Sound is the smallest indivisible unit of voiced speech flow that does not matter. The study of the sound system of a language, all its manifestations and functions, is devoted to the section of linguistics called phonetics.
The phonetic system of the Russian language contains 42 sounds, 6 of which are vowels, and the remaining 36 are consonants. Sonorant sounds in Russian deserve special attention. As a rule, the pronunciation of some of them causes the greatest difficulties in children who are just learning to speak. To understand what sonorous sounds are, it is necessary to consider the system of sounds of the Russian language as a whole.
Each sound has the following characteristics:
- acoustic;
- articulatory;
- functional (semantic).
Acoustic performance
To characterize a sound acoustically is to characterize how it sounds. This can be done by its sonority, strength and height.
Sonority allows you to separate vocal and non-vocal sounds. All noisy consonants are non-vocal. Vocals include all vowels and sonorous consonants.
In terms of strength, sounds can be consonant or non-consonant. Consonant, i.e. weak, are all consonants, and non-consonant, i.e. strong - all vowels.
From a position of height, the sound can be, respectively, high or low. Front vowels, front lingual and middle lingual consonants are high. All other vowels and consonants are low sounds.
The concept of articulation
Articulation is the process of producing sounds. The speech apparatus of a person, with the help of which sounds are formed, is represented by a fairly large set of organs. This includes the lungs, larynx, vocal cords, nasal cavity, hard and soft palate, mandible, lips and tongue. Exhaled air exits the lungs and passes through the gap formed by the vocal cords in the larynx. With tense and oscillating vocal cords, a voice (tone) is formed. It serves as the basis for vowels, voiced and sonorous consonants. If the vocal cords are relaxed, the voice does not form, noise occurs, which underlies the noisy consonants.
Further differentiation of sounds occurs in the oral cavity, depending on what obstacle the air stream encounters on its way.
Vowel characteristic
The main feature of vowels is that when they are formed, the air stream, having formed a tone in the vocal cords, no longer encounters any obstacles in the oral cavity. That is, they consist only of tone (voice) without the addition of noise.
The vowels are a, o, u, i, s, e. The articulation of each vowel depends only on the position of the active organs of speech (lips, tongue, soft palate and lower jaw).
The functional feature of vowels is that they form a syllable, i.e. play a syllabic role.
Characteristics of consonants
When a consonant sound is formed, the air stream encounters various obstacles on its way. Noise occurs while crossing the obstacle. Therefore, the main difference between a consonant and a vowel is the presence of noise in addition to tone (voice). The occurrence of a specific consonant sound depends on the place where the barrier is formed and how it is overcome. Thus, they are all divided depending on the ratio of tone and noise, place and method of formation.
According to the ratio of tone and noise, consonants are divided into sonorous sounds, voiced and deaf consonants. Voiced and voiceless consonants are noisy, because noise participates in their formation either on a par with the voice (voiced), or prevails over the voice (deaf).
When pronouncing a consonant sound, the barrier can be formed by the tongue or lips, so all consonants are divided according to the place of formation into labial and lingual.
According to the method of formation, or according to the method of overcoming an obstacle, they are occlusive, slit, occlusive-slit (affricates), occlusive-passing and trembling.
Another characteristic of consonants is palatalization (hardness/softness). Pairs of hardness / softness do not have only a few consonants: zh, ts (always hard) and h, j (always soft).
Characteristics of sonorous sounds
What is a sonorous sound, it becomes clear already from the translation of this definition. The word sonorous comes from the Latin sonorus. It means "resonant". Indeed, in the formation of such a sound, the voice predominates, and the noise is so minimal that sonorous sounds become close to vowels. Sonorant sounds in Russian are m, m", n, n", l, l", p, p", j.
Note. The main feature of sonorous sounds is that when passing through an obstacle in the oral cavity, the air that forms the sound finds ways to bypass it. So, for example, when the sound l and its soft pair are formed, the air bypasses the bow formed by the tongue and upper teeth on the sides. Accordingly, at the place of formation, this sound is lingual-dental. And according to the method of formation, it is occlusive-through. When the sound p and its soft pair are formed, the air flow causes the bow formed by the tongue and the hard palate to vibrate. Thus, it is lingual-alveolar at the place of formation, and trembling (vibrant) by the method of formation. Interestingly, such a sonorous sound as j (th) is very similar in its formation to the vowel and. However, during its pronunciation, there is a significant narrowing during the passage of the air flow. Because of this, a slight noise arises, which allows us to attribute this sound to consonants. According to the place of formation, j is lingual-mid-palatal, according to the method of formation - slit, and is only palatalized (soft).
All sonorous sounds in Russian do not have a deafness / voiced pair and are only voiced. At the end of a word, sonorant sounds are not deafened, as is the case with other voiced consonants.
Mouth and nasal sounds
Depending on the position of the palatal curtain, different consonant sounds are formed. If the palatine curtain rises and presses against the back wall of the pharynx, the passage to the nasal cavity for the air stream is closed. The sounds formed in this way are called mouth sounds. Or clean. If the palatine curtain falls, the passage to the nasal cavity for the air stream opens, and the nasal cavity serves as an additional resonator for the production of sound. In this way, sounds are formed, called nasal, or nasal.
There are only four nasal sounds in Russian: m, m", n, n". According to the place of formation, m and its soft pair are labial-labial, and according to the method of formation, they are occlusive-anadromous. The sound n and its soft pair at the place of formation is lingual-dental, and according to the method of formation, it is occlusive-passing.
So, understanding what a sonorous sound is is possible only with a full understanding of the mechanism for the formation of sounds. That is, their articulations. Knowledge of the features of sonorant consonants helps to determine their place in the phonetic system of the Russian language.
Consonants
Consonant sounds: classification features
When classifying consonants, it is customary to take into account a number of features:
1) the ratio of noise and tone (noisiness / sonority),
3) hardness / softness,
4) place of formation,
5) the way of education.
Particularly stipulated are the properties of pairing in deafness / sonority and pairing in hardness / softness.
Noisy and sonorous, deaf and voiced consonants
Noisy and sonorous consonants differ in the ratio of noise and tone.
Sonorants in Russian include nine sounds: [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [l], [l’], [p], [p’], [j]. As with all consonants, a barrier is created during the articulation of sonorants in the oral cavity. However, the force of friction of the air jet against the contiguous / closed organs of speech is minimal: the air jet finds a relatively free exit to the outside and no noise is generated. Air rushes either through the nose ([m], [m '], [n], [n ']), or into the passage between the lateral edges of the tongue and cheeks ([l], [l ']). The absence of noise can be associated with the instantaneous nature of the barrier ([p], [p']) or with the rather wide nature of the gap itself ([j]). In any case, no noise is created and the main source of sound is the tone (voice) created by the vibration of the vocal cords.
In the formation of noisy consonants ([b], [c], [g], [e], [g], [h], etc.), on the contrary, noise plays the main role. It occurs as a result of overcoming an obstacle with an air stream. The tonal component of the sound is non-basic and may either be completely absent (for deaf consonants) or complement the main one (for voiced consonants).
Voiced and voiceless consonants differ in the participation / non-participation of tone (voice) in the formation of a consonant sound.
Tone (voice) is characteristic of voiced pronunciation, their articulation implies the obligatory work of the vocal cords. Voiced, therefore, are all sonorants: [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [l], [l '], [p], [p '], [j]. Among the noisy consonants, the voiced sounds include the following sounds: [b], [b '], [c], [c '], [g], [g '], [d], [d '], [g], [ f:'], [h], [h'].
Voiceless consonants are pronounced without a voice when the vocal cords remain relaxed. The sounds of this type include only noisy ones: [n], [n '], [f], [f '], [t], [t '], [s], [s '], [w], [w :'], [k], [k'], [c], [h'], [x], [x'].
[b] - [n] [b '] - [n ']
[c] - [f] [c '] - [f ']
[d] - [t] [d '] - [t ']
[s] - [s] [s '] - [s ']
[w] - [w] [w: '] - [w: ']
[g] - [k] [g '] - [k ']
The listed sounds are respectively either voiced doubles, or deaf pairs. The remaining consonants are characterized as unpaired. To voiced unpaired include all sonorants, to deaf unpaired sounds [c], [h '], [x], [x '].
Phonetic alternations of consonants according to deafness / sonority. Designation of deafness / voiced consonants in writing
The deafness / voicedness of consonants remains an independent, independent sign in the following provisions:
1) before vowels: [su] d court - [zu] d itching, [ta] m there - [yes] m ladies;
2) before the sonorants: [sl] th layer - [evil] oh evil, [tl '] I aphid - [dl '] I for;
3) before [in], [in ']: [sver '] check check - [zv '] beast beast.
In these positions, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found, and these sounds are used to distinguish between words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness / sonority.
In other cases, the appearance of a dull / voiced sound is predetermined by its position in the word or the proximity of a particular sound. Such deafness / sonority turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this happens are considered weak on the basis of the specified attribute.
In Russian, there is a law according to which voiced noisy stunned at the end of a word, compare: dý [b] a oak - du [n] oak, má [z '] and ointments - ma [s '] ointment. In the given examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants according to deafness / voicedness is fixed: [b] // [p] and [h '] // [s '].
In addition, positional changes relate to situations where the voiceless and voiced consonants are close. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants in front of the deaf are necessarily likened to them in deafness, as a result, a sequence of deaf sounds arises, cf. ready [in ']it is preparing - ready [f't'] do not cook (i.e. [in '] // [f '] in front of the deaf).
Deaf consonants facing voiced noisy ones (except [in], [in ']) change to voiced ones, occurs assimilation by voice, cf .: milk [t '] and´t to thresh - milk [d'b]á threshing ([t '] // [d '] before the voiced), ask [s '] and´t to ask - pro [s 'b]a request (i.e. [c'] // [h'] before voiced).
Articulatory assimilation of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from Latin assimilatio ‘similarity’). Thus, it has been described above deafness assimilation and voice assimilation.
The designation of deafness / voiced consonants in writing is associated with the use of the corresponding letters: t or d, p or b, etc. However, only independent, independent deafness / sonority is indicated on the letter. Sound signs that turn out to be “forced”, positionally conditioned, are not indicated in the letter. Thus, phonetically alternating sounds are written with one letter, the morphematic principle of spelling operates: in the word du [n] du b the letter b is written, as in the test du [b] a du b a.
The exception will be the spelling of some borrowed words (transcription [p]tion transcription in the presence of transcription [b '] transcribe transcribe) and prefixes on s / s (and [s] use use if available and [s] learn to study ). The graphic appearance of such examples falls under the phonetic principle of orthography. True, in the case of prefixes, it does not work to the end, combined with the traditional one: ra[w:] move = ra[w] stir stir up.
The traditional principle of spelling is subject to the choice of a letter in dictionary words like in [g] hall station, and [h] best asbestos. Their spelling does not depend on verification (it is impossible), nor on pronunciation.
Hard and soft consonants
Hard and soft consonants differ in the position of the tongue.
When pronouncing soft consonants ([b '], [c '], [d '], [h '], etc.), the entire body of the tongue moves forward, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This movement of the tongue is called palatalization. Palatalization is considered an additional articulation: it is superimposed on the main one associated with the formation of an obstruction.
When pronouncing solid consonants ([b], [c], [d], [h], etc.), the tongue does not move forward and its middle part does not rise.
Consonants form 15 pairs of sounds opposed in hardness / softness. All of them are or hard doubles, or soft doubles:
To solid unpaired consonants [c], [w], [g] are referred to, and consonants [h ’], [w: ’], [g: ’] and [j] are classified as soft unpaired.
The consonants [w] and [w: ’], [g] and [g: ’] do not form pairs, as they differ in two features at once: hardness / softness and brevity / longitude.
It should be noted that the sound [zh: '] is rare. It is possible only in a limited range of words: I drive, reins, yeast, splashes, later and some others. At the same time, [zh: '] is increasingly being replaced by [zh:].
A very special position among soft consonants is occupied by the sound [j]. In the rest of the soft consonants, the raising of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate is, as noted above, an additional articulation. The consonant [j] has the indicated articulation as the main one, because there are no other barriers when pronouncing [j]. Therefore, the sound [j] is in principle not capable of having a solid pair.
Phonetic alternations of consonants for hardness/softness. Designation of hardness / softness of consonants in writing. Letters b and b
The hardness / softness of consonants as an independent feature, and not arising due to positional changes, is fixed in the following strong positions:
1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu] to bow - [l'u] to hatch, [but] with a nose - [n'o] s carried, pass [t e´] pastel - post [t ' e´] l bed;
Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, paired hard ones - in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings are no longer perceived as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, both hard and soft pronunciation of the consonant before [e] became possible in commonly used words.
2) at the end of the word: ko [n] kon - ko [n '] horse, zha [r] heat - zha [r '] fry;
3) for sounds [l], [l ’], regardless of their position: in [l] ná wave - in [l ’] ná free;
4) for consonants [c], [s '], [s], [s '], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [n], [n '], [ p], [p'] (for front-lingual)
- in a position before [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '] (before back-lingual): gó [r] ka hill - gó [r '] ko bitterly, bá [n] ka bank - bá [n '] ka banka;
- in a position before [b], [b '], [p], [p '], [m], [m '] (before the lips): and [z] bá hut - re [z '] bá carving;
In other cases, the hardness or softness of the consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence of sounds on each other.
Assimilation by hardness observed, for example, in the case of a combination of soft [n '] with hard [s], cf. .e [n'] // [n] before solid). A pair of June [n’] June - June’s [n’s] cue June does not follow this pattern. But this exception is the only one.
Assimilation in softness carried out inconsistently with respect to different groups of consonants and is not observed by all speakers. Only the replacement [n] with [n '] before [h '] and [w: '] knows no deviations, cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n'h ']ik drum, gó [n] ok racing - gó[n' w:']ik racer (i.e. [n] // [n'] before soft).
In accordance with the old norms, it was necessary to say: l ´ [m’k ’] and straps, [v’b ’] to drive in; [d’v ’] er the door; [with'j] eat eat; [s’t’] ená wall. In modern pronunciation, there is no mandatory softening of the first sound in these cases. So, the word la´ [mk ’] and straps (similarly trya´ [pk ’] and rags, lá [fk ’] and benches) is pronounced only with a solid, other sound combinations allow pronunciation variability.
The designation in writing applies only to cases of independent, and not positionally determined, hardness / softness of paired consonants. At the literal level, the soft sound quality [n '] in the words drum and racer is not graphically fixed.
Unlike deafness / voicedness, the independent softness of paired consonants is conveyed not by the letter corresponding to the consonant sound, but by the letter following it:
letters i, e, u, i: l and k, l e d, l yu k, l i zg;
In modern language, the letter e has ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant. The combination of letters ... those ... cannot be read if you do not see which word it belongs to - those hundred or those st.
2) at the end of the word with a letter a soft sign: horse, heat, dust;
3) in the middle of a word, before a consonant letter, a soft sign: t ma, ve s ma, ba n ka.
The independent hardness of paired consonants is transmitted by such means:
letters s, o, y, a, e: ly ko, boat, bow, la ska, kara te;
at the end of the word by the absence of a soft sign: ko n_, hot r_, py_ l;
in the middle of a word before a consonant without a soft sign:
t_ min, s_ looks, ba n_ ka.
The hardness / softness of unpaired consonants does not require a separate designation. Writing i / s, ё / o, u / u, i / a after the letters w, f, h, u, ccorresponding to unpaired ones, is dictated by tradition: life, qi fra, tsy films, burn, o zho g, shu fabric , bro shyu ra , cup . The same applies to the use / disuse of the letter soft sign in a number of grammatical forms: rye, married _, quiet, small sh _, thing, tovarishch_, can, brick_.
Please note that the name of the letters b and b turns out to be insidious. The letter "hard sign" never denotes hardness, its use is associated with a separating function, i.e. indicating the presence of [j] before the next vowel sound: st will eat, a [d'ju] tant adjutant.
The functions of the letter "soft sign" are wider. Firstly, it can also be used in a separating function, but not after prefixes: [vjý]ga blizzard, bu[l'jó]n broth. In this case, the letter b does not indicate the softness of the consonant. Secondly, a soft sign can traditionally be written in a number of grammatical forms after letters corresponding to unpaired consonants (see above). Again, the letter ь does not convey the softness of sounds in this use. And finally, in a number of situations, the letter b denotes the softness of consonants in writing. This function extends to examples with independent softness of paired consonants at the end of a word and in the middle of a word before a consonant (see above).
Place and method of formation of consonants
Place of education consonant sound - a sign showing where in the oral cavity the air stream meets an obstacle.
This characteristic is given with the obligatory indication of the active (moving) and passive (fixed) organs. So, consonants, the articulation of which is associated with the movement of the lower lip, are labial-labial ([p], [p '], [b], [b '], [m], [m ']) and labial-dental ([ f], [f'], [v], [v']). Consonants formed with the active participation of the language are divided into front-lingual dental ([s], [s'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [ c], [l], [l'], [n], [n']), anterior lingual anterior palatine([w], [w ’], [g], [g ’], [h ’], [p], [p ’]), midlingual palatal([j]), posterior lingual midpalatal([k'], [g'], [x']) and posterior lingual posterior palatine([k], [g], [x]). All listed groups of sounds are reflected in the table of consonants (see below).
Considering the table (Appendix to the publication), be sure to pronounce the sounds given in it. The work of your own organs of speech will help you understand why each sound is placed in a particular cell.
Method of consonant formation- this is a characteristic that simultaneously indicates the type of obstruction in the oral cavity and the way to overcome it.
There are two main ways to form an obstruction - either the complete closure of the speech organs, or their convergence to the distance of the gap. Thus, stop and fricative consonants are distinguished.
When articulating slotted air, a stream of exhaled air exits in the middle of the oral cavity, producing friction on the contiguous organs of speech: h'], [w], [w¯'], [g], [g¯'], [j], [x], [x'].
The pronunciation of stop consonants includes the moment of complete closure of the organs of speech, when the exit of the air stream to the outside is blocked. The method of overcoming the bond may be different, depending on what further division into classes is carried out.
Stopping plosives suggest the elimination of the barrier with a strong and short push of air, which quickly comes out: [n], [n '], [b], [b'], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [k], [k'], [g], [g'].
At stop affricates the organs of speech that are tightly adjacent to each other do not sharply open, but only slightly open, forming a gap for air to escape: [ts], [h '].
Closing nasals do not require breaking the bow at all. Thanks to the lowered palatine curtain, the air does not rush to the place of the shutter, but freely exits through the nasal cavity: [m], [m '], [n], [n '].
When the occluded lateral [l] and [l ’] are formed, the air also does not come into contact with the barrier, bypassing it along its trajectory - between the lowered side of the tongue and the cheeks.
In some teaching aids, nasal and lateral sounds are described as closure-through.
Stopping trembling characterized by periodic closing and opening of the organs of speech, that is, their vibration: [p], [p '].
Sometimes trembling is considered not as a variety of stops, but as a separate, third type of consonants along with stops and fricatives.
Phonetic alternations of consonants in place and method of formation. Phonetic alternations of consonants with zero sound
The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other.
Before anterior palatine noisy teeth are replaced by anterior palatals. going on positional assimilation by place of formation: [with] a game with a game - [w w] slaughter with a fur coat (i.e. [s] // [w] in front of the anterior), [with] a game with a game - [w: 'h'] championship with the championship ( i.e. [s] // [w: '] before the anterior palate).
Explosive consonants before fricatives and affricates alternate with affricates, i.e. with closer articulatory sounds. Assimilation is carried out according to the method of formation: o [t] play to win back - o [cs] to fall asleep (i.e. [t] // [c] in front of the slot).
In many cases, several signs of consonants undergo a positional change at once. So, in the above example with the championship, the assimilation touched not only the sign of the place of formation, but also the sign of softness. And in the case of [d] playing under the game - according to [h' w: '] some under the cheek ([d] // [h '] in front of the deaf, soft, prepalatine, fricative [w: ']) there was an assimilation according to all four signs - deafness, softness, place and method of formation.
In the examples le [g] ok easy - le [x'k'] th light, soft'[g] ok soft - me''[h'k'] th soft, where [g] alternates with [x'], and not with [k '] before [k '], there is a dissimilarity ( dissimilation) of sounds according to the method of formation. At the same time, dissimilation (dissimilation) on this basis is combined with likeness (assimilation) in deafness and softness.
In addition to the phenomena described above, phonetic alternation of consonants with zero sound.
Usually [t] / [t '] and [d] / [d '] are not pronounced between dental, between [p] and [h '], between [p] and [c], it also does not sound [l] before [ nc]. So, the loss of a consonant is presented in the following combinations:
stl: happy [t '] happiness - happy happy, i.e. [t'] // ;
stn: place [t] about places - local local, i.e. [t] // ;
zdn: uéz [d] and county - uézny county, i.e. [d] //;
zdts: knot [d]á bridle - under the knots´ under the bridles, i.e. [d] //; gollan [d '] Dutch Dutchman - Dutch Dutch, i.e. [d'] // ;
rdts: ser[d’]echko heart - heart heart, i.e. [d'] // ;
rdch: ser [d ’] échko heart - serchishko heart, i.e. [d'] // ;
sun: so [l] little sun sun - sun sun, i.e. [l] // .
Akin to the specified phenomenon and the loss of [j]. It occurs when an iota is preceded by a vowel, and then followed by [and] or [b]: mo mine - [mai´] mine, i.e. [j] // .
Please note that not a single phonetic phenomenon associated with the likening of consonants in place / method of formation or with the fact of their replacement by zero sound is indicated in the letter. According to the morphematic (phonological) principle of Russian orthography, positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the check. An example [w] with a fur coat is written as with a fur coat, because have [with] game with game . The unpronounceable consonant in happy happy is graphically restored on the basis of the test happy [th’]e happiness, etc.
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1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding double deaf. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: threshold[to] — vice[to], young[t] — hammer[t], goats[With], — braid[With] etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are stunned: gruzd - sadness[gr with "t"], entrance - driveway[pΛdј uh st] etc.
Stunning of the final voiced occurs under the following conditions:
1) before a pause: [pr "ish about l p about est] ( the train came);
2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [ј] and [v]: [prime he], [sat ours], [weak јa], [your mouth] ( he is right, our garden, weakening, your kind). Sonorant consonants are not stunned: rubbish, they say, com, he.
2. Assimilation of consonants by voicedness and deafness. Combinations of consonants, of which one is deaf and the other is voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if two consonants of different voicing appear side by side in a word, the first consonant is likened to the second. This change in consonants is called regressive assimilation.
By virtue of this law, voiced consonants in front of the deaf turn into paired deaf, and deaf in the same position into voiced. voicing voiceless consonants are less common than voiced stunning; the transition of voiced to voiceless creates homophones: [ dushk - dushk] (douche - douche), [in"and with"t" and - in "and with" t " and ] (carry - lead), [fp"bp"and m"eshku - fp"bp"and m"eshku] ( mixed - mixed).
Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [v], the deaf ones remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λt est] (departure), yours, yours.
Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions:
1) at the junction of morphemes: [pΛhotk] (gait), [collection] (collection);
2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [where "elu] (to business), [zd" elm] (with business);
3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [get] (g about d something), [d about d "w" would] (d about whose);
4) at the junction of significant words pronounced without a pause: [rock-kΛzy] (goat horn), [ras-p "at"] (five times).
3. Assimilation of consonants by softness.
Softness assimilation has a regressive character: the consonant softens, becoming like the subsequent soft consonant. In this position, not all consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften and not all soft consonants cause a softening of the previous sound.
All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften in the following weak positions:
1) before a vowel [e]; [b "el], [v" es], [m "el], [s "el] ( white, weight, chalk, sat down) etc.;
2) before [and]: [m "silt], [p" silt "and] ( sweet, drinking).
Before unpaired [g], [w], [c], soft consonants are impossible, with the exception of [l], [l "](cf. end - ring).
The teeth most susceptible to softening [h], [s], [n], [r], [d], [t] and lip [b], [p], [m], [c], [f]. Do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], as well as [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l"es]; compare [lt"br]) and before the particle ([rbs - l"and]; compare [rlsl"and]) ( here is the forest, otter, grew w, grew).
Consonants [h] and [s] soften before soft [t "], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m "ёs" t "], [v" iez " d "e], [f-ka "s" b], [kaz "n"] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution) ^ Softening [s], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them before soft labials: [rz "d" iel "it"], [r's "t" yenut "], [b" bz "-n" ievb), [b "yes" -s "il] (divide, stretch, without him, without strength). Before soft labial softening [h], [s], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes on -z, as well as in the prefix s-and in a preposition consonant with it: [s "m" ex], [z "in" er "], [d" in "er"], [t" in "er"], [s "n" et "], [s" -n "im], [is "-p" ёch "], [rlz" d "ёt"] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).
Labials do not soften before soft teeth: [pt "yon" h "bk], [n" eft "], [vz" at "] (chick, oil, take).
These cases of assimilative softness of consonants show that the action of assimilation in the modern Russian literary language is not always distinguished by a strict sequence.
4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness. Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of the root and the suffix, which begins with a hard consonant: locksmith - locksmith, secretary - secretarial, etc. Assimilation in hardness does not occur before the labial [b]: [prls "it"] - [proz "b", [mllt "it"] - [mlld" ba] (ask - request, threshing - threshing), etc. [l "] is not subjected to assimilation: [floor" b] - [zlpbl "nts] (field, outdoor).
5. Assimilation of teeth before hissing. This type of assimilation extends to the dental [h], [s] in the position before the hissing (anteropalatal) [w], [g], [h], [w "] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [h], [s] to the following hissing.
Complete assimilation [h], [s] occurs:
1) at the junction of morphemes: [press"], [rlzhat"] (compress, unclench); [tyt "], [rltyt"] (sew, embroider); [t "from], [rlt" bt] (account, calculation); [r \ zn6t "ik], [izvbt" ik] (peddler, cab driver);
2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [zharm], [tarm] (with heat, with a ball); [b "yezhar], [bippar] (without heat, bvz ball).
The combination of zzh inside the root, as well as the combination of zhzh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [zh"]: [pl"b] (later), Tzhozh"u] (I drive); [vbzh"and], [drbzh"and ] (reins, yeast) Optionally, in these cases, a long hard [zh] can be pronounced.
A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], resulting in long [h "], [c]: [lch "bt] (report), [fkra" q] (briefly),
6. Simplification of consonant combinations. Consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. Such a simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [u "snyd], [pbzn], [t" esl "yvyd], [g" igansk "id" ], [h "stub], [s" yordts], [sbnts] (oral, late, happy, giant, feeling, heart, sun).
7. Reduction of groups of identical consonants. When three identical consonants converge at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the next word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [rasor "it"] (time + quarrel), [sylkd] (link), [ kllbnyd] (column + n + th); [ld "yosksh] (Odessa + sk + yy).
English consonants are classified according to the following principles:
- place and active organ of articulation
- barrier type
- noise generation method
- number of noise barriers
- work of the vocal cords
- pronunciation power.
labial consonants
Depending on which mobile and immovable organs of speech are involved in the articulation of the sound of speech, consonants are divided into labial, lingual and guttural.
Labial consonants can be
- labial, articulated by both lips - [w], [m], [p], [b] and
- labiodental, pronounced by the lower lip and upper teeth - [f], [v].
Lingual consonants
Lingual consonants are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual.
Frontlingual consonants can be
- interdental (predorsal-tooth)– [θ], [ð] (the surface of the anterior part of the tongue forms an incomplete barrier with the upper teeth);
- apical-alveolar- [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z], [∫], [ʒ], , (the front edge of the tongue is raised to the alveolar arch);
- as cuminal-alveolar- [r] (the front edge of the tongue is raised up and slightly bent towards the posterior slope of the alveoli).
AT middle language consonant barrier is formed by raising the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate. This is how the only one in English is articulated dorsal-palatal sound [j].
back lingual consonants are articulated by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate - [k], [g], [ŋ]. it dorsal-velar sounds.
guttural consonant
The only guttural sound [h] in English is formed in the larynx: the exhaled air flow with a slight friction noise passes through the narrowed glottis, the vocal cords do not vibrate, the speech organs in the supraglottic cavities take the position necessary to pronounce the vowel following the guttural consonant.
Stop/fricative consonants
According to the type of noise-producing barrier, consonants are divided into stop consonants, during the pronunciation of which a complete barrier is formed in the oral cavity, and slotted ones, during the articulation of which an incomplete barrier is formed in the oral cavity.
Stop consonants: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [m], [n], [ŋ], , .
Slit consonants: [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [∫], [ʒ], [h], [w], [l], [r] , [j].
noisy consonants
Both stop and fricative consonants can be noisy and sonant.
Stop noisy consonants are divided into explosive and affricates. When pronouncing explosive consonants, the complete barrier opens, air leaves the oral cavity, producing an explosion noise: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]. Affricates are sounds in which there is a close fusion of the stop beginning with the fricative indent. The opening of the organs of speech, which form a complete barrier, occurs smoothly, the sounds are articulated with 1 effort:,.
fricative consonants
When articulating fricative noisy consonants (fricatives), air escapes through a narrow gap, while creating friction noise. The shape of the gap can be flat, as in [f], [v], or round, as in [s], [z]. Fricative consonants: [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [∫], [ʒ], [h].
Nasal sonants
Stop sonants are nasal. A complete obstruction forms in the oral cavity, the soft palate descends, and air exits through the nasal cavity. Nasal sonants: [m], [n], [ŋ].
Mouth sonants
Slit sonants are oral. They are subdivided into middle sonants, during the formation of which the lateral edges of the tongue are raised and touch the lateral teeth, and the air comes out along the central part of the tongue - [w], [r], [j], and lateral, during the pronunciation of which the front edge of the tongue is raised to the alveoli and touches them, and the lateral edges are lowered, the air exits through the lateral passages - [l].
1/2-focal consonants
Most English consonants are 1-focal, as they have one place of formation, i.e. 1 noise-generating focus. However, in some cases, in addition to the main, noise-producing barrier, a second barrier is observed, which gives the sound an additional shade. Such consonants are 2-focal. A secondary or additional obstruction may be formed by raising the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate. In this case, the sound takes on a soft tone. This is the second middle focus in the sounds [∫], [ʒ], , and in the so-called “light” version of the sound [l]. If the secondary obstruction is formed by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate, then an acoustic effect of velarization is created, the sound acquires a hard, unsoftened tone. This is the second back focus observed in the sounds [w], [r] and in the so-called "dark" variant of the sound [ł].
Voiced/voiced consonants
According to the presence / absence of vibrations of the vocal cords, consonants are voiced, accompanied by vibrations of the vocal cords, and deaf, during the pronunciation of which the vocal cords are passive and do not vibrate. The first includes voiced noisy consonants and sonants, the second - deaf noisy consonants.
Strong/weak consonants
In English, voiceless consonants are pronounced energetically, they are called strong. Voiced English consonants are accompanied by weak muscle tension, they are called weak. In Russian, these differences are insignificant.
English Joke
Mrs. Herman from London was visiting some friends in Florida when she saw a little old man rocking merrily away on his front porch. He had a lovely smile on his face. She just had to go over to him.
"I couldn't help noticing how happy you look. I would love to know your secret for a long and happy life."
"I smoke four packets of cigarettes a day, drink five bottles of scotch whiskey a week, eat lots and lots of fatty food and I never, I mean never exercise."
"Why, that's absolutely amazing. I've never heard anything like this before. How old are you?"
"I'm twenty six," he replied.
- Noisy consonants (also obstruents) are formed as a result of obstruction of the air flow, causing increased air pressure in the vocal tract. In phonetics, articulation is divided into two large classes of noisy and sonorous.
The articulation of the obstruction involves the complete closure of the vocal tract, or partial, that is, a stricture that causes friction. Both groups are associated with their noisy component.
Noisy are divided into explosive consonants, affricates and fricatives. Unlike sonants, noisy ones are often voiceless consonants.
A characteristic feature of noisy consonants is the noise from the convergence of the organs of pronunciation, which either makes up the entire content of the sound, or prevails over the voice. Thus, the voice during the pronunciation of noisy consonants is either absent or plays a secondary role. In Russian, noisy consonants include:
* deaf noisy consonants k, x, p, f, t, s, w, h, c and
voiced noisy consonants g, j, b, c, e, h, g. The consonants c and j occupy an intermediate position between voiced noisy consonants and sonorants.
Related concepts
The term "voice" and "voice" is used in phonetics and phonology to characterize voiced sounds. In phonetics, the term "voicing (voicing)" usually describes the process of articulation of sounds, in which the vocal cords vibrate. In phonology, the term "voicedness" can also be used to classify speech sounds into voiceless/voiced sounds. At the same time, consonants designated as "voiced" can be pronounced without vibration of the vocal cords.
This article describes the phonetics and phonology of the literary Ukrainian language. For the phonetics of Ukrainian dialects, see the article Ukrainian dialects. The article uses the IPA transcription based on the Latin alphabet, but for all its characters in brackets the correspondences used in the phonetic transcription based on the Cyrillic alphabet are indicated.
References in literature
Developing the acoustic theory on the basis of the Russian language, R. I. Avanesov (1956) considers it possible to limit himself to only three degrees of sonority: 1) noisy consonants 2) sonants 3) vowels.
Related concepts (continued)
Pharyngealization (ancient Greek φάρυγξ "larynx") is a coarticulation process in which articulation when pronouncing sounds is accompanied by a narrowing of the larynx. It gives consonants the color of the vowel.
Tickle - pronunciation in accordance with the soft stop dental consonant /t '/ soft affricate (in a different designation). Together with tacking (pronunciation in accordance with /d'/), tacking is part of their common phonetic phenomenon of affricatization of soft dental stop consonants. Often the affricatization of soft /t’/ and /d’/ is combined under the same name zekanye. This linguistic feature is common in the Belarusian language and in a number of dialects of the Russian language.
Laryngeal stop, hard attack - a dull guttural explosive consonant used in many languages and obtained by closing the vocal cords, which then, under air pressure, abruptly open with an explosive sound. The organs of the oral cavity are at rest or are preparing to pronounce the next sound.
Aspiration (aspiration, from Latin aspiratio, “exhalation”) is an acoustic effect (noise) during the pronunciation of a sound that occurs if the ligaments begin to vibrate after a significant period of time (40-100 ms) after the end of consonant articulation.
Dorsal consonants are pronounced using the main body of the tongue. They contrast with coronals, produced by the anterior soft part of the tongue, and radicular, extracted from the root of the tongue.
Clicking consonants (also clicking, clicks or clicks from English clicks) are complex affricate-like sounds consisting of two bows: primary (click base, English influx) and secondary (click outcome; English efflux, accompaniment). The first is articulated by the lips or the front of the tongue, the second by the back of the tongue or uvula. With the help of the tongue, the space between the bows expands (and the pressure decreases accordingly), and then the front bow opens and breaks into this space (“draws in ...
Palatal consonants (mid-lingual, mid-palatal, hard-palatal) - consonants formed between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate (palatum).
L'gana Ts'gwi is a language spoken in central Botswana, around the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. In the period from 1997 to 2002, people who lived on the territory of the reserve were evicted to neighboring regions, but in 2004, about 150 people returned (or remained in their original territory). Currently, the struggle for repatriation continues.
Hard consonants (also non-palatalized consonants, non-softened consonants; English hard (non-palatalized) consonant, French consonne dure, German harter Konsonant) are consonants that differ from soft (palatalized) in a lower timbre due to the absence of additional articulation that causes palatalization.
Hissing consonants (English hushing sounds, French chuintantes, German Zischlaute) are consonants characterized by broadband noise with a more regular acoustic pattern than whistling consonants, which is associated with a simpler form of the gap formed during the articulation of hissing, in contrast to the gap , formed during the articulation of whistlers. They got their name from the characteristic acoustic impression they produce.
The phonology of the Maori language is typical of its language group. The Maori phonetic inventory is one of the poorest in the world. Maori retains the Proto-Polynesian syllable structure (C)V(V(V)); there are no closed syllables.
Glide (English glide - “sliding”) - in phonetics: a short, incomplete, indefinite sound in quality, arising as a transitional element in a combination of sounds that are different in the place of formation. The reason for the occurrence of glide is that the glottis remains open, while the organs of the speech apparatus tend to take a new position. Examples are Russian. will, where the corresponding element is pronounced between and (u-shaped transition), and thrust with an i-shaped transition between and.
Debuccalization is a phonetic process, law or phenomenon in which a consonant loses its original place of formation and turns into a voiceless glottal fricative, glottal stop or similar sounds. The pronunciation of a consonant is sometimes called aspiration, but it is more correct to call aspiration the aspiration that accompanies explosive consonants.
Prosthesis (ancient Greek πρόθεσις standing in front, setting in front) - the development of an additional vowel or consonant sound at the beginning of a word, for example: Ukrainian. vulitsya "street", Belor. voblaka "cloud", lat. spērāre > fr. esperer, Spanish esperar "hope". As prosthetic consonants they act, as prosthetic vowels - , . The appearance of prosthetic sounds can be caused by phonetic reasons of a different nature, in particular, a prosthesis can occur to facilitate pronunciation.
(from Latin palatum - middle palate) - softening of consonants resulting from raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate (sometimes the term intransitive softening is used), as well as changes in consonants under the influence of front vowels or affecting the main articulation (sometimes the term is used transition softening). (singular affricate; lat. affrico “I grind”) - consonants, which are a continuous combination of a stop consonant with a fricative, usually of the same place of formation.
Labialization - rounding, "protrusion" of the lips forward and / or giving them a rounded shape when articulating a sound. This phenomenon is also called roundness or rounding. In some linguistic schools, roundness is called a phonetic phenomenon that occurs during the articulation of vowels, and in the case of consonants, it is called labialization.
Slovak phonology (Slovak. slovenská fonológia) is one of the disciplines of slovakism that studies the structural and functional patterns of the sound structure of the Slovak language.
