The history of the development of microbiology is the contribution of domestic scientists to. History of the study of microorganisms. Tula State University

For thousands of years, man lived surrounded by invisible creatures, used the products of their vital activity, for example, products of lactic, alcoholic, acetic fermentation, suffered from them when these creatures were the cause of the disease, but did not suspect their presence, since the size of the creatures is much lower than the limit of visibility that the human eye is capable of. Human conjectures that fermentation, decay and infectious diseases are the result of the influence of invisible beings have been around for a long time. Hippocrates (460-377 BC) suggested that contagious diseases were caused by invisible living beings. The Italian physician and astronomer D. Frakastro (1478-1553) came to the conclusion that epidemic diseases are transmitted from person to person by the smallest living beings, although he could not prove this.

The emergence of microbiology as a science became possible after the invention of the microscope. The first person to see and describe microorganisms was the Dutch naturalist Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), who designed a microscope that magnified up to 300 times. Through a microscope, he examined everything that came to hand: water from a pond, various infusions, blood, plaque, and much more. In the objects he looked at, he found the smallest creatures, which he called living animals (animalcules). He established spherical, rod-shaped and convoluted forms of microbes. The book "The Secrets of Nature Discovered by A. Leeuwenhoek", published in 1695, attracted the attention of scientists from many countries to the study of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek's discovery laid the foundation for the emergence of microbiology. However, research for many decades was reduced only to the description of microorganisms.

L. Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) L. Pasteur (1822-1895)

Late 17th to mid 19th century entered history as descriptive, or morphological. This period created the conditions for the transition to the next, physiological, stage in the development of microbiology. Its founder is an outstanding French chemist. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). The first works in the field of microbiology, performed by him, are aimed at studying the nature of fermentation. At that time, Liebig's theory dominated science, stating that fermentation and putrefaction are the results of oxidative processes caused by the action of enzymes and are a purely chemical phenomenon in which microorganisms do not participate. The pastor proved that the cause of fermentation and decay is microorganisms that produce various enzymes. Each fermentation process has a specific pathogen; putrefaction is caused by a group of putrefactive bacteria, etc. By studying butyric fermentation, Pasteur established that you. butyricum develops in the absence of atmospheric oxygen and thus discovered the phenomenon of anaerobiosis.

The name of Pasteur is associated with the solution of the question of the spontaneous origin of life on earth. He experimentally proved that with the absolute sterility of nutrient solutions and the exclusion of the possibility of subsequent contamination from the outside, the appearance of microbes and the development of decay are impossible in them. Life arises when, wrote Pasteur, when microorganisms penetrate into the nutrient solution from the outside.

In 1865, Pasteur established that spoilage of wine and beer is caused by the ingress of foreign microorganisms or wild yeast into the wort and proposed heating wine and beer at temperatures up to 100 °C. This process is called pasteurization. In 1868, he established that the silkworm disease pebrin was caused by microbes and developed a way to combat it. Thanks to these discoveries, antisepsis and asepsis in surgery arose. He discovered the causative agents of chicken cholera, staphylococci, streptococci, the causative agent of swine erysipelas, and established the etiology of anthrax. Studying the nature of infectious diseases and their pathogens, Pasteur discovered an important property of pathogenic microorganisms - the ability to weaken virulence. On this basis, he developed methods for reducing (attenuating) the virulence of microbes and successfully used weakened cultures for inoculations against infectious diseases. Cultures of microorganisms with weakened virulence were called vaccines, and the method of inoculation was called vaccination. Pasteur proposed methods for obtaining vaccines against chicken cholera, anthrax, and rabies. Since that time, the immunological era has come in microbiology.

The outstanding microbiologists E. Roux, A. Yersen, E. Duclos, Ch. Chamberland, G. Ramon, J. Borde, A. Calmet and others were the students and followers of L. Pasteur.

In 1888, with funds raised by international subscription, a research institute for Pasteur was built in Paris, which to this day remains the largest center of ideas and knowledge in the field of microbiology.

One of the founders of microbiology along with Pastor was the German scientist Robert Koch (1843-1910). He developed methods of microbiological research, for the first time in the practice of laboratory research, solid nutrient media (meat-peptone gelatin and meat-peptone agar) were proposed, which made it possible to isolate and study pure cultures of microbes. Koch developed methods for staining microbes with aniline dyes, used an immersion system and an Abbe condenser for microscopy, as well as microphotography, scientifically substantiated the theory and practice of disinfection. His merit in the study of microorganisms as causative agents of infectious diseases is great. Koch identified the causative agent of anthrax (1876), tuberculosis (1882), human cholera (1883), and invented tuberculin. He created a school of bacteriologists, from which came the outstanding microbiologists E. Bering, F. Leffler, R. Pffeifer, G. Gaffki, and others.

Robert Koch (1843-1910) I. I. Mechnikov (1845-1916)

Great merit in the development of microbiology I. I. Mechnikov (1845-1916;. Among the most important works in the field of microbiology are his studies of the pathogenesis of human cholera, syphilis, tuberculosis, relapsing fever. He is the founder of the doctrine of microbial antagonism, which became the basis for the development of science about antibiotic therapy. On the principle of antagonism, the scientist substantiated the theory of longevity and proposed to use yogurt, which was later called Mechnikov's, to prolong human life. In 1886, he organized the first bacteriological station in Russia. about the body's immunity to infectious diseases (immunity). Mechnikov created the phagocytic theory of immunity, revealed the essence of inflammation as a protective reaction of the body. Many of Mechnikov's students later became major microbiologists: N. F. Gamaleya, A. M. Bezredka, L. A. Tarassvich, G. N. Gabrichevsky and others.

N. F. Gamaleya (1859-1949) contributed greatly to the development of microbiology. His scientific works are devoted to the study of infection and immunity, the variability of bacteria, the prevention of typhus, cholera, tuberculosis and other diseases. They discovered avian vibrio (a cholera-like disease of birds), named after Mechnikov by his name. Gamaleya for the first time (in 1898) observed and described the phenomenon of spontaneous lysis of bacteria under the influence of an agent unknown at that time - a bacteriophage, took an active part in the creation of the first bacteriological station in Russia and introduced vaccination against rabies into practice.

L. S. Tsenkovsky (1822-1887) D. I. Ivanovsky (1864-1920)

G. N. Gabrichevsky (1860-1907) was the first to teach a course in bacteriology at Moscow University. In 1893 he published the textbook "Medical Microbiology", in 1895 he created the first bacteriological institute in Moscow. From the first days of the institute's work, he began to manufacture antidiphtheria serum, then introduced it into medical practice. Established the importance of hemolytic streptococcus as the causative agent of scarlet fever, developed and proposed a vaccine against this disease. Studied Escherichia coli and its role in human pathology.

The founder of Russian microbiology L. S. Tsenkovsky (1822-1887) first established the proximity of bacteria and blue-green algae and described the phenomenon of symbiosis; substantiated the classification of microbes, attributing bacteria to plant organisms; discovered the causative agent of leek and developed ways to prevent it in sugar production. Using the principle of microbial attenuation, in 1883 he produced vaccines I and II against anthrax, which were used to vaccinate animals for more than 70 years.

Microbiology owes much to the Russian scientist D. I. Ivanovsky (1864-1920), who created a new branch of this science - virology. In 1892, he established the causative agent of tobacco mosaic disease, called the filterable virus.

The founder of general and soil microbiology, S. N. Vinogradsky (1856-1953), developed accumulative nutrient media, isolated and studied nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying soil bacteria, and established the role of microbes in the cycle of nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, iron, and sulfur; for the first time proved the existence of bacteria that independently synthesize organic substances, which made it possible to discover a new type of microbial nutrition - autotrophism.

A glorious page in the history of veterinary microbiology was made by domestic microbiologists E. M. Semmer, I. I. Shchukevich, I. M. Sadovsky, A. V. Dedulin, A. F. Konev, A. A. Raevsky and many others. almost simultaneous production in 1891 by Russian scientists X. I. Gelman and O. I. Kalning of mallein for the allergic diagnosis of glanders appeared in world science.

G. M. Andreevsky, P. N. Andreev, A. M. Vladimirov, S. N. Vyshelesky, D. S. Ruzhentsev , M. G. Tartakovsky and many others.

N. A. Mikhin (1872–1946), one of the founders of veterinary microbiology in our country, discovered the causative agent of bovine leptospirosis, developed a method for making formol vaccine against calf paratyphoid and anti-colibacteriosis serum, as well as a method for hyperimmunization of horses when receiving anti-anthrax serum. He is the author of the country's first textbook "Course of private microbiology for veterinarians and students."

During the period of Soviet power, along with the development of veterinary science, the school of veterinary microbiologists grew and improved, giving our country a galaxy of microbiologists: N. N. Ginsburg, Ya. E. Kolyakov, V. V. Kuzmin, I. I. Kulssko, V. T. Kotov, S. G. Kolesov, Ya. R. Kovalenko, N. V. Likhachev, S. Ya. Lyubashenko, S. A. Muromtsev, M. D. Polykovsky, I. V. Poddubsky, A. A. Polyakov, A. Kh. Sarkisov, P. S. Solomkin, M. K. Yuskovets, R. A. Zion, P. A. Trilenko and many others who have made a significant contribution to the study of pathogens of infectious diseases of agricultural animals, the creation of new ones and the improvement well-known vaccines, immune sera and diagnostics, which made it possible to eliminate some infectious diseases and ensure the well-being of our farms in many of them.

Microbiology has come a long way of development, numbering many millennia. Already in the V.VI millennium BC. a person used the fruits of the activity of microorganisms, not knowing about their existence. Winemaking, baking, cheese making, leather dressing. nothing more than processes taking place with the participation of microorganisms. Then, in ancient times, scientists and thinkers assumed that many diseases are caused by some extraneous invisible causes that have a living nature.

Therefore, microbiology originated long before our era. In its development, it has gone through several stages, not so much related chronologically, but due to major achievements and discoveries.

The history of the development of microbiology can be "divided into five stages: heuristic, morphological, physiological, immunological and molecular genetic.

HEURISTIC PERIOD (IV III centuries BC XVI century) Associated more with logical and methodological methods of finding the truth, that is, heuristics, than with any experiments and proofs. The thinkers of this period (Hippocrates, the Roman writer Varro, Avicenna, etc.) made assumptions about the nature of contagious diseases, miasma, small invisible animals. These ideas were formulated into a coherent hypothesis many centuries later in the writings of the Italian physician D. Fracastoro (1478-1553), who expressed the idea of a living contagium (contagium vivum), which causes disease. Moreover, each disease is caused by its contagion. To protect against diseases, they were recommended isolation of the patient, quarantine, wearing masks, and treating objects with vinegar.

MORPHOLOGICAL PERIOD (XVII - THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX cc.) Begins with the discovery of microorganisms by A. Leeuwenhoek. At this stage, the ubiquitous distribution of microorganisms was confirmed, the forms of cells, the nature of movement, and the habitats of many representatives of the microworld were described. The end of this period is significant in that the knowledge about microorganisms accumulated by that time and the scientific and methodological level (in particular, the availability of microscopic equipment) allowed scientists to solve three very important (basic) problems for all natural sciences: the study of the nature of the processes of fermentation and decay, the causes of infectious diseases, the problem of the spontaneous generation of microorganisms.

The study of the nature of the processes of fermentation and decay. The term "fermentation" (fermentatio) to refer to all processes that go with the release of gas was first used by the Dutch alchemist Ya.B. Helmont (1579-1644). Many scientists have tried to define this process and explain it. But the French chemist A.L. came closest to understanding the role of yeast in the fermentation process. Lavoisier (1743-1794) when studying the quantitative chemical transformations of sugar during alcoholic fermentation, but he did not have time to complete his work, as he became a victim of the terror of the French bourgeois revolution.

Many scientists studied the fermentation process, but the French botanist C. Cañard de Latour (he studied the sediment during alcoholic fermentation and discovered living creatures), the German naturalists F. Kützing ( in the formation of vinegar drew attention to the mucous film on the surface, which also consisted of living organisms) and T. Schwann. But their research was severely criticized by supporters of the theory of the physicochemical nature of fermentation. They were accused of "frivolity in conclusions" and lack of evidence. The second main problem about the microbial nature of infectious diseases was also solved during the morphological period in the development of microbiology.

The first to suggest that diseases are caused by invisible beings were the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460-377 BC), Avicenna (c. 980-1037) and others. associated with open microorganisms, direct evidence was needed. And they were received by the Russian doctor epidemiologist D.S. Samoilovich (1744-1805). The microscopes of that time had a magnification of about 300 times and did not allow to detect the causative agent of the plague, which, as is now known, requires an increase of 800-1000 times. To prove that the plague is caused by a specific pathogen, he infected himself with the discharge of the bubo of a plague-stricken person and fell ill with the plague.

Fortunately, D.S. Samoilovich survived. Subsequently, heroic experiments on self-infection to prove the infectiousness of a particular microorganism were carried out by Russian doctors G.N. Minh and O.O. Mochutkovsky, I.I. Mechnikov and others. But the priority in resolving the issue of the microbial nature of infectious diseases belongs to the Italian naturalist A. Basi (1773-1856), who first experimentally established the microbial nature of the disease of silkworms, he discovered the transmission of the disease during the transfer of a microscopic fungus from a sick individual to a healthy one. . But most researchers were convinced that the causes of all diseases are violations of the flow of chemical processes in the body. The third problem about the mode of appearance and reproduction of microorganisms was solved in a dispute with the then dominant theory of spontaneous generation.

Despite the fact that the Italian scientist L. Spallanzan in the middle of the XVIII century. observed the division of bacteria under a microscope, the opinion that they are spontaneously generated (arise from rot, dirt, etc.) was not refuted. This was done by the outstanding French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), who laid the foundation for modern microbiology with his work. In the same period, the development of microbiology in Russia began. The founder of Russian microbiology is L.N. Tsenkovsky (1822-1887). The objects of his research are protozoa, algae, fungi. He discovered and described a large number of protozoa, studied their morphology and development cycles, showed that there is no sharp boundary between the world of plants and animals. He organized one of the first Pasteur stations in Russia and proposed a vaccine against anthrax (Tsenkovsky's live vaccine).

PHYSIOLOGICAL PERIOD (SECOND HALF XIX century)

The rapid development of microbiology in the XIX century. led to the discovery of many microorganisms: nodule bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, pathogens of many infectious diseases (anthrax, plague, tetanus, diphtheria, cholera, tuberculosis, etc.), tobacco mosaic virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, etc. The discovery of new microorganisms was accompanied by the study of not only their structure, but also their life activity, that is, to replace the morphological and systematic study of the first half of the 19th century. came the physiological study of microorganisms, based on precise experimentation.

Therefore, the second half of the XIX century. called the physiological period in the development of microbiology. This period is characterized by outstanding discoveries in the field of microbiology, and without exaggeration it could be called in honor of the brilliant French scientist L. Pasteur Pasteur, because the scientific activity of this scientist covered all the main problems associated with the vital activity of microorganisms. More details about the main scientific discoveries of L. Pasteur and their significance for the protection of human health and human economic activity will be discussed in § 1.3. The first of L. Pasteur's contemporaries who appreciated the significance of his discoveries was the English surgeon J. Lister (1827-1912), who, based on the achievements of L. Pasteur, first introduced into medical practice the treatment of all surgical instruments with carbolic acid, decontamination of operating rooms and achieved a reduction in the number of deaths after operations.

One of the founders of medical microbiology is Robert Koch (1843-1910), who developed methods for obtaining pure cultures of bacteria, staining bacteria during microscopy, microphotography. Also known is the Koch triad formulated by R. Koch, which is still used in establishing the causative agent of the disease. In 1877, R. Koch isolated the anthrax agent, in 1882 the tuberculosis agent, and in 1905 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the cholera agent. During the physiological period, namely in 1867, M.S. Voronin described nodule bacteria, and almost 20 years later G. Gelrigel and G. Wilfarth showed their ability to fix nitrogen. The French chemists T. Schlesing and A. Muntz substantiated the microbiological nature of nitrification (1877), and in 1882 P. Degeren established the nature of denitrification, the nature of the anaerobic decomposition of plant residues.

Russian scientist P.A. Kostychev created a theory of the microbiological nature of soil formation processes. Finally, in 1892, the Russian botanist D.I. Ivanovsky (1864-1920) discovered the tobacco mosaic virus. In 1898, independently of D.I. Ivanovsky, the same virus was described by M. Beijerinck. Then the foot-and-mouth disease virus was discovered (F. Leffler, P. Frosch, 1897), yellow fever (W. Reed, 1901) and many other viruses. However, it became possible to see viral particles only after the invention of the electron microscope, since they are not visible in light microscopes. To date, the kingdom of viruses has up to 1000 pathogenic species. Only recently, a number of new D.I. Ivanovsky viruses have been discovered, including the virus that causes AIDS.

There is no doubt that the period of discovery of new viruses and bacteria and the study of their morphology and physiology continues to the present. S.N. Vinogradsky (1856-1953) and the Dutch microbiologist M. Beijerink (1851-1931) introduced the microecological principle of studying microorganisms. S.N. Vinogradsky proposed to create specific (elective) conditions that would enable the predominant development of one group of microorganisms; in 1893 he discovered an anaerobic nitrogen fixer, which he named after Pasteur Clostridiumpasterianum;

The microecological principle was also developed by M. Beijerinck and applied in the isolation of various groups of microorganisms. 8 years after the discovery by S.N. Vinogradsky M. Beijerinck singled out the nitrogen fixer under aerobic conditions Azotobacterchroococcum, studied the physiology of nodule bacteria, the processes of denitrification and sulfate reduction, etc. Both of these researchers are the founders of the ecological direction of microbiology associated with the study of the role of microorganisms in the cycle of substances in nature. By the end of the XIX century. it is planned to differentiate microbiology into a number of particular areas: general, medical, soil.

IMMUNOLOGICAL PERIOD (EARLY XX century) With the onset of the XX century. a new period begins in microbiology, to which the discoveries of the 19th century led. The works of L. Pasteur on vaccination, I.I. Mechnikov on phagocytosis, P. Ehrlich on the theory of humoral immunity constituted the main content of this stage in the development of microbiology, rightfully called immunological.

I.I. Mechnikov about how vaccination against many diseases has become widely used. I.I. Mechnikov showed that the body's defense against pathogenic bacteria is a complex biological reaction, which is based on the ability of phagocytes (macro and microphages) to capture and destroy foreign bodies that have entered the body, including bacteria. Research by I.I. Mechnikov on phagocytosis convincingly proved that, in addition to humoral, there is cellular immunity. I.I. Mechnikov and P. Ehrlich were scientific opponents for many years, each experimentally proving the validity of his theory.

Subsequently, it turned out that there is no contradiction between humoral and phagocytic immunities, since these mechanisms jointly protect the body. And in 1908 I.I. Mechnikov, together with P. Ehrlich, was awarded the Nobel Prize for developing the theory of immunity. The immunological period is characterized by the discovery of the main reactions of the immune system to genetically alien substances (antigens): antibody formation and phagocytosis, delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH), immediate type hypersensitivity (IHT), tolerance, immunological memory.

Microbiology and immunology developed especially rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s. twentieth century. This was facilitated by the most important discoveries in the field of molecular biology, genetics, bioorganic chemistry; the emergence of new sciences: genetic engineering, molecular biology, biotechnology, informatics; creation of new methods and use of scientific equipment. Immunology is the basis for the development of laboratory methods for the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of infectious and many non-communicable diseases, as well as the development of immunobiological preparations (vaccines, immunoglobulins, immunomodulators, allergens, diagnostic preparations). The development and production of immunobiological preparations is carried out by immunobiotechnology, an independent branch of immunology.

Modern medical microbiology and immunology have achieved great success and play a huge role in the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of infectious and many non-infectious diseases associated with impaired immune system (oncological, autoimmune diseases, organ and tissue transplantation, etc.).

MOLECULAR GENETIC PERIOD (Since the 1950s) It is characterized by a number of fundamentally important scientific achievements and discoveries: 1. Deciphering the molecular structure and molecular biological organization of many viruses and bacteria; discovery of the simplest life forms of the "infectious" prion protein. 2. Deciphering the chemical structure and chemical synthesis of some antigens.

For example, the chemical synthesis of lysozyme (D. Sela, 1971), AIDS virus peptides (R.V. Petrov, V.T. Ivanov and others). 3. Deciphering the structure of antibody immunoglobulins (D. Edelman, R. Porter, 1959). 4. Development of a method for cultures of animal and plant cells and their cultivation on an industrial scale in order to obtain viral antigens. 5. Obtaining recombinant bacteria and recombinant viruses. 6. Creation of hybridomas by fusion of immune B lymphocytes producing antibodies and cancer cells in order to obtain monoclonal antibodies (D. Keller, C. Milstein, 1975). 7. Discovery of immunomodulators of immunocytokinins (interleukins, interferons, myelopeptides, etc.), endogenous natural regulators of the immune system, and their use for the prevention and treatment of various diseases. 8. Obtaining vaccines using biotechnology methods and genetic engineering techniques (hepatitis B, malaria, HIV antigens and other antigens) and biologically active peptides (interferons, interleukins, growth factors, etc.). 9. Development of synthetic vaccines based on natural or synthetic antigens and their fragments. 10. Discovery of viruses that cause immunodeficiencies. 11. Development of fundamentally new methods for diagnosing infectious and non-infectious diseases (enzymatic immunoassay, radioimmunoassay, immunoblotting, nucleic acid hybridization).

Creation on the basis of these methods of test systems for indication, identification of microorganisms, diagnostics of infectious and noninfectious diseases. In the second half of the twentieth century. the formation of new directions in microbiology continues, new disciplines with their own objects of research (virology, mycology) sprout from it, directions are distinguished that differ in research objectives (general microbiology, technical, agricultural, medical microbiology, genetics of microorganisms, etc.). Many forms of microorganisms were studied, and by about the middle of the 50s. of the last century, A. Kluiver (1888-1956) and K. Niel (1897-1985) formulated the theory of the biochemical unity of life

Wasserman reaction (RW or EDS-Express Diagnosis of Syphilis) is an outdated method for diagnosing syphilis using a serological test. Now superseded by the precipitation microreaction ( anticardiolipin test, MP, RPR-- Rapid Plasma Reagin). It is named after the German immunologist August Wassermann, who proposed a method for carrying out this reaction. In clinical practice, often all methods for diagnosing syphilis are called RW or the Wasserman reaction, although this technique has not been used in laboratory diagnostics in Russia since the end of the 20th century. The advantage of the reaction is the ease of its implementation, the disadvantage is the low specificity, which leads to false positive results.

The Wasserman reaction is based on the property of the blood serum of patients with syphilis to form a complex with the corresponding antigen that adsorbs complement - part of the normal serum; sheep blood erythrocytes serve as an antigen, human blood serum serves as an antibody. If, when hemolytic serum is added, red blood cells do not dissolve (hemolysis), the Wasserman reaction is considered positive (there is syphilis), when hemolysis occurs, the Wasserman reaction is negative (no syphilis). With primary syphilis, the Wassermann reaction becomes positive at 6-8 weeks of the course of the disease (in 90% of cases), with secondary syphilis it is positive in 98-100% of cases. Together with other serological reactions (RPHA, ELISA, RIF), it allows not only to identify the presence of the pathogen, but also to find out the approximate time of infection. According to this reaction (in addition to examining the patient and other laboratory tests), the effectiveness of the treatment is evaluated, it allows to establish the disease of syphilis in the absence of its clinical manifestations; it serves as a criterion for the effectiveness of treatment. A blood test for the Wasserman reaction is mandatory for pregnant women to prevent congenital syphilis in children, donors, etc., put before deregistration of patients with syphilis and when issuing them a marriage license.

A positive Wasserman reaction can also be observed in some diseases of non-syphilitic origin (leprosy, malaria, typhus, relapsing and typhoid fever, smallpox, scarlet fever, influenza, measles, brucellosis, viral pneumonia, infectious mononucleosis, etc.), as well as in some physiological conditions (during menstruation, in the second half of pregnancy in 2% of pregnant women), when ingesting drugs - false positive reactions. Therefore, in case of doubt, a re-examination is necessary.

Microbiology plays an important role in human history. The origin of this science falls on the VI - V century BC. e. In those distant times, people were already beginning to realize that diseases do not appear just like that. And this happens due to microscopic, invisible to the eye, microorganisms. How did science originate and develop?

What is microbiology?

Microbiology is a science that deals with the study and study of the life processes of various microorganisms that cannot be seen without special equipment. They can have different types of origin: vegetable, animal. Microbiology is one of the fundamental sciences. For its deep study, many other sciences are used, namely:

chemistry;
physics;
cytology;
biology, etc.

There are only two types of microbiology: general, individual. General microbiology deals with the study of the structure and life processes of small microorganisms at various levels. And individual microbiology (or private) deals with the study of certain types of microbes.

In the 19th century, advances in the field of medicine, in particular microbiology, contributed to the formation of immunology, which today is considered a general biological discipline. There are three main stages in the development of microbiology:

Revealing the fact that in nature there really are small microorganisms that cannot be detected without special equipment.
Differentiation of species.
Study of immunity and diseases (infectious).

The main task of microbiology is the detailed study of the properties of microorganisms. For this, special equipment is used, for example, microscopes. With their help, you can see small organisms, determine their shape and location. In medicine, such an experiment is practiced when small microorganisms are deliberately implanted into a healthy animal. This helps to recreate and study each stage of infection.

French explorer Louis Pasteur

December 27, 1822 in the east of France was born the future great scientist - Louis Pasteur. At an early age, he was interested in the arts. But later he became interested in the natural sciences. He studied in Paris at the High School. After completing his studies, he was destined for the fate of a natural science teacher.

In the year 48 of the 19th century, Louis presented the results of his own scientific research. It was he who provided evidence that tartaric acid contains 2 types of crystals that polarize light in completely different ways. This significant event began his brilliant success in science.

Louis Pasteur is the creator of microbiology. Prior to his work, scientists only assumed that yeast formed a chemical process. And Louis Pasteur, after conducting a series of studies, was able to prove this fact. He discovered that there are 2 types of such microorganisms: some form alcohol, while others destroy it. Later, he managed to find out that with slow heating, unnecessary bacteria are destroyed, which significantly increased the quality of alcohol-containing products.

The scientist was also interested in the formation of mold on products. He later proved that moldiness is due to spores found in the environment. The fewer of them in space, the slower the food spoils.

His research helped save the silk industry in France. And also many human lives, since it was he who invented the rabies vaccine.

German scientist Robert Koch

Koch Robert is considered a contemporary of Pastser. His birth falls on December 1843. At the age of 23, he graduated from a medical university and received a diploma, after which he worked in several medical institutions.

His significant career began as a bacteriologist. He studied anthrax in sick animals. His research made it possible to discover that infected individuals have a mass of foreign microorganisms that healthy animals do not have. These bacteria were rod-shaped.

Koch later became interested in tuberculosis. The first studies were carried out on the corpse of a worker who died of consumption. A detailed study of the organs did not lead to the identification of pathogenic bacteria. Koch then suggested that the samples should be stained. Indeed, the scientist noticed some sticks between the tissues of the lungs. After Robert Koch developed a vaccine against tuberculosis, but she could not cure the disease, but she determined 100% whether the patient was infected or not. This vaccine is still in use today.

The emergence of the science of microbiology

With the action of the vital activity of microorganisms, a person met much earlier than their official discovery. People deliberately fermented milk, used fermentation of dough, wine. Even in the writings of the ancient Greek scientist, lines were found that he suggests about the relationship between diseases and dangerous pathogenic fumes.

Anthony van Leeuwenhoek confirmed these conjectures with the help of a magnifying glass he invented. With his help, Anthony was able to see the surrounding objects. It turned out that small organisms that are not visible to the naked eye live on these objects. But he failed to prove their participation in infecting people with dangerous diseases.

Preventive treatment of the dwelling in order to prevent diseases was provided for by the Hindus. In 1771, in Moscow, a military doctor for the first time used the disinfection of things of people infected with the plague, and also vaccinated those who had contact with the infected.

Most fascinating is the story of the discovery of the smallpox inoculation. It was also used by the Persians, Turks, and Chinese. It happened like this: exhausted bacteria were introduced to a person, because it was believed that this way the disease proceeded easier. English physician Edward Jenner noted that most people who do not have smallpox did not become infected through close contact with the infected. This fact has been seen in milkmaids who have been in contact with cows infected with smallpox. The study of this fact lasted about 10 years. As a result, the scientist made an injection with the diseased blood of a cow to a healthy boy. Later, Jenner inoculated the youngster with the microbes of a sick person. Thus, a vaccine was discovered, thanks to which people were freed from this terrible disease.

Research by domestic scientists

The most famous discoveries in the field of microbiology, made by scientific researchers from all over the world, make it clear that almost any disease can be overcome. A huge investment in the formation of modern science was made by domestic researchers. Peter I in 1698 made acquaintance with Levenguk, who, in turn, showed him the operation of a microscope.

L.S. Tsenkovsky published his scientific study, in which microorganisms were classified as organisms of plant origin. He also applied Pasteur's technique in the fight against anthrax.

I.I. Mechnikov formed the theory of immunity. He gave strong arguments to the fact that numerous cells of the body have every chance to suppress viral bacteria on their own. His studies became the basis for the study of inflammation. Mechnikov studied the human body and sought to understand why it ages. The professor wanted to find a method that would increase life expectancy. He believed that the toxic elements that arise during the life of putrefactive microorganisms poison the human body. According to Mechnikov's judgment, the body should be populated with fermented milk microorganisms that suppress harmful microorganisms. The professor believed that in this way it is possible to significantly increase life expectancy.

Mechnikov studied a large number of serious diseases: tuberculosis, typhus, cholera and many others.

Technical microbiology

Technical microbiology studies bacteria that are used in the production of vitamins and certain substances. The main problem in this area is the growth of scientific and technical methods in manufacturing (more in the food sector).

The development of industrial microbiology directs the specialist to the need for painstaking observance of absolutely all generally accepted sanitary standards in manufacturing. By studying this science, spoilage of many products can be prevented. The subject is more researched by future experts in the food industry.

Innovative technologies

Microbiology is the basis of innovative technologies. Microorganisms and their world are not yet fully understood. Most scientists are sure that with the help of microorganisms it is possible to develop technologies that will have no analogues. It is biotechnology that will become the basis for the latest technological discoveries.

In the study of oil and coal deposits, bacteria are used. It's no secret that fuel supplies are running low. Therefore, scientists are now recommending the use of microbiological methods for extracting alcohols from renewable sources.

Microbiological technologies will help to overcome environmental and energy problems. Incredibly, however, microbiological treatment of organic residues makes it possible to clean up the environment, as well as to get biogas that is not inferior to natural. This kind of method of extracting fuel does not require large expenditures. Today, in nature around there is a large amount of used material for processing.

Numerous modern scientists believe that in the future, it is biology that will make it possible to overcome many energy and environmental difficulties that have every chance of appearing in the shortest possible time.

Introduction

Microbiology(from the Greek micros - small, bios - life, logos - teaching) - a science that studies the structure, vital activity and ecology of microorganisms of the smallest forms of life of plant or animal origin, not visible to the naked eye.

microbiology studiesall representatives of the microcosm (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, viruses). At its core, microbiology is a fundamental biological science. To study microorganisms, she uses the methods of other sciences, primarily physics, biology, bioorganic chemistry, molecular biology, genetics, cytology, and immunology. Like any science, microbiology is divided into general and particular. General microbiology studies the patterns of structure and vital activity of microorganisms at all levels. molecular, cellular, population; genetics and their relationship with the environment. The subject of study of private microbiology are individual representatives of the microworld, depending on their manifestation and influence on the environment, wildlife, including humans. Private sections of microbiology include: medical, veterinary, agricultural, technical (section of biotechnology), marine, space microbiology.

Medical microbiologystudies pathogenic microorganisms for humans: bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa. Depending on the nature of the studied pathogenic microorganisms, medical microbiology is divided into bacteriology, virology, mycology, and protozoology.

Each of these disciplines addresses the following questions:

morphology and physiology, i.e. carries out microscopic and other types of research, studies metabolism, nutrition, respiration, growth and reproduction conditions, genetic characteristics of pathogenic microorganisms;

the role of microorganisms in the etiology and pathogenesis of infectious diseases;

the main clinical manifestations and the prevalence of the diseases caused;

specific diagnostics, prevention and treatment of infectious diseases;

ecology of pathogenic microorganisms.

Medical microbiology also includes sanitary, clinical and pharmaceutical microbiology.

Sanitary microbiologystudies the microflora of the environment, the relationship of microflora with the body, the influence of microflora and its metabolic products on the state of human health, develops measures that prevent the adverse effects of microorganisms on humans. The focus of clinical microbiology. The role of conditionally pathogenic microorganisms in the occurrence of human diseases, diagnosis and prevention of these diseases.

Pharmaceutical microbiologyinvestigates infectious diseases of medicinal plants, spoilage of medicinal plants and raw materials under the action of microorganisms, contamination of medicinal products during preparation, as well as finished dosage forms, methods of asepsis and antiseptics, disinfection in the production of medicinal products, technology for obtaining microbiological and immunological diagnostic, preventive and therapeutic drugs .

Veterinary microbiologystudies the same issues as medical microbiology, but in relation to microorganisms that cause animal diseases.

Microflora of the soil, flora, its influence on fertility, soil composition, infectious diseases of plants, etc. are the focus of agricultural microbiology.

Marine and space microbiologystudies, respectively, the microflora of the seas and reservoirs and outer space and other planets.

Technical microbiology,which is part of biotechnology, develops a technology for obtaining various products from microorganisms for the national economy and medicine (antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes, proteins, vitamins). The basis of modern biotechnology is genetic engineering.

History of development of microbiology

Therefore, microbiology originated long before our era. In its development, it has gone through several stages, not so much related chronologically, but due to major achievements and discoveries.

PHYSIOLOGICAL PERIOD (SECOND HALF XIX century)

Proposed in 1896 by the French physician F. Vidal (F. Widal, 1862-1929). V. r. is based on the ability of antibodies (agglutinins) formed in the body during the course of the disease and persisting for a long time after recovery, to cause agglutination of typhoid microorganisms, specific antibodies (agglutinins) are found in the patient's blood from the 2nd week of the disease.

To set up the Vidal reaction, blood is taken with a syringe from the cubital vein in an amount of 2-3 ml and allowed to clot. The resulting clot is separated, and the serum is sucked off into a clean test tube and 3 rows of dilutions of the patient's serum from 1:100 to 1:800 are prepared from it as follows: 1 ml (20 drops) of physiological solution is poured into all test tubes; then, with the same pipette, pour 1 ml of serum diluted 1:50 into the first test tube, mix with physiological saline, thus obtaining a dilution of 1:100, Transfer 1 ml of serum from this tube to the next test tube, mix with saline, obtain a dilution of 1: 200 also receive dilutions of 1:400 and 1:800 in each of the three rows.

The Vidzl agglutination reaction is carried out in a volume of 1 ml of liquid, therefore, after mixing the liquid, 1 ml is removed from the last test tube. Pour 1 ml of saline without serum into a separate control tube. This control is placed to check the possibility of spontaneous agglutination of the antigen (diagnosticum) in each row (antigen control). In all test tubes of each row corresponding to the inscriptions, 2 drops of diagnosticum are instilled. The tripod is placed in a thermostat for 2 hours at 37 ° C and then left at room temperature for a day. The reaction is taken into account in the next lesson.

In the sera of patients, there can be both specific and group antibodies, which differ in titer height. The specific agglutination reaction usually goes to a higher titer. The reaction is considered positive if agglutination occurs at least in the first test tube with a dilution of 1:200. It usually occurs in large dilutions. If group agglutination with two or three antigens is observed, then the causative agent of the disease is considered to be the microbe with which agglutination occurred in the highest serum dilution.

If agglutination occurs when the pathogen culture is added to human blood serum, the reaction is considered positive. For the diagnosis of typhoid fever, the Vidal reaction is set repeatedly, taking into account its indications in dynamics and in connection with the Anamnesis<#"justify">Conclusion

During its development, microbiology not only learned a lot from related sciences (for example, immunology, biochemistry, biophysics, and genetics), but also gave a powerful impetus to their further development. Microbiology is the study of morphology, physiology, genetics, taxonomy, ecology, and the relationships of microorganisms with other beings. Since microorganisms are very diverse, their more detailed study is carried out by its special areas: virology, bacteriology, mycology, protozoology, etc. a number of specialized areas: medical, veterinary, technical, space, etc.

Medical microbiology studies microorganisms that are pathogenic and conditionally pathogenic for humans, their ecology and prevalence, methods for their isolation and identification, as well as issues of epidemiology, specific therapy and prevention of the diseases they cause.

The study of the entire complex of interactions within the “microorganism-microorganism” ecosystem, whether it is a microbe-commensal or a microbe-pathogen, remains an urgent problem in medical microbiology.

Bibliography

1. Pokrovsky V.I. "Medical Microbiology, Immunology, Virology". Textbook for students of farm. Universities, 2002.

Borisov L.B. "Medical Microbiology, Virology and Immunology". Textbook for medical students. Universities, 1994.

Vorobyov A.A. "Microbiology". Textbook for medical students. Universities, 1994.

Korotyaev A.I. "Medical microbiology, virology and immunology", 1998.

Bukrinskaya A.G. Virology, 1986.

L. B. BORISOV Medical microbiology, virology, immunology. M.: MIA LLC, 2010. 736 p.

Pozdeev OK Medical microbiology. M.: GEOTAR-MED, 2001. 754 p.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

TULA STATE UNIVERSITY

Department of Sanitary-hygienic and preventive disciplines

T. V. Chestnova, O. L. Smolyaninova

MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY, VIROLOGY

AND IMMUNOLOGY

(Educational and practical guide for medical students).

TULA - 2008

UDC 576.8

Reviewers:…………

Medical Microbiology, Virology and Immunology: Educational and Practical Guide / Ed. M422 T.V. Chestnova, O.L. Smolyaninova, - ... .., 2008. - .... p.

The educational and practical manual was written by the staff of the Department of Sanitary and Hygienic and Preventive Disciplines of the Tula State University in accordance with the officially approved programs for teaching microbiology (bacteriology, virology, mycology, protozoology) and immunology for students of medical universities of all faculties.

The manual provides a description of the bacteriological laboratory, outlines microscopic methods of research, the basics of preparing nutrient media, contains information about the morphology, systematics and physiology of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. Also, the characteristics of various pathogenic microorganisms, viruses and methods of their laboratory research are given.

GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………

A Brief History of the Development of Microbiology……………………………………………………………

Topic 1. Morphology and classification of microorganisms………………………………………..

1.1. Microbiological laboratories, their equipment, basic safety precautions and rules of work in them…………………………………………………………………………………..

1.2. Structure and classification of microorganisms……………………………………………………

1.3. Structure and classification of bacteria (prokaryotes)……………………………………………….

1.4. Structure and classification of fungi………………………………………………………………..

1.5. Structure and classification of protozoa………………………………………………………….

1.6. The structure and classification of viruses………………………………………………………………

Test on the topic…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Topic 2. Microscopy………………………………………………………………………………..

2.1. Microscopes, their device, types of microscopy, technique of microscopy of microorganisms, rules for handling a microscope…………………………………………………………….

2.2. Methods for preparation and staining of microscopic preparations……………………..

Test on the topic…………………………………………………………………………………………….

Topic 3. Physiology of microorganisms……………………………………………………………….

3.1. Growth and reproduction of bacteria. Phases of reproduction……………………………………………….

3.2. Nutrient media, principles of their classification, requirements for nutrient media, methods of cultivating microorganisms…………………………………………..

3.3. Nutrition of bacteria………………………………………………………………………………….

3.4. Metabolism of a bacterial cell………………………………………………………………….

3.5. Types of plastic exchange………………………………………………………………………

3.6. Principles and methods for isolating pure cultures. Enzymes of bacteria, their identification. Intraspecific identification (epidemiological marking)……………………………..

3.7. Features of the physiology of fungi, protozoa, viruses and their cultivation………………

3.8. Bacteriophages, their structure, classification and application……………………………………..

Test on the topic………………………………………………………………………………………………

Topic 4. Influence of environmental conditions on microorganisms……………………………………..

4.1. Effect of physical, chemical and biological factors on microorganisms………….

4.2. The concept of sterilization, disinfection, asepsis and antisepsis. Sterilization methods, equipment. Disinfection quality control……………………………………………………………..

Topic 5. Normal microflora of the human body……………………………………………….

5.1. Normoflora, its significance for microorganisms. The concept of transient flora, dysbiotic conditions, their assessment, methods of correction………………………………………………………..

Topic 6. Genetics of microbes. ……………………………………………………………………………..

6.1. The structure of the bacterial genome. Phenotypic and genotypic variability. Mutations. Modifications.…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Genetic recombination of microorganisms. Fundamentals of genetic engineering, practical application…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Test on the topic……………………………………………………………………………………………..

Topic 7. Antimicrobials………………………………………………………………….

7.1. Antibiotics natural and synthetic. Classification of antibiotics by chemical structure, mechanism, spectrum and type of action. Methods of obtaining…………………………….

7.2. Drug resistance of bacteria, ways to overcome it. Methods for determining sensitivity to antibiotics………………………………………………………………………………..

Topic 8. Doctrine of infection…………………………………………………………………………..

8.1. The concept of infection. Forms of infection and periods of infectious diseases. pathogenicity and virulence. pathogenicity factors. Toxins of bacteria, their nature, properties, obtaining……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

8.2. The concept of epidemiological surveillance of the infectious process. The concept of the reservoir, source of infection, ways and factors of transmission………………………………………………

Test on the topic……………………………………………………………………………………………..

GENERAL IMMUNOLOGY…………………………………………………………………………….

Topic 9. Immunology………………………………………………………………………………………

9.1. The concept of immunity. Types of immunity. Nonspecific protective factors…………….

9.2. Central and peripheral organs of the immune system. Cells of the immune system. Forms of the immune response………………………………………………………………………………

9.3. Complement, its structure, functions, ways of activation. Role in immunity…………………..

9.4. Antigens, their properties and types. Antigens of microorganisms…………………………………..

9.5. Antibodies and antibody formation. The structure of immunoglobulins. Classes of immunoglobulins and their properties ………………………………………………………………………………………

96. Serological reactions and their application……………………………………………………….

9.7. immunodeficiency states. Allergic reactions. immunological memory. immunological tolerance. Autoimmune processes……………………………………………

9.8. Immunoprophylaxis, immunotherapy……………………………………………………………..

PRIVATE MICROBIOLOGY………………………………………………………………………….

Topic 10. Causative agents of intestinal infections………………………………………………………….

10.1. Salmonella………………………………………………………………………………………..

10.2. Shigella………………………………………………………………………………………….

10.3. Escherichia…………………………………………………………………………………………….

10.4. Vibrio cholerae………………………………………………………………………………….

10.5. Yersinia …………………………………………………………………………………………….

Topic 11. Food poisoning. Food poisoning…………………………………………

11.1. General characteristics and causative agents of PTI……………………………………………………….

11.2. Botulism…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Topic 12. Causative agents of pyoinflammatory diseases…………………………………………

12.1. Pathogenic cocci (streptococci, staphylococci)………………………………………………..

12.2. Gram-negative bacteria (hemophilic, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella, Proteus) ...

12.3. Wound anaerobic clostridial and non-clostridial infections……………………

Topic 13. Causative agents of bacterial airborne infections…………………………….

13.1. Corynebacteria………………………………………………………………………………………

13.2. Bordetella……………………………………………………………………………………………

13.3. Meningococci………………………………………………………………………………………..

13.4. Mycobacteria……………………………………………………………………………………..

13.5. Legionella………………………………………………………………………………………..

Topic 14. Causative agents of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)………………………

14.1. Chlamydia…………………………………………………………………………………………..

14.2. The causative agent of syphilis……………………………………………………………………………….

14.3. Gonococci…………………………………………………………………………………………….

Topic 15. Rickettsiosis pathogens…………………………………………………………………..

Topic 16. Causative agents of bacterial zoonotic infections……………………………….

16.1. Francisella…………………………………………………………………………………………

16.2. Brucella…………………………………………………………………………………………….

16.3. The causative agent of anthrax……………………………………………………………………..

16.4. The causative agent of the plague……………………………………………………………………………………

16.5. Leptospira…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Topic 17. Pathogenic protozoa……………………………………………………………………..

17.1. Plasmodium malaria………………………………………………………………………………….

17.2. Toxoplasma………………………………………………………………………………………….

17.3. Leishmania………………………………………………………………………………………..

17.4. The causative agent of amoebiasis…………………………………………………………………………….

17.5. Giardia………………………………………………………………………………………………

Topic 18. Diseases caused by pathogenic fungi ………………………………………..

PRIVATE VIROLOGY……………………………………………………………………………..

Topic 19. SARS pathogens……………………………………………………………………………

19.1. Influenza viruses……………………………………………………………………………………….

19.2. Parainfluenza. RS viruses……………………………………………………………………………

19.3. Adenoviruses…………………………………………………………………………………………

19.4. Rhinoviruses………………………………………………………………………………………..

19.5. Reoviruses…………………………………………………………………………………………….

Topic 20. Causative agents of viral airborne infections…………………………………..

20.1. Measles and mumps viruses……………………………………………………………………………..

20.2. Herpes virus……………………………………………………………………………………...

20.3. Rubella virus………………………………………………………………………………………

Topic 21. Poxyviruses………………………………………………………………………………….

21.1. The causative agent of smallpox…………………………………………………………………….

Topic 22. Enteroviral infections…………………………………………………………………..

22.1. Polio virus…………………………………………………………………………………

22.2. ECHO viruses. Coxsackieviruses……………………………………………………………………

Topic 23. Retroviruses………………………………………………………………………………......

23.1. The causative agent of HIV infection………………………………………………………………………..

Topic 24. Arbovirus infections…………………………………………………………………….

24.1.Rhabdoviruses……………………………………………………………………………………….

24.2. Flaviviruses…………………………………………………………………………………………

24.3. Hantaviruses……………………………………………………………………………………….

Topic 25. Causative agents of viral hepatitis……………………………………………………………

25.1. Hepatitis A virus…………………………………………………………………………………….

25.2. Hepatitis B virus……………………………………………………………………………………..

25.3. Hepatitis C virus…………………………………………………………………………………..

PART ONE. GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY

Introduction.

Microbiology is a science that studies microscopic creatures called microorganisms, their biological characteristics, systematics, ecology, and relationships with other organisms.

Microorganisms include bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, including filamentous fungi, yeasts, protozoa and non-cellular forms - viruses, phages.

Microorganisms play an extremely important role in nature - they carry out the cycle of organic and inorganic (N, P, S, etc.) substances, mineralize plant and animal remains. But they can do great harm - causing damage to raw materials, food products, organic materials. In this case, toxic substances can be formed.

Many types of microorganisms are pathogens of human, animal and plant diseases.

At the same time, microorganisms are now widely used in the national economy: with the help of various types of bacteria and fungi, organic acids (acetic, citric, etc.), alcohols, enzymes, antibiotics, vitamins, fodder yeast are obtained. On the basis of microbiological processes, bread-baking, wine-making, brewing, the production of dairy products, fermentation of fruits and vegetables, as well as other branches of the food industry, work.

Currently, microbiology is divided into the following sections:

Medical microbiology - studies pathogenic microorganisms that cause human diseases and develops methods for diagnosing, preventing and treating these diseases. It studies the ways and mechanisms of their spread and methods of combating them. A separate course, virology, adjoins the course of medical microbiology.

Veterinary microbiology is the study of pathogenic microorganisms that cause disease in animals.

Biotechnology considers the features and conditions for the development of microorganisms used to obtain compounds and drugs used in the national economy and medicine. It develops and improves scientific methods for the biosynthesis of enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics and other biologically active substances. Biotechnology also faces the task of developing measures to protect raw materials, foodstuffs, organic materials from spoilage by microorganisms, and studying the processes that occur during their storage and processing.

Soil microbiology studies the role of microorganisms in the formation and fertility of the soil, in plant nutrition.

Aquatic microbiology studies the microflora of water bodies, its role in food chains, in the cycle of substances, in pollution and purification of drinking and waste water.

The genetics of microorganisms, as one of the youngest disciplines, considers the molecular basis of heredity and variability of microorganisms, the laws of mutagenesis processes, develops methods and principles for controlling the vital activity of microorganisms and obtaining new strains for use in industry, agriculture and medicine.

Brief history of the development of microbiology.

The credit for the discovery of microorganisms belongs to the Dutch naturalist A. Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), who created the first microscope with a magnification of 300 times. In 1695 he published the book "Secrets of Nature" with drawings of cocci, rods, spirilla. This aroused great interest among naturalists. The state of science of that time allowed only to describe new species (morphological period).

The beginning of the physiological period is associated with the activities of the great French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). The most important discoveries in the field of microbiology are associated with the name of Pasteur: he investigated the nature of fermentation, established the possibility of life without oxygen (anaerobiosis), rejected the theory of spontaneous generation, investigated the causes of spoilage of wines and beer. He proposed effective ways to combat food spoilage pathogens (pasteurization), developed the principle of vaccination and methods for obtaining vaccines.

R. Koch, a contemporary of Pasteur, introduced crops on dense nutrient media, counting microorganisms, isolating pure cultures, and sterilizing materials.

The immunological period in the development of microbiology is associated with the name of the Russian biologist I.I. Mechnikov, who discovered the doctrine of the body's immunity to infectious diseases (immunity), was the founder of the phagocytic theory of immunity, revealed antagonism in microbes. Simultaneously with I.I. Mechnikov, the mechanisms of immunity to infectious diseases were studied by the largest German researcher P. Ehrlich, who created the theory of humoral immunity.

Gamaleya N.F. - the founder of immunology and virology, discovered bacteriophagy.

DI. Ivanovsky first discovered viruses and became the founder of virology. Working in the Nikitsky Botanical Garden on the study of tobacco mosaic disease, which caused enormous damage to tobacco plantations, in 1892. established that this disease, common in the Crimea, is caused by a virus.

N.G. Gabrichevsky organized the first bacteriological institute in Moscow. He owns works on the study of scarlet fever, diphtheria, plague and other infections. He organized the production of anti-diphtheria serum in Moscow and successfully applied it to treat children.

P.F. Zdrodovsky is an immunologist and microbiologist, known for his fundamental work on the physiology of immunity, as well as in the field of rickettsiology and brucellosis.

V.M. Zhdanov is a prominent virologist, one of the organizers of the global elimination of smallpox on the planet, who stood at the origins of molecular virology and genetic engineering.

M.P. Chumakov is an immunobiotechnologist and virologist, organizer of the Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitis, author of the oral polio vaccine.

Z.V. Ermolyeva - the founder of domestic antibiotic therapy