and yang (female). The first of them personified the bright, light, strong, that is, everything positive that is in life, and the second, on the contrary, was associated with the Moon and embodied darkness and weakness.

Teachings

The peoples inhabiting Ancient China had their own system of worldview. They believed that the world is chaos, and there are life-giving particles in it - tsy. The sky was considered the progenitor of all life that is on earth. But he was not revered as a God to whom one could turn and ask for anything. The sky for the Chinese is just some kind of abstract entity, absolutely indifferent to people. That is why there are many philosophies that deities replace them with.

The teachings of ancient China are very diverse. It is impossible to describe them all in one article. Therefore, we briefly consider the three most common.

Confucianism is a system based on ancient traditions, including duty and humanism. For his followers, the main thing is the strict observance of all rituals and rules. The founder of this teaching was an official belonging to the ancient family of Kung Fu Tzu.
Chinese Buddhism appeared due to its close proximity to India around the 1st century BC. e. The very ideas of Buddhism to the Chinese came mostly to taste. But two aspects of this teaching they accepted without enthusiasm. The fact is that Indian monks could beg for alms, and for the Chinese, such behavior was considered shameful. The second point was the idea of monasticism. Before the advent of Buddhism, this way of life was not known here. The monastic order demanded to give up the name, and for the Chinese this meant renunciation of their ancestors.
Taoism has something in common with Confucianism. The doctrine is based on the concept of Tao - a rather complex and multifaceted concept, with which its followers must connect. This goal can only be achieved by observing the laws of morality, meditating and refusing unnecessary material values. The founder of the doctrine is the archivist Lao Tzu.

Discovery #1

The first of the greatest inventions of ancient China is paper. Confirmation of this fact can be found in Chinese chronicles dating back to the Eastern Han Dynasty. The document says that in 105 the court eunuch Tsai Lun invented the paper. Prior to this, records were made on special rolled scrolls made of bamboo strips, on clay or wooden tablets, on silk scrolls, etc. Older writings dated to the 2nd century BC. e. (the reign of the Shang Dynasty), were written on the shells of turtles.

As early as the 3rd century, paper, invented by Cai Lun, was widely used. The technology of its production was as follows: a mixture of mulberry bark, hemp, fabrics and nets unsuitable for catching fish was boiled until it turned into pulp. Then it was ground to a homogeneous mass and a little water was added. The resulting mixture was loaded into a special reed sieve and shaken. After this procedure, an even and thin fibrous layer was formed on the bottom. Then it was thrown back on flat boards. They made several such castings at once. Then the boards were laid on top of each other and tightly tied, while the load was still placed on top. The use of this technology made the paper sheet strong, light, even and comfortable for writing.

Discovery #2

After the invention of Ancient China No. 1, printing appeared. For the first time, its entire technological process was described by the Chinese scientist Shen Ko in 1088. The book says that the invention of typesetting and fired clay letters belongs to a certain master Bi Sheng.

The discovery of printing in the 9th century brought with it a change in the technique of weaving. At the end of the Tang era, books that had previously looked like scrolls turned into a stack of paper that resembled a brochure familiar to everyone. During the reign of the Yuan Dynasty, and this is 1271-1368, the spine of the book began to be made from stiffer paper, and later stitched with thread. Fortunately, many books from ancient China have survived to this day. The Diamond Sutra is considered the first full-fledged printed edition. It was made during the Tang Dynasty, which ruled from 618 to 907. The length of the scrolls of the Diamond Sutra is 5.18 m.

Discovery #3

The next most important invention is gunpowder, which appeared in the 10th century. It was used as a filling for incendiary projectiles. Judging by the Chinese chronicles, barrel gunpowder weapons were first used in battles in 1132. It was a bamboo tube into which gunpowder was placed and set on fire. Thus, tangible burns were inflicted on the enemy. After 125 years, the Chinese invented a gun, but already firing bullets. It was a bamboo tube loaded with gunpowder and bullets. Around the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th century, iron cannons appeared in China that fired stone cannonballs.

But gunpowder was used not only for military purposes. It was used as a disinfectant in the treatment of all kinds of wounds and ulcers, as well as during numerous epidemics. Almost the entire Ancient East, China was no exception, believed that all evil spirits are afraid not only of a loud sound, but also of a bright glow. Therefore, from time immemorial, on the Chinese New Year, bonfires were traditionally lit in the courtyards, in which bamboo was burned. Starting to burn, it hissed and burst with a crash. With the advent of powder charges, which created much more noise and light, the old way of celebrating began to be abandoned. Nowadays, it is already difficult to imagine the New Year without colorful fireworks, which are used almost all over the world.

Discovery #4

The next invention is the compass. Its prototype appeared in the era of the Han Dynasty, which ruled from 202 BC. e. before 220 AD But its original purpose was divination, not navigation. The ancient compass looked like a plate with a spoon placed on it, the handle of which pointed due south. This device, which determines the cardinal points, was first described in the Chinese book Wujing Zongyao in 1044. Another kind of compass was cast from iron or steel ingots in the form of a fish, which was placed in water. To accurately determine the course, two of the above-mentioned devices were usually used at once.

A more advanced design of this device was described by the same Chinese scientist Shen Ko in 1088 in the Notes on the Stream of Dreams. In his work, he described in detail the magnetic declination, which indicates the true north, as well as the device of the compass itself with a needle.

Other inventions

Some of the discoveries of the Chinese in many ways contributed to the fact that most areas of culture and art became accessible not only to rich people, but also to the general population. Absolutely all the inventions of Ancient China are hard to list. Here are just a few of them: tea, silk, fork, porcelain, toothbrush, money, noodles, gong, drum, playing cards, crossbow and more. etc. But most scientists believe that the main inventions were still paper, printing, compass and gunpowder.

Chinese ancient civilization has about 5000 years. Found ancient sources prove that China is no less 3500 years. For several centuries after the death of the first emperor, China was torn apart by wars. By 626 B.C. the golden age again began in the country. Power passed to the first emperor of the dynasty Tan - Taizong . In the capital of the empire, moved to Chang'an, merchants arrived along the Great Silk Road. Markets were bustling all over the city. Different religions coexisted peacefully. For the first time, ordinary people, and not just the nobility, could hold public office. Everyone who expected to get a place in the public service had to pass an exam. The population worked in the production of salt, paper, iron. The arts and crafts flourished. Peasants sold their goods on the streets, many were drafted into the army.

First Emperor

Before 221 BC China was divided into several kingdoms, each with its own ruler, who fought among themselves for more than 250 years. The state won Qin(from this word comes the name of China in European languages). Its ruler took the title Qin Shi Huang, which means "the first emperor of Qin". He ascended the throne at just 13 years old. A brilliant commander and politician, he swept away anyone who stood in his way. For his cool temper, he was nicknamed " qin tiger". Qin ordered to burn books that contradicted his ideas, and throw dissenting scientists into a pit. But the emperor was afraid to die. In his magnificent palace there were more than 1000 bedrooms, and every night he changed his place of lodging for the night, fearing to be killed in his sleep.
Qin Shi Huang sought to preserve the unity of the empire. He removed the former rulers from power, settling them in the capital Chang'an, re-divided the country into regions and appointed his officials. At his direction, a network of roads and canals was built. For the security of the northern border, the emperor ordered the construction of a gigantic structure - the Great Wall of China, part of which has survived to this day. The emperor undertook to restore the strength and wealth of the country after long wars. The writing was unified. All products, even bricks, had to bear the name of the manufacturer: craftsmen could be punished for poor work. The length of the cart axles had to be the same, corresponding to the rut knocked out in the roads. Chinese kingdoms minted their own coins. At Qin Shi Huang all coins were round, with a hole for a cord.
Despite all efforts, the empire collapsed shortly after death. Qin Shi Huang, in 210 BC

the great Wall of China

For a long time, China was threatened by the nomadic tribes of the Xiongnu (Xiongnu, or Huns) who lived to the north of it. Local rulers tried to protect themselves by building large walls. AT 214 BC the emperor ordered them to be connected into one giant border wall more than 3460 km. The construction was led by a military leader Meng Tian who sent officials to oversee the work. The wall was built by thousands of peasants. Whip-wielding overseers constantly monitored the pace and speed of the work. The soldiers guarded the construction site from enemy attacks. Cold, damp and dangerous working conditions killed people. The dead were buried right where they fell.

The workers used simple tools - picks, shovels, baskets and cargo, manual wheelbarrows. For lifting huge cobblestones, slabs and stones, scaffolding was used from tied bamboo poles. A mound of stones and earth was covered with stone slabs.

The height of the wall was 9 meters, and the width is such that a chariot could pass through it. Watch towers were built in the upper parts of the fortification. Slot-like openings for archery and crossbows were also designed in the wall.

Ultimately, it was considered that Great Wall has a silhouette Chinese dragon head to the west and tail to the east.

Capital of China - Chang'an

Under the Tang dynasty Chang'an became the largest city in the world. Chang'an means " forever safe". The city was home to over a million permanent residents and many foreign merchants, travelers and scientists. The clothes were made of colored silk. Only the emperor could wear yellow clothes. The emperor's palace, surrounded by a high wall, was located in the northern part of the city. Musicians and dancers, houses made of wood were covered with varnish, tiles were constructed on the roofs of houses.

The life of the rich nobility

The rich lived in grand style. Wealthy families had beautiful houses of 2-3 floors. Lush silk robes, luxurious feasts at which servants served pork or venison dishes and drinks made from millet and rice. Long hours were devoted to enjoying music and poetry, playing chess and cards. The houses were decorated with luxury goods made of gold and silver, jade and porcelain. Lacquerware and painting on silk were popular. Noble Chinese moved around the city in a stretcher - a palanquin.

Great Inventions

The Chinese were great inventors. In 2nd century BC they invented paper, later printing with wooden stamps. They also designed an instrument to measure the strength of earthquakes. During the Tang Dynasty, a mechanical water clock, a magnetic compass, paper playing cards and fine china appeared. Gunpowder was invented, with which fireworks were arranged. The Chinese invented printing. The pages were connected in a long strip, the book was rolled up.

Great Silk Road

The Tang emperors encouraged trade. Caravans of camels and horses took away silk, porcelain, salt, tea and paper along the Great Silk Road more than 7000 km. It connected China with the Mediterranean and went through Central Asia, Persia, and Syria. The Chinese bought furs, horses, gold, spices from their neighbors. Fur products were brought from the north.
The journey along the Great Silk Road was long. Merchants traveled in caravans. We set up camp for the night. The Great Silk Road was named so because of the great importance of the silk trade.

Craft and Art of China

The Chinese have learned how to extract salt from underground salt water. The brine was brought to the surface and sent through bamboo pipes to vats, where the water was evaporated. In the II century BC. China started making paper. Pulp was made from mulberry wood and dried on wooden frames. Buddhist monks first brought tea bushes from the Himalayas, which soon began to grow. Farmers plowed the fields before sowing millet and grew rice. Irrigation allowed to develop new lands for crops .About the VI century BC. The Chinese learned how to make silk from silkworm cocoons. Craftsmen learned how to build blast furnaces and smelt steel. Their weapons and tools have become stronger. The road builders rammed the earth to build the road.
It was very popular in China calligraphy- the art of beautiful writing. Artists decorated pottery with colored glaze. The outlines of the superb beautiful landscape of rocks in South China have become a favorite subject of painters and artists.

Philosophy and the way of knowledge

The Chinese have never believed in a single god. They deified nature, worshiping the spirits of mountains, rivers and trees. They also developed two religious and philosophical schools, indicating the norms of human relations. These are the teachings of Laozi (Taoism) and Confucius (Confucianism). The basis of Taoism is the belief in harmony with nature. Confucians relied on virtue, the family, and the stability of society. However, when in 1st century BC. borrowed from India Buddhism, it spread very widely. Monk Xuan Zang returned to India with Buddhist treatises for his learned brethren in 629. Pilgrims went to the sacred "Caves of a Thousand Buddhas". More than in 1000 caves there were wall paintings, Buddhist sculptures and an extensive library.
Taoist sages contemplated the symbol Yin Yang. The Chinese believed that yin and yang had great power with the universe, and their balance ensured the harmony of the world.
The Chinese believed that in the human body there is a network of pathways through which energy flows. Needles inserted into special points affect the flow of energy and heal diseases. This treatment is called

Since ancient times, the Chinese have buried the dead along with objects for the afterlife. In the graves of rulers, not only food, drinks and personal property are found, but also the bodies of servants who were supposed to be in the eternal service of their master. The Chinese revered their dead ancestors, believing in their help and protection.
princess Dou Wan buried in a robe of pieces of jade, connected by gold. Jade was supposed to protect her body from decay.
In the tomb of the emperor, a life-size copy of his army, made from terracotta: 7500 infantry, archers, officers, chariots and horses. The crossbows were cocked to fire in an attempted robbery. There were also models of palaces, and canals filled with mercury, set in motion by wheels, depicting a river Yangtze. Thousands of people worked on this. AT 1974 the tomb was accidentally found by workers digging a well.
Imperial tomb with " terracotta army"built on Mount Li. The bodies of the figures were made separately, then the head and hands were attached. Inside the tomb, in the underground corridors, warriors and horses stood row by row. The face of each warrior was different from the other.

In the southeast of Asia, fenced off from the whole world by high mountains, is the Great Plain of China. Convenient geographical location, climate and rich nature created all the prerequisites for the development of one of the most powerful civilizations called Ancient China.

Formation of a unified Chinese kingdom

The two largest rivers in Asia, the Huang He and the Yangtze, flow on the territory of the China Plain. The soils along the banks of these rivers have always been so soft that they could easily be worked with the simplest tools made of bone or wood. Therefore, agriculture has been well developed here since ancient times.

In translation, the Yellow River means Yellow River, since its waters carry a large amount of yellow sand. It was on its fertile soils that the oldest settlements of the first Chinese farmers were found. But the Haunghe has always had a stubborn character, and during the rainy season this river often overflows its banks and floods everything around, eroding the banks and changing its course. In ancient China, it was called the "river of a thousand disasters", because during the flood it mercilessly washed away crops and entire settlements.

Rice. 1. The Yellow River.

In the VIII century BC. e. the territory of modern China was ruled by many small independent kingdoms, which waged endless wars among themselves. In the course of fierce battles, the final victory was won by the Qin kingdom and in 221 BC. e. its ruler adopted the title "huangdi", which means "emperor".

He went down in history as Qin Shi Huang, that is, "the first emperor of Qin." He called himself the Son of Heaven, and dubbed the empire he ruled the Middle Kingdom.

During the reign of the Qin Dynasty, the following reforms were carried out:

Religion and Philosophy of Ancient China

The philosophy of ancient China was fundamentally different from the philosophy of European countries. Unlike Islam and Christianity, the religion of China did not have a single god who punished sinners in the afterlife. The main principle of all the teachings was based on the manifestation of kindness and love for others, the search for harmony within oneself.

In ancient China, the two most significant philosophical schools were widespread:

Confucianism . The founder of this doctrine was the great Chinese philosopher Confucius, who developed the right, in his opinion, way of life. According to it, people should help their neighbors, protect family values and traditions, honor elders, constantly engage in self-improvement.
Taoism . The founder of the doctrine is Lao Tzu, who believed that the basis of all things in the universe is "dao" - "the way". According to Taoism, people should live in harmony with nature, in modesty and simplicity, away from luxury, be humble and compassionate.

Rice. 3. Confucius.

Achievements of Ancient China

In ancient China, the foundations of Chinese civilization and its culture - science, medicine, art, literature - were laid.

The Chinese were great inventors who gave the world many useful items.
The most important achievements of ancient China include:

The invention of paper. The technology of its manufacture was very complex and required great skill. With the advent of paper, the Chinese were the first to invent printing.
Gunpowder, which was used not only as a filling for incendiary projectiles, but also in the treatment of ulcers and wounds, and the creation of entertaining fireworks.
Magnetic compass. The navigational art of ancient China was very well developed due to the fact that the country paid great attention to such sciences as mathematics and astronomy.
Making thin and durable silk from silkworm cocoons.

In China, the art of beautiful writing was very popular - calligraphy, and the main direction in painting was the image of spectacular landscapes of the rocks of South China, characters of myths and legends.

Of great interest is the architecture of ancient China. All buildings, be it the imperial palace or the dwelling of a simple craftsman, harmoniously fit into the surrounding landscape and were always surrounded by additional outbuildings. Usually they were decorated with skillful carvings with images of animals and plants, painted with bright colors.

What have we learned?

When studying the topic “Ancient China” in the 5th grade history program, we briefly learned the most important thing about the history of Ancient China. They learned how and by whom the Celestial Empire was formed, what philosophical teachings were the most popular, what sciences were given special attention. We also learned what achievements of Ancient China occupied a special place in the history of the country.

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Compass, gunpowder, dumplings, paper (including toilet paper and paper money), silk and many other things from our everyday life, what do they have in common? As you might guess, they all came to us from ancient China. Chinese culture and civilization has brought mankind a great many useful inventions and discoveries. And not only in the material sphere, but also in the spiritual one, because the teachings of the great Chinese philosophers and sages, such as Kung Tzu (better known as Confucius) and Lao Tzu remain relevant at all times and epochs. What was the history of ancient China, its culture and religion, read about all this in our article.

History of ancient China

The emergence of the civilization of ancient China falls on the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. In those distant times, China was an ancient feudal state, which was called Zhou (after the name of the ruling dynasty). Then the state of Zhou as a result broke up into several small kingdoms and principalities, which continuously fought with each other for power, territory and influence. The Chinese themselves call this ancient period of their history Zhangguo - the era of the Warring States. Gradually, seven main kingdoms stood out, which absorbed all the others: Qin, Chu, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan.

Despite political fragmentation, Chinese culture and civilization developed rapidly, new cities appeared, crafts and agriculture flourished, and iron replaced bronze. It is this period that can also be safely called the golden age of Chinese philosophy, since it was at that time that the famous Chinese sages Lao Tzu and Confucius lived, on whom we will dwell in more detail a little later, as well as their numerous students and followers (for example, Chuang Tzu) who also enriched the world treasury of wisdom with their thoughts and works.

Again, despite the fact that the Chinese civilization at that time consisted of seven fragmented kingdoms, they had a common essence, one language, one tradition, history, religion. And soon one of the strongest kingdoms - Qin, under the rule of the stern and warlike emperor Qin Shi Huang, managed to conquer all the other kingdoms, reunite ancient China under the banner of a single state.

True, the Qin dynasty ruled unified China for only 11 years, but this decade was one of the greatest in Chinese history. The reforms carried out by the emperor affected all aspects of Chinese life. What were these reforms of ancient China that had such an impact on the life of the Chinese?

The first of these was the land reform, which dealt a crushing blow to communal land tenure, for the first time land began to be freely bought and sold. The second was the administrative reform, which divided the entire Chinese territory into administrative centers, they are counties (xiang), at the head of each such county was a state official who, with his head, answered to the emperor for order in his territory. The third important reform was the tax reform, if before the Chinese paid a land tax - a tithe of the crop, now the fee was charged depending on the cultivated land, which gave the state an annual permanent income, regardless of crop failure, drought, etc. All the risks associated with crop failures now fell on the shoulders of farmers.

And without a doubt, the most important in those turbulent times was the military reform, which, incidentally, preceded the unification of China: first, the Qin, and then the general Chinese army was rearmed and reorganized, cavalry was included in it, bronze weapons were replaced with iron ones, long riding clothes of warriors were replaced short and more comfortable (like nomads). The soldiers were divided into fives and dozens, connected with each other by a system of mutual responsibility, those who did not show due courage were severely punished.

This is what the ancient Chinese warriors looked like, the terracotta army of Qin Shi Huang.

Actually, these measures of the reformer Qin Shihauandi helped make the Qin army one of the most combat-ready in ancient China, defeat other kingdoms, unite China and turn it into the strongest state in the East.

The Qin dynasty was replaced by a new Han dynasty, which strengthened the cause of its predecessors, expanded Chinese territories, spread Chinese influence to neighboring peoples, from the Gobi desert in the north to the Pamir mountains in the west.

Map of ancient China during the Qin and Han eras.

The reign of the Qin and Han dynasties is the period of the greatest flourishing of the ancient Chinese civilization and culture. The Han Dynasty itself lasted until the 2nd century BC. e. and also collapsed as a result of the next unrest, the era of Chinese power was again replaced by an era of decline, which was again replaced by periods of take-off. After the fall of the Han, the era of the Three Kingdoms began in China, then the Jin dynasty came to power, then the Sui dynasty, and so many times one imperial Chinese dynasties succeeded others, but all of them could not reach the level of greatness that was under the ancient Qin and Han. Nevertheless, China has always experienced the most terrible crises and troubles of history, like a Phoenix bird, reborn from the ashes. And in our time, we are witnessing another rise of Chinese civilization, because even this article you are probably reading on a computer or phone or tablet, many of the details of which (if not all) are made, of course, in China.

Culture of ancient China

Chinese culture is extraordinarily rich and multifaceted, it has greatly enriched the global culture. And the greatest contribution here, in our opinion, is the invention of paper by the Chinese, which in turn actively influenced the development of writing. In those days, when the ancestors of many European peoples still lived in semi-dugouts and could not even think about writing, the Chinese already created extensive libraries with the works of their pundits.

The writing technology of ancient China also underwent a considerable evolution and appeared even before the invention of paper, at first the Chinese wrote on bamboo, for this the bamboo trunks were split into thin boards and hieroglyphs were applied on them with black ink from top to bottom. Then they were fastened with leather straps along the upper and lower edges, and a bamboo panel was obtained, which could be easily rolled into a roll. This was an ancient Chinese book. The appearance of paper made it possible to significantly reduce the cost of book production, and make books themselves accessible to many. Although, of course, ordinary Chinese peasants in those days remained illiterate, but for government officials and especially aristocrats, literacy, as well as mastery of the art of writing, calligraphy was a mandatory requirement.

Money in ancient China, as well as in other civilizations, was first in the form of metal coins, however, in different kingdoms, these coins could have a different shape. Nevertheless, over time, it was the Chinese who were the first, however, already in a later era, to use paper money.

We know about the high level of development of crafts in ancient China from the works of Chinese writers of those times, as they tell us about ancient Chinese artisans of various specialties: casters, carpenters, jewelers, gunsmiths, weavers, ceramics specialists, builders of dams and dams. Moreover, each Chinese region was famous for its skilled craftsmen.

Shipbuilding actively developed in ancient China, as evidenced by the well-preserved model 16 of a rowing boat, a junk, which was discovered by archaeologists.

It looks like an ancient Chinese junk.

And yes, the ancient Chinese were good sailors and in this matter they could even compete with the European Vikings. Sometimes the Chinese, as well as the Europeans, undertook real sea expeditions, the most grandiose of which is the voyage of the Chinese admiral Zheng He, it was he who was the first of the Chinese to sail to the coast of East Africa and visited the Arabian Peninsula. For orientation in sea travel, the Chinese were helped by a compass, invented by them.

Philosophy of ancient China

The philosophy of ancient China stands on two pillars: Taoism and Confucianism, which are based on two great Teachers: Lao Tzu and Confucius. These two areas of Chinese philosophy harmoniously complement each other. If Confucianism defines the moral, ethical side of the Chinese public life (relationship with other people, respect for parents, service to society, proper upbringing of children, nobility of spirit), then Taoism is more of a religious and philosophical doctrine of how to achieve inner perfection and harmony with the outside world and at the same time with yourself.

Don't do to other people what you don't want them to do to you.. - Confucius.

Allowing great malice, you acquire an excess of malice. Calm down - doing good. Lao Tzu.

These lines of two great Chinese sages, in our opinion, perfectly convey the essence of the philosophy of ancient China, its wisdom for those who have ears (in other words, this is briefly the most important of it).

Religion of ancient China

The ancient Chinese religion is largely connected with Chinese philosophy, its moral component comes from Confucianism, the mystical from Taoism, and also much is borrowed from Buddhism, a world religion, which in the 5th century BC. e. appeared in the next.

The Buddhist missionary and monk Bodhidharma (who is also the founder of the legendary Shao-Lin Monastery), according to legend, was the first to bring the Buddhist teachings to China, where it fell on fertile ground and flourished, largely acquiring a Chinese flavor from synthesis with Taoism and Confucianism. Since then, Buddhism has become the third integral part of China's religion.

Buddhism also had a very good influence on the development of education in ancient China (a commoner could become a Buddhist monk, and being a monk already had to learn literacy and writing). Many Buddhist monasteries simultaneously became real scientific and cultural centers of that time, where learned monks were engaged in rewriting Buddhist sutras (creating extensive libraries at the same time), teaching people to read and write, sharing their knowledge with them, and even opening Buddhist universities.

Buddhist monastery Shao-Lin, and it is from here that martial arts originate.

Many Chinese emperors patronized Buddhism by making generous donations to monasteries. At some point, ancient China became a real stronghold of the Buddhist religion, and from there Buddhist missionaries spread the light of the Buddha's teachings to neighboring countries: Korea, Mongolia, Japan.

Art of ancient China

The religion of ancient China, especially Buddhism, largely influenced its art, since many works of art, frescoes, sculptures were created by Buddhist monks. But besides this, a special and peculiar style of painting was formed in China, in which great attention is paid to landscapes, describing the beauty of nature.

Like this painting by Chinese artist Liao Songtang, written in the original Chinese style.

Architecture of ancient China

Many ancient Chinese buildings, created by talented architects of the past, still arouse our admiration to this day. The magnificent palaces of the Chinese emperors are especially amazing, which, first of all, were supposed to focus on the high position of the emperor. In their style, without fail, there is grandeur and splendor.

Palace of the Chinese Emperor, Forbidden City, Beijing.

The palaces of Chinese emperors consisted of two sections: front or official, and everyday or residential, where the private life of the emperor and his family took place.

Buddhist architecture in China is represented by numerous beautiful pagodas and temples built with Chinese pomp and grandeur.

Chinese pagoda.

Buddhist temple.

Ancient China is the birthplace of football, according to Chinese historians, since this ball game is mentioned in ancient Chinese chronicles that date back to 1000 BC. e.
It was the Chinese who were one of the first inventors of the calendar, so around 2000 BC. e. they began to use the lunar calendar, mainly for agricultural work.
Since ancient times, the Chinese have revered birds, with the phoenix, crane and duck enjoying the greatest respect. Phoenix personifies imperial power and strength. The crane symbolizes longevity, and the duck symbolizes family happiness.
Among the ancient Chinese, polygamy was legal, but of course, on the condition that the husband was rich enough to support several wives. As for the Chinese emperors, sometimes there were thousands of concubines in their harems.
The Chinese believed that during the practice of calligraphy, the improvement of the human soul takes place.
The Great Wall of China, a grandiose monument of Chinese construction, is included in the Guinness Book of Records for many parameters: it is the only building on earth that can be seen from space, it was built 2000 years - from 300 BC. e. before 1644, and more people died during its construction than anywhere else.

Ancient China video

And in conclusion, an interesting documentary about ancient China.

Second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. in society Ancient China It was called Zhangguo - the Fighting Kingdoms. It was an era of constant wars between small principalities and kingdoms, formed on the ruins of the once powerful state of Zhou. Over time, seven of the strongest stood out among them, who subjugated weak neighbors to their power and continued to fight for the inheritance of the Zhou dynasty: realms of Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan. But it was also an era of changes in all areas of life, production and social relations. Cities grew, crafts improved, and agriculture developed, iron replaced bronze. Scientists and writers created wonderful interpretations in the field of natural science, philosophy, history, romance and poetry that continue to excite the reader to this day. Suffice it to say that it was at this time that Confucius and Lao Tzu lived, the founders of two philosophical and religious schools - Confucianism and Taoism, the adherents of which even now consider themselves to be the majority of the Chinese.

Despite the borders, it was a single world, one civilization, it created all the conditions not only for unification, but also for going beyond its geographical boundaries. Such unification within the framework of a single empire took place at the end of the 3rd century. BC e. under the rule of the dynasty of one of the "seven strongest" - Qin kingdoms. The dynasty ruled unified China for only one generation, only 11 years (from 221 to 210 BC). But what a decade it was! The reforms affected all aspects of Chinese society.

Map of ancient China during the Qin and Han era

It has been replaced by a new dynasty - Han, which not only did not cross out everything done first emperor Qin Shi Huang, but preserved, multiplied its achievements and extended them to the surrounding peoples, from the Gobi wasteland in the north to the South China Sea in the south and from the Liaodong Peninsula in the east to the Pamir mountains in the west. The empire of ancient China, which took shape by the end of the 3rd century. BC e., lasted until the end of the II century. n. e., when new, even more significant changes brought her to crisis and collapse.

In the further history of the civilization of ancient China, many more dynasties, both local and alien, changed. Epochs of power have more than once been replaced by periods of decline. But China emerged from each crisis invariably retaining its originality and multiplying its cultural wealth. Witnesses of another rise of Chinese civilization we are with you now. And the beginning of this amazing constancy and originality was laid in that distant era when the Celestial Empire of China was born.

Street of a Chinese city of the Eastern Zhou era

The emergence of the civilization of ancient China

Kingdom of Qin among other large formations of Ancient China, it was not the strongest and most enlightened. It was located in the north of the country, had heavy soils and coexisted with numerous nomadic tribes. But protected by natural boundaries - the Yellow River and mountain ranges - the kingdom of Qin was more or less protected from enemy invasions and at the same time occupied convenient strategic positions for attacking neighboring powers and tribes. The lands of the kingdom, lying in the basins of the Weihe, Jinghe and Luohe rivers, are very fertile. In the middle of the III century. BC e. Simultaneously with the creation of the Zheng Guo canal, work was carried out here to drain the marshes, which significantly increased the yield. Important trade routes passed through the territory of the Qin kingdom, and trade with neighboring tribes became one of the sources of its enrichment. Of particular importance for the state was trade with the northern tribes - intermediaries in the trade of the ancient Chinese kingdoms with the countries of Central Asia. From Qin, mainly iron and products from it, salt and silk were exported. From the pastoral tribes of the north and northwest, the inhabitants of the Qin kingdom received wool, skins and slaves. In the southwest, the Qin kingdom traded with the inhabitants of the Mu and Ba regions. The fertile lands and mountain riches of these regions, which also lay at the junction of trade routes that led far to the southwest up to ancient India, became the reason for the expansion of the Qin kingdom.

From the reign of Xiao Gong (361-338 BC), the rise of Qin began. And it was not only the success of the economy and conquests. The same thing happened in other kingdoms of ancient China.

In the middle of the IV century. BC e. in the Qin kingdom were carried out important reforms contributed to its comprehensive strengthening. They were conducted by the dignitary Shang Yang, one of the most prominent representatives and zealous followers of the Fajia teachings. The first was land reform, which dealt a decisive blow to communal land tenure. According to Shang Yang's regulations, land began to be bought and sold freely. In order to centralize the state, Shang Yang introduced a new administrative division according to the territorial principle, which violated the previous borders established by the old tribal division. The whole kingdom was divided into counties (xiang). The counties were divided into smaller formations, each headed by state officials. Associations of five and ten families bound by mutual responsibility became the smallest administrative units. Second reform was tax. Instead of the previous land tax, which was 1/10 of the crop, Shang Yang introduced a new tax corresponding to the amount of cultivated land. This provided the state with an annual permanent income independent of the harvest. Droughts, floods, and crop failures now weighed heavily on the farmers. The new taxation system provided the huge funds needed by the rulers of the Qin kingdom to wage wars.

According to military reform Shang Yang, the Qin army was rearmed and reorganized. It included cavalry. War chariots, which formed the basis of the military power of the former hereditary aristocracy, were excluded from the army. Bronze weapons were replaced by new ones made of iron. The long outer clothing of the warriors was replaced by a short, like that of barbarian nomads, a jacket, comfortable in campaign and battle. The army was divided into fives and dozens, connected by a system of mutual responsibility. Soldiers who did not show due courage were severely punished. After the military reform of Shang Yang, the Qin army became one of the most combat-ready armies of the ancient Chinese kingdoms. Shang Yang created 18 degrees of nobility for military merit. For each captured and killed enemy, one degree was relied. “Benevolent houses that do not have military merit can no longer be on the lists of the nobility,” the decree said. The result of the reforms carried out by Shang Yang was the appearance on the spot of a previously amorphous formation - the kingdom of Qin - a strong centralized state. Since the reign of Xiao Gong, the struggle of the Qin kingdom for the unification of the entire territory of Ancient China under its hegemony began. The Qin kingdom had no equal in strength and power. Further conquests of the kingdom, culminating in the formation of an empire, are associated with the name of Ying Zheng (246-221 BC). As a result of many years of struggle, he subjugated one after another all the kingdoms of Ancient China: in 230 BC. e. - the kingdom of Han, in 228 BC. e. - the kingdom of Zhao, in 225 BC. e. - Kingdom of Wei. In 222 BC. e. the kingdom of Chu was finally conquered. In the same year, the kingdom of Yan also surrendered. The last - in 221 BC. e. - Kingdom of Qi conquered. The chariot, charioteer and horses are made with extraordinary precision, conveying all the details of the prototypes. Having become the head of a huge state, Ying Zheng chose a new title for himself and his descendants - huangdi (emperor). Later sources usually refer to him as Qin Shi Huang, which literally means "the first emperor of the Qin Empire". Almost immediately after the completion of the conquests of the ancient Chinese kingdoms, Qin Shi Huang undertook successful campaigns against the Huns in the north and the Yue kingdom in the south. The Chinese state has gone beyond the boundaries of national education. From this moment begins the countdown of the history of the imperial period.

Sericulture. Silk in ancient China

Sources testify to the veneration of the silk worm and silk weaving by the ancient Chinese. Mulberry is a sacred tree, the personification of the Sun and a symbol of fertility. Old Chinese texts mention sacred mulberry groves or isolated mulberry trees as sites of rituals associated with the cult of the Mother Ancestor. According to legend, the baby Yin, who became the founder of the first dynasty of China, was found in the hollow of a mulberry tree. The deity of the silkworm was considered a woman who kneels by a tree and weaves a silk thread.

Money in ancient China

In the VI century. BC e., as well as at the other end of the civilized world in Western Asia and, in Jin kingdom coinage first appeared. Soon they began to be cast in other powers of Ancient China. in different kingdoms money was different: in Chu - the shape of a square, and in Qi and Yan - the shape of knives or swords, in Zhao, Han and Wei - the shape of shovels, in Qin there were large money with square holes in the middle.

Writing

For writing before the invention of paper in China, bamboo or wooden plates and silk were used. Bamboo plates were stitched into a kind of "notebooks". Silk "books" were stored in rolls.

Improved writing technology ancient China. The Chinese split bamboo trunks into thin boards and wrote hieroglyphs on them with black ink from top to bottom. Then, folded in a row, they were fastened with leather straps along the upper and lower edges - a long bamboo panel was obtained, easily rolled up into a roll. Such was an ancient Chinese book, usually written on several scrolls - juan; rolled up, they were placed in an earthen vessel, kept in stone chests of imperial libraries, in wicker boxes of scribes.

Politics of ancient China

Chinese society, at least the most enlightened minds of that time, well understood the past and future changes. This awareness gave rise to numerous ideological currents, some of which defended antiquity, others accepted all innovations as a given, and still others were looking for ways to further progress. It can be said that politics entered the home of every Chinese, and passionate disputes between supporters of various doctrines flared up in the squares and in taverns, at the courts of nobles and dignitaries. The most famous teachings of that era were Taoism, Confucianism and Fajia, conventionally called the school of lawyers - legalists. The political platforms put forward by representatives of these trends expressed the interests of different segments of the population. The creators and preachers of these teachings were both representatives of the high society, and people of the humble and poor. Some of them came from the lowest levels of society, even from among the slaves. The founder of Taoism is considered a semi-legendary sage Lao Tzu who lived, according to legend, in the VI-V centuries. BC e. He wrote a philosophical treatise known as the Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Te). The doctrine set forth in this book has become, to a certain extent, an expression of the community's passive protest against increased tax oppression and ruin. Condemning wealth, luxury and nobility, Lao Tzu spoke out against the arbitrariness and cruelty of the rulers, against violence and wars. The social ideal of ancient Taoism was a return to the primitive community. However, along with a passionate denunciation of injustice and violence, Lao Tzu preached the renunciation of the struggle, putting forward the theory of "non-doing", according to which a person must dutifully follow the Tao - the natural course of life. This theory was the main principle of the socio-ethical concept of Taoism.

Confucianism arose as an ethical and political doctrine at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. and subsequently became very widespread. Its founder is considered to be a preacher from the kingdom of Lu - Kung-tzu (Confucius, as he is called in the European world; about 551-479 BC). Confucians were the ideologists of the old aristocracy, justified the order of things that had developed since ancient times, had a negative attitude towards the enrichment and exaltation of ignoble people. According to the teachings of Confucius, each person in society must occupy a strictly defined place. “The sovereign must be the sovereign, the subject must be the subject, the father must be the father, the son must be the son,” said Confucius. Its adherents insisted on the inviolability of patriarchal relations and attached great importance to the cult of ancestors.

Representatives of the third direction - fajia expressed the interests of the new nobility. They advocated the establishment of private ownership of land, the cessation of internecine wars between the kingdoms, and insisted on reforms that would meet the requirements of the times. This trend of social thought flourished in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. The most prominent representatives of the Fajia were Shang Yang, who lived in the 4th century. BC e. and Han Fei (3rd century BC). Legists created their own theory of political and state structure. In their works, for the first time in the history of China, idea of "legal law" as instruments of government. In contrast to the Confucians, who were guided by ancient traditions and customs, the Legalists believed that the government of the state should be based on strict and binding laws (fa) that meet the needs of modernity. They were supporters of the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. In the struggle for the unification of ancient China, it was the one who followed this teaching that won. He was elected by the rulers of the outlying and least enlightened kingdom of Qin, who readily accepted the idea of a “strong kingdom and a weak people”, absolute power over the entire Celestial Empire.

Craft

About the level development of ancient Chinese crafts says a list of professions. Ancient writers report of craftsmen of various trades: skilled foundry workers, carpenters, jewelers, gunsmiths, wagon makers, pottery makers, weavers, even builders of dams and dams. Each region and city was famous for its craftsmen: the kingdom of Qi - for the production of silk and linen fabrics, and its capital Linzi was the largest center of weaving at that time. Here, thanks to the convenient location, salt and fishing industries have received special development. The city of Linqiong in the Shu region (Sichuan), rich in ore deposits, has become one of the most significant centers for the extraction and processing of iron. The largest centers of iron production at that time were Nanyang in the kingdom of Han and Handan, the capital of the kingdom of Zhao. In the Chu kingdom, the city of Hofei was famous for the production of leather products, Changsha - for jewelry. Coastal cities are known for building ships. The well-preserved wooden model 1b-rowing boat(see below), which was discovered by archaeologists during excavations of ancient graves. Already in this distant era, the Chinese invented a primitive compass; it was originally used for overland travel, and then Chinese navigators began to use it. The growth of cities and handicraft production, the expansion of the land and water road network gave impetus to the development of trade.

At this time, connections were established not only within the kingdoms, but also between various regions of ancient China and neighboring tribes. Slaves, horses, cattle, sheep, leather and wool were bought from the northern and western tribes of the Chinese; the tribes that lived in the south - ivory, dyes, gold, silver, pearls. During this period, the kingdom was considered stronger and richer, where there were a significant number of large merchants. And their influence on political life increased so much that more and more often they began to occupy the highest government positions at court. So, in the kingdom of Wei in the IV century. BC e. trader Bai Tui became a major dignitary. In the kingdom of Qin in the III century. BC e. the famous horse trader Lü Buwei served as the first councillor. The Tian family rose in the Qi realm.