Section - I - SHORT DESCRIPTION

Section - II -CHINA IN THE 3rd CENTURY BC - 2nd CENTURY AD

Section - III - Culture of Ancient China

Section - IV -The art of ancient China briefly

Section - V -Religion of Ancient China briefly

Ancient China is one of the most majestic civilizations of the ancient world. The origins of ancient China are similar to those of Sumer, Ancient India, and Ancient Egypt. The majestic Yellow River constantly brings from the mountains particles of fertile soil - loess.

In the valley of the Yellow River (Huang He) an ancient civilization was born. The first kingdom appeared in the second millennium BC and was called Yin or Shang.

Modern archaeologists carried out excavations, as a result of which they managed to unearth the capital of this kingdom, the Great City of Shan and the tombs of some Shan kings - they were called Vans. Van was buried in a fairly deep (up to 10 meters) pit, into which a ladder was led. Gold jewelry, jade jewelry, jasper, and huge bronze vessels were placed in the grave. The duties of the bath included the following: govern the state, perform special religious rites, as well as the supreme court.

Wang was considered a sacred and inviolable person. In one thousand one hundred and twenty-second BC, a tribe called Zhou, led by Wu-wang, inflicted a great defeat on the Shang, thereby establishing their dominance, and most of the inhabitants of the Shang-Yin state were enslaved. In the eighth century BC, under the blows of the nomads, the state of Zhou disintegrated; now, one or the other kingdoms are put forward for the main role, of which the largest state was the kingdom called Jin (seventh - fifth centuries BC). After the collapse of the Jin state, the difficult period of Zhangguo (translated as “Warring States”) began, when ancient China was divided into two dozen small principalities that were constantly at war with each other, and also practically did not submit to the Zhou Wang.

6-5 centuries BC - the time when the first philosophical teachings begin to appear in ancient China. In the sixth century BC, a great sage lived in China, his name was Confucius, he was very revered among the Chinese, both at that time and in all subsequent centuries. Confucius's teachings about respect for elders, about a "noble person", about the importance of education, about modesty, etc., later became an important standard for relationships in China between people - both in the family and in the country itself.

In 221 BC. e. Qin ruler Ying Zheng began to unite vast territories into a single empire and took the title of Qin Shi Huang, which means "The First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty." This
the ruler brutally destroyed all resistance, using the most terrible types of execution. If a person did not comply with the law, then in this case the whole family of this person was also punished: his family members were simply turned into slaves, forcing them to work on heavy construction work.

When Qin Shi Huang established his own power in the empire, he started a war with the nomadic Huns, who often attacked his borders from the north side. He decided to consolidate his victory forever by building a powerful border wall, which was called the Great Wall of China. After the fall of the Qin Dynasty, Liu Bang came to power. He reduced taxation and abolished some of the most brutal laws that had been introduced in ancient China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Liu Bang, who was then succeeded by eleven of his descendants, became the founder of the Han Dynasty. During the era of the Han Dynasty, the main features of the Ancient Chinese state were formed. In ancient China, the foundations of Chinese civilization and its culture - art, literature, science - were laid. In 2020, the Han Dynasty fell into decline, and several states independent of each other were formed throughout its territory. This event is considered the end of the ancient period in Chinese history.

Natural conditions of ancient China briefly

The ancient Chinese inhabited the North China Plain, located in the extreme east of Asia. From west to east, the plain was crossed by the Yellow River (Yellow River), which carried a lot of fertile silt. Settling, silt filled the channel and forced the river to change it. The Yellow River flooded the fields, washing away the villages. The people called it "the grief of China." By hard work, cutting down forests, draining swamps, strengthening the banks of rivers, the ancient Chinese turned their homeland into a country of developed agriculture. The valley of the Yangtze (Blue River), located south of the Yellow River, was conquered by the Chinese later. The rivers, especially the Yangtze with its numerous tributaries, served in ancient times as the most important communication routes.

Population occupations.

In the middle of the second millennium BC. e, the Huang He region and its tributaries were inhabited by numerous tribes of hunters and fishermen. One of these tribes, the Yin tribe, managed to subdue their neighbors. Recently, dozens of settlements of the Yin people have been excavated by archaeologists. Many thousands of inscriptions have been found on animal bones and turtle shields. This allows you to study the life and occupations of the ancient population of China.

The main occupation of the ancient Chinese, who settled in the Yellow River valley, was agriculture. This was favored by a mild, temperate climate, fertile soil and an abundance of moisture.

Millet, wheat, barley, rice grew on the fields. Two crops were harvested during the year: millet was harvested in the first half of the year, and wheat was harvested in the second. The land was cultivated with a wooden plow, wooden hoes, stone sickles.

Cattle breeding, fishing, hunting acquired secondary importance. In addition to cattle and horses, the ancient Chinese bred sheep, goats, pigs. Dairy products were not used by the Chinese in ancient times.

Initially, the farmers themselves made the simplest agricultural tools, pottery, fabrics. Over time, the craft turns into a special, independent branch of production. First of all, the foundry craft stood out, requiring special skills and abilities. Bronze casters melted and forged metal and made weapons and various utensils from it. Potters began to make beautiful and durable dishes, using a potter's wheel and oven. Since ancient times, the Chinese have been able to make thin
silk fabrics. The skill was kept secret.

With the development of agriculture and handicrafts, trade arises and develops. Trade was conducted not only with immediate neighbors, but also with the peoples on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The role of money was originally performed by precious shells. It was difficult to get them. Therefore, they began to make artificial shells of precious stone and bone. Then they began to cast bronze ingots in the form of shells and other objects. This is how metal money appeared in China.

ancient slave states.

In the second millennium BC. e. The Chinese have slavery. Its main source is wars with neighbors, especially with northern nomadic tribes. Slaves were also received in the form of tribute from conquered tribes.

Slave labor began to be used in the economy. During this period, slaves were still collectively owned by the community. Slaves were not only forced to work to the point of exhaustion, but were also sacrificed to the gods. Archaeologists have unearthed burials with burials of hundreds of people who died a violent death. These were the sacrificed slaves.

Along with burials containing rich things, as well as "sacrificed slaves, graves were excavated in which there are no things. This indicates that rich and poor, slaves and slave owners appeared in society.

In order to keep the slaves and the poor in obedience, the slave-owning nobility creates a state. At the head of the ancient Chinese state becomes a military leader - wang. His support was to know and numerous officials. They levied unbearable taxes from the population. For service, the van gave away land and slaves to his close associates. This led to the development of large landownership.

In the XII century. BC e. the Zhou tribe, who lived to the west of the Shan-Yin state, subjugates the Yin people. The state of Zhou was formed. In addition, many other slave-owning states appeared in China.

The farmers in these states lived in communities, but each family received a land allotment for use. Tools of labor, livestock, seeds were also privately owned by a separate

noah family. The tribal and tribal nobility, taking advantage of their position as leaders of the community, began to seize the best lands. Free community members were exhausted by lack of land, fell into debt dependence on their rich neighbors - large landowners.

The discontent of the peasants was reflected in songs condemning the greed and cruelty of the rich. In one of these songs, large landowners are compared to a horde of rats eating the fruits of human labor:

“Our rats, our rats, do not gnaw on our millet. We've been living with you for three years, And you can't see any worries... Our rats, our rats, You don't gnaw at the crops. We have been living with you for three years, And you don’t see any awards, ”

Skilled artisans lived in the cities. They made beautiful dishes from clay and metals. From the middle of the first millennium BC. e. The Chinese knew lacquer. Furniture and other wooden products were varnished. The sap of the lacquer tree was poisonous, so the artisans who made beautiful, elegant things died early.

In the first half of the first millennium BC. e. Chinese trade relations are expanding. The development of trade was facilitated by the appearance of the first coins made of metal. Gradually, cities turn into centers of crafts and trade.

The northern borders of China were constantly attacked by nomads, who later became known as the "Huns". The Chinese states entered into alliances with each other, since it was impossible to fight the nomads with the forces of one state. But these alliances were fragile. Often the Chinese states were at war with each other. The internecine wars ruined the economy of China and led to still greater exploitation of the working masses.

Second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. in society Ancient China It was called Zhangguo - the Fighting Kingdoms. It was an era of constant wars between small principalities and kingdoms, formed on the ruins of the once powerful state of Zhou. Over time, seven of the strongest stood out among them, who subjugated weak neighbors to their power and continued to fight for the inheritance of the Zhou dynasty: realms of Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan. But it was also an era of changes in all areas of life, production and social relations. Cities grew, crafts improved, and agriculture developed, iron replaced bronze. Scientists and writers created wonderful interpretations in the field of natural science, philosophy, history, romance and poetry that continue to excite the reader to this day. Suffice it to say that it was at this time that Confucius and Lao Tzu lived, the founders of two philosophical and religious schools - Confucianism and Taoism, the adherents of which even now consider themselves to be the majority of the Chinese.

Despite the borders, it was a single world, one civilization, it created all the conditions not only for unification, but also for going beyond its geographical boundaries. Such unification within the framework of a single empire took place at the end of the 3rd century. BC e. under the rule of the dynasty of one of the "seven strongest" - Qin kingdoms. The dynasty ruled unified China for only one generation, only 11 years (from 221 to 210 BC). But what a decade it was! The reforms affected all aspects of Chinese society.

Map of ancient China during the Qin and Han era

It has been replaced by a new dynasty - Han, which not only did not cross out everything done first emperor Qin Shi Huang, but preserved, multiplied its achievements and extended them to the surrounding peoples, from the Gobi wasteland in the north to the South China Sea in the south and from the Liaodong Peninsula in the east to the Pamir mountains in the west. The empire of ancient China, which took shape by the end of the 3rd century. BC e., lasted until the end of the II century. n. e., when new, even more significant changes brought her to crisis and collapse.

In the further history of the civilization of ancient China, many more dynasties, both local and alien, changed. Epochs of power have more than once been replaced by periods of decline. But China emerged from each crisis invariably retaining its originality and multiplying its cultural wealth. Witnesses of another rise of Chinese civilization we are with you now. And the beginning of this amazing constancy and originality was laid in that distant era when the Celestial Empire of China was born.

Street of a Chinese city of the Eastern Zhou era

The emergence of the civilization of ancient China

Kingdom of Qin among other large formations of Ancient China, it was not the strongest and most enlightened. It was located in the north of the country, had heavy soils and coexisted with numerous nomadic tribes. But protected by natural boundaries - the Yellow River and mountain ranges - the kingdom of Qin was more or less protected from enemy invasions and at the same time occupied convenient strategic positions for attacking neighboring powers and tribes. The lands of the kingdom, lying in the basins of the Weihe, Jinghe and Luohe rivers, are very fertile. In the middle of the III century. BC e. Simultaneously with the creation of the Zheng Guo canal, work was carried out here to drain the marshes, which significantly increased the yield. Important trade routes passed through the territory of the Qin kingdom, and trade with neighboring tribes became one of the sources of its enrichment. Of particular importance for the state was trade with the northern tribes - intermediaries in the trade of the ancient Chinese kingdoms with the countries of Central Asia. From Qin, mainly iron and products from it, salt and silk were exported. From the pastoral tribes of the north and northwest, the inhabitants of the Qin kingdom received wool, skins and slaves. In the southwest, the Qin kingdom traded with the inhabitants of the Mu and Ba regions. The fertile lands and mountain riches of these regions, which also lay at the junction of trade routes that led far to the southwest up to ancient India, became the reason for the expansion of the Qin kingdom.

From the reign of Xiao Gong (361-338 BC), the rise of Qin began. And it was not only the success of the economy and conquests. The same thing happened in other kingdoms of ancient China.

In the middle of the IV century. BC e. in the Qin kingdom were carried out important reforms contributed to its comprehensive strengthening. They were conducted by the dignitary Shang Yang, one of the most prominent representatives and zealous followers of the Fajia teachings. The first was land reform, which dealt a decisive blow to communal land tenure. According to Shang Yang's regulations, land began to be bought and sold freely. In order to centralize the state, Shang Yang introduced a new administrative division according to the territorial principle, which violated the previous borders established by the old tribal division. The whole kingdom was divided into counties (xiang). The counties were divided into smaller formations, each headed by state officials. Associations of five and ten families bound by mutual responsibility became the smallest administrative units. Second reform was tax. Instead of the previous land tax, which was 1/10 of the crop, Shang Yang introduced a new tax corresponding to the amount of cultivated land. This provided the state with an annual permanent income independent of the harvest. Droughts, floods, and crop failures now weighed heavily on the farmers. The new taxation system provided the huge funds needed by the rulers of the Qin kingdom to wage wars.

According to military reform Shang Yang, the Qin army was rearmed and reorganized. It included cavalry. War chariots, which formed the basis of the military power of the former hereditary aristocracy, were excluded from the army. Bronze weapons were replaced by new ones made of iron. The long outer clothing of the warriors was replaced by a short, like that of barbarian nomads, a jacket, comfortable in campaign and battle. The army was divided into fives and dozens, connected by a system of mutual responsibility. Soldiers who did not show due courage were severely punished. After the military reform of Shang Yang, the Qin army became one of the most combat-ready armies of the ancient Chinese kingdoms. Shang Yang created 18 degrees of nobility for military merit. For each captured and killed enemy, one degree was relied. “Benevolent houses that do not have military merit can no longer be on the lists of the nobility,” the decree said. The result of the reforms carried out by Shang Yang was the appearance on the spot of a previously amorphous formation - the kingdom of Qin - a strong centralized state. Since the reign of Xiao Gong, the struggle of the Qin kingdom for the unification of the entire territory of Ancient China under its hegemony began. The Qin kingdom had no equal in strength and power. Further conquests of the kingdom, culminating in the formation of an empire, are associated with the name of Ying Zheng (246-221 BC). As a result of many years of struggle, he subjugated one after another all the kingdoms of Ancient China: in 230 BC. e. - the kingdom of Han, in 228 BC. e. - the kingdom of Zhao, in 225 BC. e. - Kingdom of Wei. In 222 BC. e. the kingdom of Chu was finally conquered. In the same year, the kingdom of Yan also surrendered. The last - in 221 BC. e. - Kingdom of Qi conquered. The chariot, charioteer and horses are made with extraordinary precision, conveying all the details of the prototypes. Having become the head of a huge state, Ying Zheng chose a new title for himself and his descendants - huangdi (emperor). Later sources usually refer to him as Qin Shi Huang, which literally means "the first emperor of the Qin Empire". Almost immediately after the completion of the conquests of the ancient Chinese kingdoms, Qin Shi Huang undertook successful campaigns against the Huns in the north and the Yue kingdom in the south. The Chinese state has gone beyond the boundaries of national education. From this moment begins the countdown of the history of the imperial period.

Sericulture. Silk in ancient China

Sources testify to the veneration of the silk worm and silk weaving by the ancient Chinese. Mulberry is a sacred tree, the personification of the Sun and a symbol of fertility. Old Chinese texts mention sacred mulberry groves or isolated mulberry trees as sites of rituals associated with the cult of the Mother Ancestor. According to legend, the baby Yin, who became the founder of the first dynasty of China, was found in the hollow of a mulberry tree. The deity of the silkworm was considered a woman who kneels by a tree and weaves a silk thread.

Money in ancient China

In the VI century. BC e., as well as at the other end of the civilized world in Western Asia and, in Jin kingdom coinage first appeared. Soon they began to be cast in other powers of Ancient China. in different kingdoms money was different: in Chu - the shape of a square, and in Qi and Yan - the shape of knives or swords, in Zhao, Han and Wei - the shape of shovels, in Qin there were large money with square holes in the middle.

Writing

For writing before the invention of paper in China, bamboo or wooden plates and silk were used. Bamboo plates were stitched into a kind of "notebooks". Silk "books" were stored in rolls.

Improved writing technology ancient China. The Chinese split bamboo trunks into thin boards and wrote hieroglyphs on them with black ink from top to bottom. Then, folded in a row, they were fastened with leather straps along the upper and lower edges - a long bamboo panel was obtained, easily rolled up into a roll. Such was an ancient Chinese book, usually written on several scrolls - juan; rolled up, they were placed in an earthen vessel, kept in stone chests of imperial libraries, in wicker boxes of scribes.

Politics of ancient China

Chinese society, at least the most enlightened minds of that time, well understood the past and future changes. This awareness gave rise to numerous ideological currents, some of which defended antiquity, others accepted all innovations as a given, and still others were looking for ways to further progress. It can be said that politics entered the home of every Chinese, and passionate disputes between supporters of various doctrines flared up in the squares and in taverns, at the courts of nobles and dignitaries. The most famous teachings of that era were Taoism, Confucianism and Fajia, conventionally called the school of lawyers - legalists. The political platforms put forward by representatives of these trends expressed the interests of different segments of the population. The creators and preachers of these teachings were both representatives of the high society, and people of the humble and poor. Some of them came from the lowest levels of society, even from among the slaves. The founder of Taoism is considered a semi-legendary sage Lao Tzu who lived, according to legend, in the VI-V centuries. BC e. He wrote a philosophical treatise known as the Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Te). The doctrine set forth in this book has become, to a certain extent, an expression of the community's passive protest against increased tax oppression and ruin. Condemning wealth, luxury and nobility, Lao Tzu spoke out against the arbitrariness and cruelty of the rulers, against violence and wars. The social ideal of ancient Taoism was a return to the primitive community. However, along with a passionate denunciation of injustice and violence, Lao Tzu preached the renunciation of the struggle, putting forward the theory of "non-doing", according to which a person must dutifully follow the Tao - the natural course of life. This theory was the main principle of the socio-ethical concept of Taoism.

Confucianism arose as an ethical and political doctrine at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. and subsequently became very widespread. Its founder is considered to be a preacher from the kingdom of Lu - Kung-tzu (Confucius, as he is called in the European world; about 551-479 BC). Confucians were the ideologists of the old aristocracy, justified the order of things that had developed since ancient times, had a negative attitude towards the enrichment and exaltation of ignoble people. According to the teachings of Confucius, each person in society must occupy a strictly defined place. “The sovereign must be the sovereign, the subject must be the subject, the father must be the father, the son must be the son,” said Confucius. Its adherents insisted on the inviolability of patriarchal relations and attached great importance to the cult of ancestors.

Representatives of the third direction - fajia expressed the interests of the new nobility. They advocated the establishment of private ownership of land, the cessation of internecine wars between the kingdoms, and insisted on reforms that would meet the requirements of the times. This trend of social thought flourished in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. The most prominent representatives of the Fajia were Shang Yang, who lived in the 4th century. BC e. and Han Fei (3rd century BC). Legists created their own theory of political and state structure. In their works, for the first time in the history of China, idea of ​​"legal law" as instruments of government. In contrast to the Confucians, who were guided by ancient traditions and customs, the Legalists believed that the government of the state should be based on strict and binding laws (fa) that meet the needs of modernity. They were supporters of the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. In the struggle for the unification of ancient China, it was the one who followed this teaching that won. He was elected by the rulers of the outlying and least enlightened kingdom of Qin, who readily accepted the idea of ​​a “strong kingdom and a weak people”, absolute power over the entire Celestial Empire.

Craft

About the level development of ancient Chinese crafts says a list of professions. Ancient writers report of craftsmen of various trades: skilled foundry workers, carpenters, jewelers, gunsmiths, wagon makers, pottery makers, weavers, even builders of dams and dams. Each region and city was famous for its craftsmen: the kingdom of Qi - for the production of silk and linen fabrics, and its capital Linzi was the largest center of weaving at that time. Here, thanks to the convenient location, salt and fishing industries have received special development. The city of Linqiong in the Shu region (Sichuan), rich in ore deposits, has become one of the most significant centers for the extraction and processing of iron. The largest centers of iron production at that time were Nanyang in the kingdom of Han and Handan, the capital of the kingdom of Zhao. In the Chu kingdom, the city of Hofei was famous for the production of leather products, Changsha - for jewelry. Coastal cities are known for building ships. The well-preserved wooden model 1b-rowing boat(see below), which was discovered by archaeologists during excavations of ancient graves. Already in this distant era, the Chinese invented a primitive compass; it was originally used for overland travel, and then Chinese navigators began to use it. The growth of cities and handicraft production, the expansion of the land and water road network gave impetus to the development of trade.

At this time, connections were established not only within the kingdoms, but also between various regions of ancient China and neighboring tribes. Slaves, horses, cattle, sheep, leather and wool were bought from the northern and western tribes of the Chinese; the tribes that lived in the south - ivory, dyes, gold, silver, pearls. During this period, the kingdom was considered stronger and richer, where there were a significant number of large merchants. And their influence on political life increased so much that more and more often they began to occupy the highest government positions at court. So, in the kingdom of Wei in the IV century. BC e. trader Bai Tui became a major dignitary. In the kingdom of Qin in the III century. BC e. the famous horse trader Lü Buwei served as the first councillor. The Tian family rose in the Qi realm.

Ancient China is the most ancient culture, which has practically not changed the way of life to this day. Wise Chinese rulers were able to lead the great empire through the millennia. Let's take a quick look at everything in order.

Ancient people probably reached East Asia between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. Currently, pieces of pottery, ceramics have been discovered in the Chinese hunter-gatherer cave, the approximate age of the cave is 18 thousand years, this is the oldest pottery ever found.

Historians believe that agriculture appeared in China around 7000 BC. The first crop was a grain called millet. Rice also began to be grown around this time, and perhaps rice appeared a little earlier than millet. As agriculture began to provide more food, the population began to increase, and this also allowed people to do other jobs other than constantly searching for food.

Most historians agree that Chinese civilization formed around 2000 BC around the Yellow River. China became home to one of the four early civilizations. China is different from other civilizations, the culture that developed has remained to this day, of course, changes have occurred over the millennia, but the essence of culture has remained.

The other three civilizations disappeared or were completely absorbed and assimilated by new people. For this reason, people say that China is the oldest civilization in the world. In China, the families that controlled the land became the leaders of family governments called dynasties.

Dynasties of China

The history of China from ancient times to the century before last was divided into different dynasties.

Xia dynasty

The Xia Dynasty (2000 BC-1600 BC) was the first dynasty in Chinese history. Her period lasted about 500 years and included the kingdom of 17 emperors - the emperor is the same as the king. The Xia people were farmers and wielded bronze weapons and earthenware.

Silk is one of the most important products that China has ever created. Most historians agree that the Xia Dynasty produced silk clothing, although silk production may have begun much earlier.

Silk is produced by mining cocoons of silk insects. Each cocoon yields one silk thread.

Not all historians agree that the Xia was a real dynasty. Some believe that the Xia story is just a mythical story, because some of the points do not correspond to archaeological discoveries.

Shang dynasty

The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) was originally a clan living along the Yellow River during the Xia Dynasty. A clan is a group of very close families that are often seen as one big family. The Shang conquered Xia land and gained control of Chinese civilization. The Shang Dynasty lasted over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors.

The Shang were the oldest Chinese civilization, leaving behind written records that were inscribed on turtle shells, cattle bones, or other bones.

Bones were often used to determine what nature or want. If the emperor needed to know the future, say which "the king will have a son" or "whether to start a war," assistants carved questions into the bones, then heated them to cracks. The lines of cracks told the wishes of the gods.

During the Shang Dynasty, people worshiped many gods, probably like the ancient Greeks. Also ancestor worship was very important as they believed that their family members become godlike after death.

It is important to understand that other smaller Chinese families also existed in different parts of China at the same time as the Shang, but the Shang seems to have been the most advanced, as they left behind a lot of writing. The Shang were eventually defeated by the Zhou clan.

Zhou dynasty

The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history. Due to a split in the dynasty, over time, Zhou was divided into parts called Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou,.

The Zhou fought against the invading armies from the north (the Mongols), they built large mounds of mud and stone as barriers that slowed down the enemy - this was the prototype of the Great Wall. The crossbow was another invention of this time - it was extremely effective.

During the Zhou, the Iron Age of China began. Iron-tipped weapons were much stronger, and the iron plow helped increase food production.

All agricultural land belonged to the nobility (the rich). The nobles allowed the peasants to farm the land, similar to the feudal system that developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.

The Emergence of Chinese Philosophy

During the Zhou Dynasty, two major Chinese philosophies developed: Taoism and Confucianism. The great Chinese philosopher Confucius developed a way of life called Confucianism. Confucianism says that all people can be trained and improved if you find the right approach.

Basic postulates: people should focus on helping others; family is the most important value; the elders of society are the most revered. Confucianism is still important today, but it did not become widespread in China until the Han Dynasty.

The founder of Taoism was Laozi. Taoism is everything that follows "Tao" which means "the way". Tao is the driving force behind all things in the universe. The Yin Yang symbol is commonly associated with Taoism. Taoists believe that you should live in harmony with nature, be humble, live simply without unnecessary things and be compassionate to everything.

These philosophies differ from religions because they do not have gods, although the idea of ​​ancestors and nature is often seen as gods. The power of the emperor was also associated with religious beliefs. Zhou spoke of the Mandate of Heaven as a law that allowed Chinese emperors to rule - he said that the ruler was blessed by Heaven to rule over the people. If he has lost the blessing of heaven, he should be removed.

The things that proved that the ruling family had lost the mandate of Heaven were natural disasters and riots.

By 475 BC the provinces of the Zhou kingdom were more powerful than the central Zhou government. The provinces rebelled and fought each other for 200 years. This period is called the Warring States period. In the end, one family (Qin) united all the others into one empire. It was during this period that the concept of Imperial China appeared.

Qin dynasty

From 221 BC e. Until 206 BC e. The Qin dynasty gained control of civilized China. Qin's reign did not last long, but it had an important impact on the future of China. The Qin expanded their territory and created China's first empire. The cruel leader Qin Shi Huang declared himself the first true emperor of China. This dynasty created a currency standard (money), a wheel axle size standard (to make roads all the same size), and uniform laws that applied throughout the empire.

Qin also standardized the various writing systems into one system that is used in China today. Qin Shi Huang enforced the philosophy of "Legalism" which focuses on people who follow the laws and receive instructions from the government.

Mongol invasions from the north were a constant problem in China. The Qin government ordered that the walls built earlier be combined. This is considered the beginning of the creation of the Great Wall of China. Each dynasty built a new wall or improved the previous dynasty's wall. Most of the walls of the Qin period are now destroyed or have been replaced. The wall that exists today was built by a later dynasty called the Ming.

An amazing tomb was made for the emperor, bigger than a football field. It is still sealed, but legend has it that there are rivers of mercury within it. Outside the tomb is a life-sized clay army discovered in 1974.

The terracotta army has over 8,000 unique soldiers, over 600 horses, 130 chariots, as well as acrobats and musicians, all made from clay.

Although the Qin dynasty did not rule long, its standardization of Chinese life left a profound impact on later dynasties in China. It is from the period of this dynasty that we derive the name "China". The first emperor of this dynasty died in 210 BC. e. he was replaced by a weak and small son. As a result, a rebellion began, and a member of the Qin army took control of the Empire, which began a new dynasty.

Han dynasty

The Han Dynasty began in 206 BC and lasted 400 years until 220 AD. and is considered one of the greatest periods in the history of China. Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty is divided into Western Han and Eastern Han. Han culture defines Chinese culture today. In fact, most Chinese citizens today claim "Han" as an ethnic origin. The government made Confucianism the official system of the empire.

During this time, the empire grew greatly, conquering land in present-day Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and even Central Asia. The empire grew so much that the emperor needed a larger government to govern it. Many things were invented during this time, including paper, steel, the compass, and porcelain.

Porcelain is a very hard type of ceramic. Porcelain is made from a special clay that is heated until it melts and almost turns into glass. Porcelain dishes, cups and bowls are often referred to as "Chinese" because a few hundred years ago all porcelain was made in China.

The Han Dynasty was also known for its military power. The empire expanded westward to the edge of the Takla Makan desert, allowing the government to guard trade flows in Central Asia.

The caravan routes are often referred to as the "Silk Road" because this route was used to export Chinese silk. The Han Dynasty also expanded and fortified the Great Wall of China to protect the Silk Road. Another important product of the Silk Road was the religion of Buddhism, which reached China during this period.

Chinese dynasties would continue to rule China until the Middle Ages. China has retained its uniqueness, because from time immemorial they have honored their culture.

Interesting Facts About Ancient China

The history of ancient China goes back into the distant past: several thousand years ago, great China was already formed. There were ups and downs as well.

The periodization of Ancient China is due to the change of dynasties, which ultimately create this very history. Let's take a look at it.

Periodization of Ancient China

All these dynasties are also divided into several groups.

Stages of periodization of the history of the state in Ancient China:

1. The first people in the Neolithic era.

2. The period with the first three dynasties, when China was fragmented, there was no empire as such.

3. Traditional China and the empire.

This is where the whole of old China ends, the dynasties as such cease to rule, and the last stage begins, covering only the 20th and 21st centuries.

However, the period before the beginning of the Middle Ages belongs to Ancient China, it ends with the Han Dynasty. The entire period of the existence of Ancient China can be expressed as building the foundation for a great state, for what it is now.

Let us consider below briefly the history of civilization and the periodization of Ancient China, the social and state systems, as well as the philosophy of that time and great inventions.

The beginning of the story

It is known that the first ancestors of the Chinese lived 400 thousand years ago in the Neolithic era. The remains of Sinanthropus were found in a cave near Beijing. The first people already owned coloring and some other skills.

In general, the territory of China is convenient for life, so history recedes into such a distant past. The soil is fertile, and the steppe itself is surrounded by the sea, mountains, which could protect people from attacks by enemies. Such a convenient location attracted the first inhabitants, who were the ancestors of the current Chinese.

Scientists also know that there were two cultures after Sinanthropus: Yangshao and Longshan. There were probably more, but they mixed with each other. Only two have been archaeologically confirmed.

Yangshao culture existed 2-3 thousand years BC. People of that period lived on a vast territory from the province of Gansu and up to the south of Manchuria. It is known that they could make beautiful colored pottery.

Longshan was located mainly in the province of Shandong. In central China, both cultures overlapped each other. People also mastered the skill of processing ceramics, but their main pride was the ability to make various objects from bone. On some of them, which were found by scientists, scraped inscriptions were found. This was the first prerequisite for writing.

Further, it is conditionally possible to single out several stages of periodization of the history and culture of Ancient China. The first three dynasties belong to the stage before the formation, then the many dynasties during the existence of the Empire, and the last stage is the system without dynasties and modern China.

Xia dynasty

The first known dynasty in the chronology and periodization of Ancient China is its founder was Yu, and it existed from 2205 to 1557 BC. According to some theories, the state was located in the entire east of Northern China, or only in the north and in the center of Henan province.

The first rulers coped with their tasks of governing the state quite well. The main asset of the Xia era is the calendar of that time, which Confucius himself later admired.

However, the decline happened, and it was caused by the pressure of the clergy, and the rulers-confessors soon began to neglect their duties as clergy. Calendar dates began to get confused, the periodization of Ancient China went astray, the social and political structure was lame. Emperor Li of the Shang State took advantage of this weakening and started the next dynasty.

Shang-Yin dynasty

The period of government begins in the 18th or 16th century BC. e. according to various theories, and ends in the XII or XI century BC. e.

In total, this dynasty has about 30 rulers. Li Tang (the founder of the dynasty) and his tribe believed in totemism. They adopted the custom of fortune telling from the Longshan culture, and they also used tortoise shells for divination.

During the reign of Shang-Yin, a centralized government policy, led by the emperors of the dynasty, reigned.

The end of the period came when the Zhou tribes overthrew the ruler.

Zhou dynasty

Zhou is the last powerful dynasty of the first stage in the periodization of the history of the state of Ancient China before the formation of the Chinese Empire, which existed from the 9th to the 3rd century BC.

There are two stages: Western and Eastern Zhou. The Western Zhou had its capital, Zongzhou, in the west, and the possessions covered almost the entire basin of the Yellow River. The essence of the policy of that time was that the main emperor ruled in the capital, and his confidants (usually relatives) ruled over many destinies into which the state split. This led to civil strife and a struggle for power. But in the end, stronger possessions enslaved the weaker ones.

China at the same time defended itself from the constant attacks of the barbarians. That is why the ruler moved from the western capital to the eastern capital of Chengzhou in the state of Loi in 770 BC, and the period of ancient Chinese history called Western Zhou began. The move of the ruler meant a conditional renunciation of power and government.

All of China was split into several kingdoms: Yan, Zhao, Song, Zheng, Lu, Qi, Chu, Wei, Han, Qin, and into many small principalities that conquered large kingdoms over time. In fact, some kingdoms were much more powerful in politics than the kingdom where the main ruler Zhou was located. Qi and Qin were considered the most powerful, and it was their rulers who made the greatest contribution to politics and to the fight against the barbarians.

Separately, it is worth highlighting the kingdom of Lu from these kingdoms. Education and writing reigned in it, although Lu was not strong politically. It was here that Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, was born and lived. The end of the Zhou period is usually considered the year of the death of the philosopher in 479 BC. Confucius wrote the history of Western Zhou in the Chunqiu chronicle. Many events of that time are known only thanks to these records. It is also known that Taoism began to penetrate China during this period.

The end of the dynasty was the fact that all the kingdoms fought among themselves for power. The most powerful one won - Qin with the ruler Qin Shi Huang, who after the conquest was able to unite all of China and began a new dynasty. And the ruler of Zhou himself lost the status of a heavenly mandate.

Qin

Since the Qin ruler united all of China, a new stage in the history and periodization of Ancient China began. The era of fragmentation was replaced by the era of imperial rule with the united parts of the entire state.

The era did not last long. Only from 221 to 207 BC, but it is Qin Shi Huang (the first emperor) who makes a special contribution to the culture of Ancient China. During this period, the Great Wall of China was built - a special property of the state, the greatness of which still amazes. The ruler Qin Shi Huang carried out many reforms. For example, monetary and judicial reform, and also the reform of writing. Under him, the construction of a single network of roads began.

Despite all the advantages, historians identify significant disadvantages, which were the reason that the Qin period did not last long. Qin Shi Huang was a supporter of legalism. Legalism is a philosophical school of that period, the essence of which was very harsh measures for people and punishments for any offenses and not only. This influenced such a sharp jump in the form of victories over different tribes and such a rapid construction of the Chinese Wall in order to protect against barbarians and enemy captivity. But it was cruelty that led to the dislike of people and a sharp change in dynasties immediately after the death of Qin Shi Huang.

Han and Xin

The Han Empire lasted from 206 BC to 220 AD. It is divided into two periods: Western Han (from 206 BC to 9 AD) and Late (Eastern) Han (25-220 AD)

The Western Han had to deal with the devastation after the Qin period. Famine and mortality reigned in the empire.

The ruler Liu Bang freed many state slaves who became involuntary under Qin for wrongdoing. He also abolished harsh taxes and harsh punishments.

However, in 140-87 BC. e. the empire returned to despotism, as it had under the Qin ruler. The ruler of the Wudi dynasty again introduced high taxes, which were levied even on children and the elderly (this led to frequent murders in families). The territory of China by this time greatly expanded.

Between the Western and Eastern Han was the gap of the Xin Dynasty, led by the ruler Wang Mang, who managed to overthrow the Eastern Han. He tried to consolidate his power through many positive reforms. For example, a certain territory of land was established for each family. If it was higher than expected, then part was given to the poor or people without land.

But at the same time, lawlessness occurred with officials, because of which the treasury was empty, and taxes had to be greatly increased. This gave rise to people's discontent. Popular uprisings began, and this also served as an advantage for the representatives. Wang Mang was killed during the uprising called "Red Eyebrows".

Liu Xiu was nominated as a candidate for the throne. He wanted to reduce people's hostility to power by lowering taxes and freeing the slaves. The Western Han period began. This time also made a significant contribution to history. It was then that the Great Silk Road was established.

At the end of the second century, unrest broke out among the people again. The uprising of the "yellow bandages" began, which lasted almost 20 years. The dynasty was overthrown, the period of the Three Kingdoms began.

Although the Han period was a period of growth, at the end of the era, after a twenty-year war, a constant struggle began between the generals of the dynasty and other leaders. This entailed another unrest in the empire and mortality.

Jin

The Jin era and subsequent periods can already be attributed to the Middle Ages, but let's look at the very first dynasties in order to understand what the policy of Ancient China led to and how the rulers had to eliminate the consequences.

The population after the Han wars decreased several times. There were also cataclysms. The rivers began to change their courses, thereby causing floods and the decline of the economy. The situation was aggravated by the constant raids of nomads.

Cao Cao, who ended the Yellow Turban Rebellion, unified China's fragmented north in 216. And in 220, his son Cao Pei founded the Wei dynasty. At the same time, the states of Shu and Wu arose. And so the period of the Three Kingdoms began. Constant wars began between them, which aggravated the military-political situation inside China.

In 249, Sima Zhao became the leader of Wei. And his son Sima Yan, when his father died, took the throne and founded the Jin dynasty. First, Wei conquered the state of Shu, and then Wu. The Three Kingdoms period came to an end, the Jin era (265-316) began. Soon the nomads conquered the north, the capital had to be moved from Luoyang to the south of China.

Simia Yan began distributing land to his relatives. In 280, a decree was issued on the allotment system, the essence of which was that each person was entitled to a land plot, but in return people had to pay the treasury. This was necessary to improve relations with ordinary people, replenish the treasury and raise the economy.

However, this did not lead to an improvement in centralization, as was supposed, but rather the opposite. After the death of Sima Yang in 290, a struggle began between the owners of large destinies - relatives of the deceased ruler. It lasted 15 years, from 291 to 306. At the same time, in the north of the state, the positions of the nomads were strengthening. Gradually, they settled along the rivers, began to grow rice and enslave entire human settlements.

During the Jin period, as is known, the religion of Buddhism began to strengthen. Many monks and Buddhist temples appeared.

Sui

Only in 581, after a long period of unrest, Zhou Yang Jiang managed to unite the north, fragmented by nomads. The Sui Dynasty begins. Then he captures the state of Chen in the south and thereby unites all of China. His son Yang Di engaged in wars with some states of Korea and Vietnam, created the Great Canal for the transportation of rice and improved the China Wall. But people were in difficult conditions, because of which a new uprising began, and Yang Di was killed in 618.

chan

Li Yuan founded a dynasty that lasted from 618 to 907. The empire reached its peak during this period. The Li rulers improved economic ties with other states. Cities and population in them began to increase. They began to actively develop agricultural crops (tea, cotton). Especially in this regard, Li Yuan's son, Li Shimin, stood out, whose policy reached a new level. However, in the 8th century, the conflict between the military and the authorities in the center of the empire reached its peak. In 874, the Huang Chao War began, which lasted until 901, because of which the dynasty ended. In 907-960, the Chinese Empire was again fragmented.

State and social systems of ancient China

The periodization of all periods of Ancient China can be considered as stages of history similar to each other in terms of their structure. The social structure is based on collective farming. The main activities of people are cattle breeding and crafts (which were developed to a high level).

At the top of power was the aristocracy, below were the slaves and peasants.

The ancestral heritage was pronounced. During the Shang-Yin period, each of the ruler's relatives was given a special title, depending on how close relatives they were. Each title came with its own privileges.

During the Yin and Western Zhou periods, land was given out only for use and economy, but not as private property. And since the Eastern Zhou period, land has already been distributed for private ownership.

Slaves were first state-owned and later became private. Captives, very poor community members, vagrants and others usually fell into their category.

In the stages of the periodization of Ancient China's social and state structure, it can be distinguished that in the Yin era, the brother of the deceased ruler first of all inherited the throne, and in Zhou the title passed to the son from the father.

Under the ruler, the palace system of government reigned.

It is worth highlighting separately, speaking about the periodization of the history of the state and Ancient China: law already existed, but at the initial stage it was strongly intertwined with religious principles and ordinary ethics. Patriarchy reigned, elders and fathers were revered.

In the V-III centuries BC. e. law was an integral part with cruel punishments, while there was already legalism. And during the Han Dynasty, people again returned to Confucianism and the idea of ​​​​harmonious inequality of people depending on the rank.

The first written sources of law date from about 536 BC.

Philosophy

The philosophy of ancient China is very different from the philosophy of any other European countries. If in Christianity and Islam there is a god and life after death, then in Asian schools there was a principle of "here and now". In China, they also called for kindness during life, but simply for harmony and well-being, and not under fear of punishment after death.

It was based on the trinity: heaven, earth and man himself. People also believed that there is Qi energy, and there should be harmony in everything. They singled out the feminine and masculine: yin and yang, which complemented each other for harmony.

In total, there are several main philosophical schools of that time: Confucianism, Buddhism, Mohism, Legalism, Taoism.

Thus, if we summarize what has been said, we can conclude: already before our era, Ancient China formulated a certain philosophy and adhered to some religions, which are still an integral part of the spiritual life of the population in China. At that time, all the main schools changed and only sometimes overlapped each other, depending on the stage of periodization.

Culture of Ancient China: heritage, crafts and inventions

The Great Wall of China is still considered one of the greatest assets of China to this day. The most amazing thing here is that they were built under the control of the first emperor of ancient China, Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty. It was then that legalism and cruelty towards people who, under fear and pressure, built these truly great structures, reigned.

But the great inventions include gunpowder, paper, printing and the compass.

It is believed that Cai Long invented paper in 105 BC. e. For its manufacture, a special technology was required, which nevertheless resembles the current process of making paper. Before this period, people scraped writing on shells, bones, clay tablets and bamboo bundles. The invention of paper led to the invention of printing in a later period of our era.

The first semblance of a compass arose in ancient China during the Han Dynasty.

But there were countless crafts in ancient China. Several thousand years BC. e. silk began to be mined (the extraction technology of which remained secret for a long time), tea appeared, and clay and bone products were made. A little later, the Great Silk Road appeared, they made drawings on silk, marble sculptures, and paintings on the walls. And also in ancient China, well-known pagodas and acupuncture appeared.

Conclusion

The social and political structure of ancient China (periodized from the Neolithic era up to the Han dynasty) had its drawbacks and advantages. Subsequent dynasties adjusted the way they conducted politics. And the whole history of ancient China can be described as periods of rise and fall, moving in a spiral. Moving upwards, so the "flourishing" each time became more and more improved and better. Periodization of the history of Ancient China is a voluminous and interesting topic, which we examined in the article.

In the southeast of Asia, fenced off from the whole world by high mountains, is the Great Plain of China. Convenient geographical location, climate and rich nature created all the prerequisites for the development of one of the most powerful civilizations called Ancient China.

Formation of a unified Chinese kingdom

The two largest rivers in Asia, the Huang He and the Yangtze, flow on the territory of the China Plain. The soils along the banks of these rivers have always been so soft that they could easily be worked with the simplest tools made of bone or wood. Therefore, agriculture has been well developed here since ancient times.

In translation, the Yellow River means Yellow River, since its waters carry a large amount of yellow sand. It was on its fertile soils that the oldest settlements of the first Chinese farmers were found. But the Haunghe has always had a stubborn character, and during the rainy season this river often overflows its banks and floods everything around, eroding the banks and changing its course. In ancient China, it was called the "river of a thousand disasters", because during the flood it mercilessly washed away crops and entire settlements.

Rice. 1. The Yellow River.

In the VIII century BC. e. the territory of modern China was ruled by many small independent kingdoms, which waged endless wars among themselves. In the course of fierce battles, the final victory was won by the Qin kingdom and in 221 BC. e. its ruler adopted the title "huangdi", which means "emperor".

He went down in history as Qin Shi Huang, that is, "the first emperor of Qin." He called himself the Son of Heaven, and dubbed the empire he ruled the Middle Kingdom.

During the reign of the Qin Dynasty, the following reforms were carried out:

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• The country was re-divided into regions that were controlled by officials.
• A network of canals and roads has been built. Creation of a wheel axle standard for all for the same size of roads.
• The main features of law were defined, a set of laws common to all was written, and the judicial system was reformed.
• Creation of a unified system of writing.
• Product quality control. All products had to bear the name of the master: he could be severely punished for poor work.
• The minting of coins equivalent in all areas of the empire. A single money, as well as established measures of length and weight, greatly facilitated trade in the country and contributed to the development of the economy.

By order of Qin Shi Huang, the Great Wall of China was erected - a giant structure designed to protect the northern borders of the empire from militant tribes and nomads. Part of the wall has survived to this day, and is currently a World Heritage Site.

Rice. 2. Great Wall of China.

Despite flourishing during the reign of Qin Shi Huang, the empire collapsed shortly after his death.

Religion and Philosophy of Ancient China

The philosophy of ancient China was fundamentally different from the philosophy of European countries. Unlike Islam and Christianity, the religion of China did not have a single god who punished sinners in the afterlife. The main principle of all the teachings was based on the manifestation of kindness and love for others, the search for harmony within oneself.

In ancient China, the two most significant philosophical schools were widespread:

• Confucianism . The founder of this doctrine was the great Chinese philosopher Confucius, who developed the right, in his opinion, way of life. According to it, people should help their neighbors, protect family values ​​and traditions, honor elders, constantly engage in self-improvement.
• Taoism . The founder of the doctrine is Lao Tzu, who believed that the basis of all things in the universe is "dao" - "the way". According to Taoism, people should live in harmony with nature, in modesty and simplicity, away from luxury, be humble and compassionate.

Rice. 3. Confucius.

Achievements of Ancient China

In ancient China, the foundations of Chinese civilization and its culture - science, medicine, art, literature - were laid.

The Chinese were great inventors who gave the world many useful items.
The most important achievements of ancient China include:

• The invention of paper. The technology of its manufacture was very complex and required great skill. With the advent of paper, the Chinese were the first to invent printing.
• Gunpowder, which was used not only as a filling for incendiary projectiles, but also in the treatment of ulcers and wounds, and the creation of entertaining fireworks.
• Magnetic compass. The navigational art of ancient China was very well developed due to the fact that the country paid great attention to such sciences as mathematics and astronomy.
• Making thin and durable silk from silkworm cocoons.

In China, the art of beautiful writing was very popular - calligraphy, and the main direction in painting was the image of spectacular landscapes of the rocks of South China, characters of myths and legends.

Of great interest is the architecture of ancient China. All buildings, be it the imperial palace or the dwelling of a simple craftsman, harmoniously fit into the surrounding landscape and were always surrounded by additional outbuildings. Usually they were decorated with skillful carvings with images of animals and plants, painted with bright colors.

What have we learned?

When studying the topic “Ancient China” in the 5th grade history program, we briefly learned the most important thing about the history of Ancient China. They learned how and by whom the Celestial Empire was formed, what philosophical teachings were the most popular, what sciences were given special attention. We also learned what achievements of Ancient China occupied a special place in the history of the country.

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