Accumulation of geographical knowledge in Russia until the end of the 17th century. its successes were due mainly to the initiative, enterprise and courage of Russian people who were in no way connected with science. The famous campaign of Ermak in 1581-1584. the beginning of great geographical discoveries in Siberia and the Far East was laid. Small detachments of Cossacks and fur-bearing animal hunters expanded the borders of the Russian state from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean in a little more than half a century (1639); they reported the first reliable information about this huge region, which formed the basis for geographical maps and descriptions of Siberia.

Valuable information about plants and animals, their way of life has been accumulated in Russia since ancient times as a result of practical experience and observations of farmers and hunters. This information was reflected in the “herbalists” and “healing books”, which in the 16th-17th centuries. were quite widely circulated. However, systematic research in the field of biology in Russia actually began only at the beginning of the 18th century. An important role in this was played first by the Kunstkamera, and then by the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The basis of the anatomical, embryological and zoological collections of the Kunstkamera were the preparations of the Dutch anatomist F. Ruysch and the zoological materials of A. Seb. These collections were subsequently replenished with anatomical, teratological, zoological, botanical and paleontological materials collected throughout Russia by special decree of Peter I. The first members of the Academy of Sciences who arrived in St. Petersburg found in the Kunstkamera, which was transferred to the Academy, interesting objects for their research, and they the first works were related to the study of materials available in the Kunstkamera.

At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. a new period of development of research in Russia began, associated with the state policy of Peter I. The broadly conceived transformations of the country required expanding information about nature, population and economy, drawing up geographical maps with precise designations of state borders, rivers, seas, and communications routes. In search of trade routes to India, a number of expeditions were undertaken to the regions of Central Asia. The most important of them was the expedition of 1714-1717. to the Caspian Sea, to Khiva and Bukhara under the command of Peter I’s associate, the Kabardian prince Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky. The expedition made a handwritten map of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. In the first quarter of the 18th century. The Russian government paid more and more attention to Siberia. Peter I invited D.G. from Danzig. Messerschmidt and entrusted him with searching for medicinal herbs and studying the nature of the interior regions of Siberia. His journey lasted from 1720 to 1727. Messerschmidt collected and processed colossal material in ethnography, geography, botany, zoology, linguistics and other areas of science. Messerschmidt collected extensive collections of mammals and birds, for the first time describing, in particular, the wild ass (kulan), the Central Asian sheep (argali) and other animals. He described in detail the geographical distribution, lifestyle and seasonal phenomena in the life of many Siberian animals. The travel diary he compiled was used and partially published in the second half of the 18th century. Pallas and Steller, and in the 19th century. - Brandtom.

At the end of 1724 - beginning of 1725, Peter I prepared instructions and a decree on the expedition, called First Kamchatka. The expedition was to determine whether Asia is connected by land to America, determine the distance separating them and, if possible, come into contact with the population in North America, open a sea route through the Arctic Ocean to China, India and Japan. An officer of the Russian fleet, a native of Denmark, Vitus Bering, was appointed the head of the expedition, and his assistants were naval officers A.I. Chirikov and Danish origin M.P. Spanberg. On January 25 (February 5), 1725, the expedition left St. Petersburg. She had a difficult and long journey ahead of her. Only on July 13 (24), 1728, on the boat "Saint Gabriel", the expedition left the mouth of the Kamchatka River and headed north, along the eastern coast of Kamchatka and Chukotka. During this voyage she discovered the Bay of the Holy Cross and the Island of St. Lawrence. On August 15 (26), 1728, the expedition reached 67 ° 18 "48 "" northern latitude. And although the expedition passed the strait separating Asia from America, the question of the connection of the continents remained unclear for its participants. This happened because Bering, fearing dangerous winter, rejected Chirikov’s proposal to continue sailing to the mouth of the Kolyma River and ordered the team to return back. Because of the fog, the American coast remained unnoticed. And yet, despite the fact that the expedition could not completely solve the tasks assigned to it, its significance was great. She brought information about the islands and coast of the sea and the strait, later named after Bering, and collected material that proved that there should be a strait between the Asian and American continents.

In 1732, surveyors I. Fedorov and M. Gvozdev on the boat "St. Gabriel" sailed from Kamchatka to the northwestern coast of America and were the first researchers to put it on the map, thus truly proving the existence of a strait between the continents.

As a result of the work of the First Kamchatka Expedition, a fairly accurate map of the coast of North-Eastern Siberia was compiled, but the expedition did not resolve a number of important geographical problems: all the northern shores of Siberia remained unexplored, there was no accurate information about the relative location and outlines of the coasts of Asia and America, about the islands in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, about the path from Kamchatka to Japan. Knowledge about the interior regions of Siberia was also insufficient.

It was ordered to clarify these issues Second Kamchatka expedition, consisting of a naval part under the leadership of Bering, Chirikov and Shpanberg and a land part under the leadership of professors (academicians) of the newly created St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences I.G. Gmelin and G.F. Miller; Participants in the expedition also included Academy adjunct G.V. Steller and student S.P. Krasheninnikov. The expedition also included northern marine detachments that explored the coast of the Arctic Ocean, which actually worked independently (hence another name for the entire enterprise - Great Northern Expedition). Among the expedition participants were assayers, sailors, artists, surveyors, translators and technical personnel totaling up to 2 thousand people. Divided into several detachments, the Great Northern Expedition explored vast territories of Siberia, the coast of the Arctic Ocean and the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. As a result of ten years of work (1733-1743), valuable geographical, historical, ethnographic and other data on the interior regions of Siberia were obtained, Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands were explored, the shores of North-West America and Japan were reached, and some Aleutian Islands were discovered. Thousands of kilometers of the coast of the Arctic Ocean were mapped from the Kara Sea to Cape Baranov, located east of the mouth of the river. Kolyma.

Student, and later academician, S.P. Krasheninnikov, who studied Kamchatka, published a number of works, including the remarkable two-volume “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” (1756), which for the first time introduced the world to the nature and population of this distant and interesting peninsula in many respects. Krasheninnikov's book has been translated into English, Dutch and German. One of the results of the expedition was “Flora of Siberia” by Gmelin (1747-1769), which contained a description of 1178 plant species, many of which were described for the first time. Krasheninnikov, in his work “Description of the Land of Kamchatka,” described, among other things, the fauna of Kamchatka, describing several dozen species of mammals, birds and fish inhabiting it, reported information about their geographical distribution and way of life, the economic importance of Kamchatka animals and the prospects for livestock farming in Kamchatka. It also contained materials on the fauna of the Shantar and Kuril Islands, on the spawning migrations of fish from the sea to the rivers; he also collected information about the plants of Kamchatka, especially those of practical importance. The third member of the expedition, zoologist Steller, using his observations, as well as the data collected by Krasheninnikov, in 1741 wrote a well-known essay “On Sea Animals,” which contains descriptions of the sea cow, sea otter, sea lion and fur seal named after him. Steller, together with Bering, reached the shores of America. While wintering on Bering Island, he compiled its first topographical and geological description. Steller is the author of such works as “Journey from Kamchatka to America with Captain-Commander Bering.” Steller also left works on ichthyology, ornithology and geography.

The expedition was not without casualties: along with many ordinary participants in the campaigns, Captain-Commander V. Bering, the head of the Olenek detachment V. Pronchishchev and his wife Maria died. The names of some expedition members are immortalized on a geographical map (Laptev Sea, Cape Chelyuskin, Bering Sea, Bering Strait, etc.)

In 1741-1742 within the framework of the Great Northern Expedition V.I. Bering and A.I. Chirikov made their famous voyage from Kamchatka to the northwestern coast of America (Alaska). On June 4 (15), 1741, "St. Peter" under the command of Bering and "St. Paul" under the command of Chirikov left Petropavlovsk to search for the shores of America. On June 20 (July 1), due to heavy fog, both ships separated out to sea and lost sight of each other. From that moment on, Bering and Chirikov's voyages took place separately. July 16 (27), 1741 Bering reached the shores of America. During the voyage, he discovered the islands of St. Elijah, Kodiak, Tumanny, and Evdokeevskie. Meanwhile, cases of scurvy were discovered among the crew, so Bering decided to return to Kamchatka. On the way back, he discovered the Shumagin Islands and a number of islands of the Aleutian chain. The voyage of "St. Peter" took place in very difficult conditions. On the way back, the ship found itself in a zone of strong storms. Difficulties were aggravated by scurvy that raged among the crew, which claimed the lives of 12 people. The surviving crew members could barely control the ship. Supplies of drinking water and food were depleted, and the ship lost control. On November 4 (15), land was finally spotted. The plight of the ship forced the detachment to land on the shore of an unknown land. The newly discovered land turned out to be an island, which later received the name Bering. Here the brave commander found his last refuge. His surviving companions, in the spring of 1742, built a two-masted sailing ship from the wreckage of the St. Peter, on which they returned to Petropavlovsk. As for the fate of A.I. Chirikov, then he is on the ship "St. Paul", having lost sight of the "St. Peter", on the morning of July 15 (26), i.e. more than a day earlier than Bering, reached North America. Continuing to sail along the coast, Chirikov examined the American coast, about 400 miles long, and collected valuable information about the flora and fauna of this territory. On the way back to Kamchatka, which, like Bering, passed in difficult conditions, Chirikov discovered part of the islands of the Aleutian ridge (Adakh, Kodiak, Attu, Agattu, Umnak) and Adek Island, which belongs to the group of Andrean Islands. On October 10 (21), "St. Paul" returned to Peter and Paul Harbor. Of the 75 crew members, only 51 returned with him.

Of great importance for the development of geography and biology in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. had academic expeditions in 1768-1774, which covered the most important areas of the European and Asian parts of the country. Five expeditions collected a large amount of scientific material about the nature, economy and population of the country. Much material and its analysis were contained in the works of Lepekhin, Pallas, Falk, and Georgi. The results of Lepekhin's journey - an adjunct, then an academician - are presented in an essay abbreviated as "Daily Notes..." (vol. 1-4, St. Petersburg, 1771-1805). It is distinguished by its simplicity of presentation and practical orientation of research. Of Lepekhin's theoretical conclusions, noteworthy is his explanation of the reasons for the formation of caves (under the influence of flowing waters), as well as the belief that the earth's topography changes over time. An important role in the expeditions of 1768-1774. played by Pallas. The results of his research are presented in the five-volume work “Travel through the Various Provinces of the Russian Empire” (1773-1788) in German and Russian. Pallas deciphered the orographic features of the Crimean mountains, established the boundaries of the transition between the black earth strip and the semi-desert of the Caspian lowland, studied the nature of the soils and hydrographic features of this region; He also carried out research on the flora of Russia, zoology and zoogeography. The expeditions of 1768-1774 produced especially great results. Pallas (with the participation of V.F. Zuev, I. Georgi and N.P. Rychkov) to the Orenburg region and Siberia, Gmelin - to the Astrakhan region, the Caucasus and Persia, Georgi - to Baikal and the Perm region, Lepekhina and N .I. Ozeretskovsky to the Volga, Ural and Caspian Sea, as well as to the White Sea. Later (1781-1782) V.F. Zuev explored Southern Russia and Crimea. These expeditions attracted close attention from the scientific community.

Pallas's works "Russian-Asian Zoography", "Flora of Russia" and others contained a lot of new materials. Pallas described a large number of new species of animals, provided information about their geographical distribution and living conditions, and about the seasonal migrations of birds and fish. A lot of faunistic and ecological information related to the animal population of Western Siberia and the Ural Mountains is also contained in Lepekhin’s travel diary, published in 4 volumes in 1771-1805. He published materials concerning the fauna of southern Russia in 1771-1785. Gmelin, who described, in particular, the southern Russian wild horse - tarpana, which was completely exterminated in the second half of the 19th century.

The northeastern astronomical and geographical expedition of Russian navy officers I. Billings and G. A. Sarychev, which worked in 1785-1793, gained worldwide fame. Its main task was to explore still unknown parts of the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the mouth of the Kolyma to the Chukotka Peninsula. The results of this expedition are presented by Billings in brief notes, as well as in Sarychev’s book “The Journey of Captain Sarychev’s Fleet in the North-Eastern Part of Siberia, the Arctic Sea and the Eastern Ocean over the course of eight years during the Geographical and Astronomical Marine Expedition, which was under the command of Captain Billings’s fleet from 1785 to 1793" (parts 1-2, with atlas, 1802).

Thus, geographical and other studies of the vast territory of the Russian Empire acquired in the 18th century. big scope. It was a research assault on the remote outskirts of the country, amazing in its scale, which introduced a lot of new things into world science.

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The comprehensive scientific study of the territories of the east and northeast of Russia in the 18th century is inextricably linked with two government expeditions, called Kamchatka. Lasting for several decades, they became a key link and a classic example in the history of the scientific and socio-political phenomenon called the Great World Geographical Discoveries. Economic, naval, political, administrative, and scientific interests of the state were intertwined in one place and time. In addition, the expeditions, providing a qualitative leap in scientific knowledge, are of international importance, since they are part of the American historical heritage, are important for Japan, since they laid the foundation for its emergence from self-isolation, for Germany, Denmark, France, whose subjects made a significant contribution to expeditionary research . The main geographical goal of the expedition is considered to be the exploration of the Asian coast north of Kamchatka and the search for the place where Asia “converges” with America. Then, in order to make sure that it was America that was discovered and to connect the open lands with already known ones on the map, it was necessary to reach any of the European possessions (or to the meeting place with any European ship). The geographical riddle about the relationship of the continents in the north had a centuries-old history by that time. Already in the 13th century. Arab scientists considered it possible to sail from the Pacific to the Arctic Ocean. In 1492, on Behaim's globe, Asia was separated from America. In 1525, the idea of ​​the existence of a strait was expressed by the Russian envoy in Rome Dm. Gerasimov. From the 16th century on many maps we find the same strait called “Aniansky”. The origin of this name seems to be due to Marco Polo. But on some maps the continents were connected, as, for example, on the world map of 1550 by Gastaldi. There was no exact information about the strait, which gave wide scope for various kinds of hoaxes, and this mystery had to be solved experimentally. At the beginning of the 18th century. Western Siberia was relatively well known, but its eastern part had completely vague outlines. The rivers, the main routes of communication at that time, were not known, the coastline along the Northern and Pacific oceans was not surveyed, and even in some places the map did not inspire confidence. There was even less information about the islands and lands that lay beyond the coastline. The question of borders, peoples inhabiting various lands, and their citizenship was unclear. It is unlikely that Peter I, being a pragmatist and rationalist, would have undertaken an expensive expedition out of simple curiosity, especially since the country was exhausted by long wars. The ultimate goal of the research was, among other things, the discovery of the Northern Route. The utilitarian goals of the expedition are confirmed by a number of projects of that time. For example, F.S. Saltykova (1713–1714) “On finding a free sea route from the Dvina River even to the Omur estuary and to China,” A.A. Kurbatov (1721), who proposed to find a route by sea from the Ob and other rivers and organize voyages for the purpose of trade with China and Japan. At the beginning of the 18th century. in Russia there was an upsurge in various spheres of material and spiritual life. Shipbuilding reached a significant level of development, a regular fleet and army were created, culture achieved major successes, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences with an astronomical laboratory, a naval academy that trained sailors and shipbuilders were established, a significant number of secondary schools were founded - digital, "small admiralty", artillery for sailor children, etc. As a result, by the end of the first quarter of the 18th century. the country had material resources, personnel of shipbuilders, navigators, and was able to organize a large maritime scientific expedition. The transformation of these opportunities into reality was driven by economic needs and political factors. A new period began in the history of the country, which was characterized by the gradual economic merging of individual regions and lands into a single whole. The demand for overseas goods (tea, spices, silks, dyes) increased, which came to Russia through second and third hands and were sold at exorbitant prices. Russia's desire to establish direct connections with foreign markets is evidenced by attempts to find river routes to India, sending ships with goods to Spain, preparing an expedition to Madagascar, etc. The prospect of direct trade with China, Japan and India was then most often associated with the Northern Sea Route. The ever-accelerating process of initial capital accumulation was also of great importance, and the role of precious metals was played by “soft gold” - furs - which constituted an important source of private enrichment and a significant item in the state budget. To increase fur production, it was necessary to look for new lands, especially since at the end of the 18th century. The fur wealth of previously developed areas has already been depleted. Furs, walrus ivory and other valuables were exported from the newly populated lands, and bread, salt, and iron were also delivered there. However, transporting goods by land was fraught with incredible difficulties. The price of bread delivered from Yakutsk to Okhotsk increased more than tenfold. To Kamchatka - and even more. It was necessary to open a new, more convenient path. At the beginning of the 18th century. Many expeditions were organized to the eastern outskirts of the state, pursuing narrowly defined tasks. Against this background, the Kamchatka expedition stood out for the breadth of its goals and objectives and temporary scope. In fact, it was not one, but a whole series of separate expeditions - both sea and land - which were united conditionally by the name of its main commander, Captain-Commander Bering. The decree on the creation of the expedition was signed by Peter on December 23, 1724, on the same day as the decree on speeding up the compilation of maps of all provinces and districts. On February 5, Bering received the emperor’s instructions, which consisted of three points: “One or two boats with decks should be built in Kamchatka or another local place.” “On these boats [sail] near the land that goes to the north, and according to hope (they don’t know the end of it) it seems that that land is part of America.” “And in order to find out where it came into contact with America, and to get to which city of the European possessions. Or, if they see a European ship, check from it, as that bush [shore] is called, and take it in writing, and visit the shore yourself, and take the authentic report, and, putting it on the map, come here.” The study of the expedition in domestic and foreign historiography has a very complex history, since all its results were declared by the government not subject to disclosure, secret. Therefore, works were published (Miller, Krasheninnikov, Steller) that covered issues of purely scientific significance. The maritime component of the expedition and its geographical discoveries remained unknown for a long time. The Academy of Sciences, which decided to publish new maps with data from the Bering expedition on them, received an indication that such a step was untimely. Scientific and historical processing of expedition materials turned out to be possible only a century later. Most of the works devoted to the history of Kamchatka expeditions have the same focus. They are dedicated to the specifically maritime goals of the expedition: “what latitudes were reached by individual parts of this expedition, what obstacles were encountered, how the expedition members overcame them, what countries and peoples they saw and how they selflessly died, trying to open new horizons and new achievements to humanity...”. However, besides all this, the expedition is important in itself as a major historical phenomenon, and is an indicator of a number of conditions and relations of that time. It is connected with the socio-political conditions of that era, with the struggle of well-known political groups of that time, with a whole range of economic and social relations that took place in different layers of Russian society of that era...” The question of the scientific results and significance of the first Bering expedition in historiography causes a lot of controversy and various, sometimes diametrically opposed opinions. There are two points of view on the problem. According to the first (V.I. Grekov, I.K. Kirillov, L.S. Berg, A.I. Andreev, M.I. Belov, D.M. Lebedev, F.A. Golder, W.H. Dall), sailors who reached August 1728 67o19` (according to other sources 67o18`) northern latitude, did not fully solve their main problem and did not bring irrefutable evidence of the existence of a strait between the continents. The decree of the Admiralty Board read: “Well, beyond that width of 67°18` from him Bering on the map is designated from this place between the north and west to the mouth of the Kolyma River, then he put it according to the previous maps and statements and so it is doubtful to establish for certain the non-connection of the continents and unreliable." Thus, Bering had documents confirming the absence of an isthmus only between Chukotka and America, and only up to 67o northern latitude. For the rest, he relied on the Chukchi messages he corrected. But even this moment raised great doubts, because the detachment of Dm. Laptev, who was part of the second expedition, was charged with going around Chukotka from the mouth of the Kolyma to Kamchatka in order to unambiguously answer the question about the existence of a strait in these latitudes. The second point of view was defended by V.N. Berkh, K.M. Baer, ​​P. Lauridsen, M.S. Bodnarsky, A.V. Efimov. According to their ideas, the reasons for the distrust of contemporaries lie in the unfriendly attitude of the members of the Admiralty Board, in particular I. Delisle, personally towards Bering. The first point of view seems more convincing. “However, despite the fact that the 1st Kamchatka expedition did not completely solve its main task, it did a lot of scientific work and was of great importance. The expedition did not prove that the continents are separated, but it established that Chukotka is washed by the sea from the east. This was a major discovery for that time, since most often it was this land that was thought to be connected to America...” The cartographic work and astronomical observations of the expedition were of great importance for their time. A summary map and table of geographical coordinates of the points through which the expedition passed were compiled, and the distances between many points were determined. This was the first time such work was carried out in Eastern Siberia. A total of four maps were completed during the expedition. The first two were copies of previously compiled maps, one of which Bering received in Irkutsk. The third showed the route of the expedition from Tobolsk to Okhotsk. It shows a grid of degrees, the rivers along which travelers moved, their tributaries, mountains, etc. The author of the map is considered to be Peter Chaplin, the most skilled draftsman of the expedition. Although some authors, in particular E.G. Kushnarev, it is assumed that Chaplin performed purely technical work on redrawing the draft map, and its original author was A.I. Chirikov. The fourth map, drawn up at the end of 1728 - beginning of 1729, was the final one. Attached to it was a copy of the logbook and other documents. Currently, copies of this map are stored in the Russian State Archive of the Navy (RGA VMF), the Russian State Military Historical Archive (RGVIA), and the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts (RGADA). The remaining copies (about 10) are in archives, libraries and museums in Sweden, England, France, and Denmark. All of them are similar to each other in the main points, but differ in additional details relating, for example, to ethnography, the location of forests, mountains, etc. Some copies have figures of Kamchadals, Koryaks, and Chukchis. Apparently, they were made by an experienced artist, but not a member of the expedition, since they completely unrealistically convey the national features of people and clothing. In addition, the drawings are arranged arbitrarily and do not always correspond to the areas where they actually lived. For the first time, the outlines of the coast from the southern tip of Kamchatka to the northeastern tip of Asia were mapped with the highest possible accuracy in those days, and two islands adjacent to Chukotka were discovered. The final map conveyed the curves of the coastline with considerable accuracy, and was highly praised by J. Cook. Territories that the expedition did not pass through itself were transferred to the final map from pre-existing maps compiled by surveyors of previous expeditions. The use of modern instruments, observation of lunar eclipses, determination of geographical coordinates, scrupulous consideration of distances made it possible to create a map that was fundamentally different from other maps, or rather, drawings of the north-east of Russia at the end of the 17th - early 18th centuries, on which there was no degree grid, the outlines of the continents depended on shape of a sheet of paper, the true extent of Siberia from east to west was reduced. So, on the relatively correct maps of Vinius and Stralenberg it was 95o instead of 117o. The maps of Evreinov and Luzhin and Izbrand Ides had an even greater error. The image of Siberia turned out to be so unusual that it could not but cause distrust and bewilderment among geographers and cartographers of that time. It had a lot of inaccuracies and errors, based on the concepts of modern cartography, but it was immeasurably more accurate than on all previously compiled maps. The expedition map, which for a long time remained the only reliable map of the region, marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of mapping of Siberia. Delisle used it, Kirilov included it in his atlas, and Chirikov used it to create maps of the Maritime Academy. Formally being secret, the final map became the object of political intrigue and in 1732 it was secretly transferred to J-N. Delime to Paris. Then it was repeatedly republished abroad, for a whole century it turned out to be the only guide for geographers and navigators of all countries, and was included in many world-famous reference books and atlases. Of great interest is the table of coordinates compiled during the expedition. Travel journals and correspondence contain a lot of interesting information about the composition and weathering of rocks, volcanic activity, seismology, lunar eclipses, meteorological phenomena, fish, fur and forest resources, epidemic diseases, etc. There are notes on the administrative structure of the Siberian peoples, trade, and migrations. The first Kamchatka expedition clearly demonstrated the enormous difficulties in transporting goods by land from European Russia to Okhotsk and Kamchatka, thereby contributing to the emergence of the first projects of circumnavigation (which was carried out at the beginning of the 19th century by the expedition of P.K Krenitsyn - M.D. Levashov ). The experience of organizing such a large-scale expedition in terms of technical, personnel, and food support came in handy later when equipping the second expedition. Let us also note the political significance: not just the borders of the continent, but state borders were put on the map. The lands within their borders were both factually and legally assigned to the Russian Empire. Based on the observations collected by Bering in 1731, proposals were drawn up on the prospects for the development of Siberia, set out in a “Brief Report” addressed to the Empress. All of them concerned purely practical matters: the improvement of the region, the development of Kamchatka, the development of industry, agriculture, navigation, trade, increasing government revenues, the inculcation of Christianity among the Yakuts, the spread of literacy among them, the development of the iron industry in the Angara, Yakutsk and other places, the need shipbuilding in Kamchatka, the establishment of educational institutions in Siberia for training in navigation, the development of agriculture and livestock farming, the destruction of wine farms, the regulation of the collection of yasak from the local population, the establishment of trade relations with Japan. Additional proposals from Bering and Chirikov concerned further study of the northeastern lands and the Pacific Ocean. Based on the assumption that Kamchatka and America are separated by no more than 150–200 miles, Bering proposed establishing trade with the inhabitants of American lands, which only requires the construction of a sea vessel in Kamchatka. He further drew attention to the need to study the sea route from the mouth of the Amur River to Japan, in order to establish trade relations. And finally, he recommended exploring the northern shores of Siberia from the Ob to the Lena by sea or by land. After consideration by the Senate of the proposals presented by Bering, in April 1732 the Empress signed a decree establishing the Second Kamchatka Expedition. The goals and objectives of the expedition were determined by the instructions of the Senate of March 16, 1733 and were determined by the results of the first – “small” – expedition. The main goal was “to find the interest of Her Imperial Majesty,” i.e. new sources of income for the state treasury. At the same time, it was recognized that it was not so necessary to reach European territories, since they were already known and put on the map. According to the proposal of the Admiralty Board, it was necessary, having reached the American shores, “to visit them and truly find out what kind of people are on them, and what that place is called, and whether those shores are truly American. And having done this and having explored with the right circumstance, put everything on the map and then go for the same exploration near those shores, as time and opportunity allow, according to their consideration, so that, according to the local climate, they can return to the Kamchatka shores in a prosperous time, and in that their hands should not be tied, so that this voyage does not become fruitless, like the first.” In some (earlier) documents of official correspondence, significant attention was paid to trade with America and Japan. However, in later years, due to the complications of the foreign policy situation, the interpretation of the final goals, as they were formulated for the first expedition, was considered inconvenient, and the issue of establishing commercial relations with other states was hushed up. The expedition itself was declared secret. The main officials were given special instructions, which they were obliged to keep secret. The question of the final destination of the expedition was revised several times, and its timing was not clearly defined. Formally, the expedition was given large-scale exploration tasks - it acquired a universal, comprehensive character. In general, the following areas of its activity can be distinguished: Continuous research of the northern sea coasts of Siberia from the mouth of the Ob to the Bering Strait “for genuine news. ..is there a passage through the North Sea?” Carrying out “observation and exploration of the route to Japan” with a related exploration of the Kuril Islands, of which “several were already in Russian possession, and the people living on those islands paid tribute to Kamchatka, but due to the paucity of people, it was lost.” Carrying out a “search of the American shores from Kamchatka.” Exploration of the southern strip of Russian possessions from Lake Baikal to the Pacific coast, since “the need is to look for the closest route to the Kamchatka Sea (Okhotsk), without going to Yakutsk, at least for light parcels and sending letters.” Study of the shore of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk with the islands lying near it and the mouths of the rivers flowing into it, from Okhotsk to the Tugur River and “beyond Tugur, perhaps, to the Amur mouth.” Carrying out astronomical “observations” and exploring Siberia in geographical and natural terms. Research and improvement of the old route from Yakutsk to Okhotsk. Funding was entrusted to local authorities; ensuring the activities of academic expeditions became a heavy burden for the population of the Tobolsk, Irkutsk, Yenisei and Yakut provinces. The work of the expeditions was complicated and slowed down by bureaucracy, denunciations, slander, slander, which was very widespread at that time, as well as the need to analyze them and investigate the activities of officials. The distance from the center and the lack of reliable year-round communications (Senate decrees took at least a year to reach the hands of the expedition authorities) led to the fact that the resolution of many issues was entrusted to local authorities, who in fact turned out to be unaccountable to higher authorities. Thus, the Irkutsk Vice-Governor Lorenz Lang was ordered to act “according to his own consideration and the proximity of the places there, make a determination, since from here [from St. Petersburg] it is impossible to announce everything in detail in the absence of genuine news in a resolution.” To some extent, this eliminated bureaucratic delays, but at the same time opened up wide opportunities for abuse. Of no small importance was the fact that in St. Petersburg at that time they were concerned not so much with the Siberian troubles and the activities of the Bering expedition, but with the vicissitudes of numerous palace coups. The second expedition turned out to be the most large-scale in the history of Russian geographical discoveries of the 18th century and actually consisted of several, more or less successful expeditions that operated independently of each other. Three detachments were engaged in describing the coastline of the Arctic Ocean, a flotilla of three ships led by M. Shpanberg was sent from Okhotsk to Japan, V. Bering’s packet boats “St. Peter" and A. Chirikova "St. Pavel" reached the shores of America. Bering's voyage turned out to be extremely unsuccessful and ended for himself and most of the crew on the island that now bears his name. In September 1743, the Senate adopted a decree suspending the activities of the Second Kamchatka Expedition. According to some reports, all its officers were ordered to leave the Irkutsk province, but as documents show, its participants (Rtishchev, Khmetevsky, Plenisner, etc.) served in Northeast Asia for many decades. Researchers have paid insufficient attention to this aspect of the history of the expedition, although one of the significant results of its activities can be considered the appearance on the Far Eastern outskirts of the empire of competent and experienced naval officers, who served more or less successfully in the Okhotsk-Kamchatka Territory in various administrative positions almost until the very end of the 18th century. Thus, to some extent, the acuteness of the personnel problem in the region was alleviated, since the absence of any thoughtful, targeted state policy in relation to the Far Eastern outskirts, including personnel policy, led to the fact that administrative positions were occupied by far from the best representatives of Russian bureaucracy and officers, random people, unclean in conscience and dishonest, poorly educated and exclusively landlubbers. It can be said that for the historical development of the Okhotsk-Kamchatka region, this fact became one of the important “side” results of the expedition. The main results of the expedition, defined by academician Karl Baer as a “monument to the courage of the Russians,” were the discovery of sea routes and the description of the northwestern shores of America, the Aleutian ridges, Komandorsky, Kuril, Japanese islands. Put on the map, Russian discoveries put an end to the history of geographical myths created by many generations of Western European cartographers - about the lands of Ieso, Campania, the States, Juan da Gama, about the mysterious and fabulous Northern Tartaria. According to some sources, the cartographic heritage of the Second Kamchatka Expedition amounts to about 100 general and regional maps compiled by sailors, surveyors, and academic students. Based on the results of the expedition, the Russian Atlas was published in 1745, published under the name of the famous French cartographer and astronomer J.N. Delisle, who worked on it on instructions from the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. This was the first atlas to cover the entire territory of Russia and was included in the golden fund of world geography. It consisted of a general map of Russia and nineteen maps of smaller parts of the country, covering together its entire territory. Contemporaries had a very high opinion of this atlas. It did not include all the data from the Bering expedition, so it did not claim to be perfect, but, nevertheless, it was quite accurate for its time... Conducting visual and instrumental meteorological observations became the impetus for the creation of permanent stations in Russia. Observation points were established from the Volga to Kamchatka, and tens of thousands of meteorological data were documented. According to V.M. Pasetsky, at the same time, observations began in Astrakhan, Solikamsk, Kharkov and other cities according to uniform rules and the same type of instruments. This entire network was subordinate to the Academy of Sciences, which made it possible to generalize and systematize data on the vast territories of the Russian Empire. In this regard, the idea of ​​weather prediction emerged and became widely discussed. Meteorological, hydrological, barometric observations I.G. Gmelin, preserved in the archive to this day, are actively used in modern historical and climatic research. Gmelin is the author of the fundamental five-volume work “Siberian Flora”, which consisted of descriptions of more than a thousand plants, which laid the foundation for phytogeography, as well as the idea of ​​​​geographical zoning of Siberia, based on the characteristics of the landscape, flora and fauna. A number of information on economics, archeology, and ethnography were presented by him in “Travel to Siberia.” The history of Siberia in all its multifaceted manifestations was studied by G.F. Miller is generally recognized as the “father of Siberian history.” He copied, collected, and systematized a huge amount of documentary materials, oral testimonies, “questioning points,” and “fairy tales,” many of which were subsequently lost in fires, floods, or from the negligence of officials and have come down to us only in his copies, now stored in funds Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts. Only a small part of the materials was published during the author’s lifetime. Basically the so-called “Miller's portfolios” were sorted out already during the years of Soviet power. It is customary to associate the name of S.P. with historical and ethnographic research. Krasheninnikova. Although his “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” is universal and very versatile. This work organically combines information on civil history and ethnography with studies of nature, climate, relief, flora and fauna, meteorological and seismic features of the most remote Russian territory. A lot of data about the flora and fauna of the Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka was left to descendants by the talented naturalist G.V. Steller. Unfortunately, not all of the materials he collected have survived to this day. The broad humanistic views of the European-educated scientist were reflected in scientific records and in practical activities - on Steller’s initiative, the first school was organized in Kamchatka. By the 18th century, no state had organized such an expedition: large-scale in terms of objectives, vast in coverage, representative in the composition of scientists, costly in material terms, and significant for the development of world science. Source

Intensifying the study and development of the country: reasons

Peter's reforms

Creation of the Russian Navy and the Russian Academy of Sciences

The country stretches from west to east for hundreds of kilometers

Most of the country (trans-Ural) was poorly studied

The coast of the Arctic Ocean aroused interest as a transport route

Creation of the Russian Geographical Society

Academic expeditions

Scientific research

Kamchatka expeditions

Main areas of study

Kamchatka expeditions

- initiator of the First and Second Kamchatka expeditions, founder of the school of navigation sciences in Moscow.

PETER I , GREAT

1672-1725

Kamchatka expeditions

• leader of the 1st and 2nd Kamchatka expeditions. He passed between the Chukotka Peninsula and Alaska, reached North America and discovered a number of islands of the Aleutian chain. He died during the 2nd expedition after a ship crashed off an unknown island, which was later named after him.

VITUS JONASSEN

BERING ,

1725-30, 1733-43

First Kamchatka expedition

In 1725-27, an expedition led by Vitus Bering moved east from St. Petersburg, reached Okhotsk through Siberia, and then the mouth of the Kamchatka River. The boat “Saint Gabriel” was built here, which sailed from the shores of Kamchatka in July 1728.

During the expedition, Bering studied in detail the northeastern coast of Russia, discovered the strait between Asia and America, and proved that the continents are not connected to each other. At this point he considered his mission complete and turned back. On March 1, 1730, he returned to St. Petersburg.

Great Northern Expedition

Returning in 1730, Vitus Bering proposed to the Russian government a plan for an expedition that would explore the route from Arkhangelsk through the seas of the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. In 1732, Vitus Bering led an expedition that consisted of seven detachments, each under its own leadership. In 1746, a complete map of the northern Russian coasts was compiled ( more than 13 thousand km of the coast of the Arctic Ocean). To this day, materials from the Great Northern Expedition are used when printing maps of the Arctic.

Scientific research

A student of Peter I, he compiled the first geographical description of Siberia, for the first time delimited Europe and Asia along the Ural ridge, and laid the foundations for state topographic survey.

VASILY TATISHCHEV

Scientific research

• did a lot to organize expeditions to the eastern and northern regions of the country.

His words that “Russian power will grow through Siberia” determined the main direction of geographical research for many years.

He came up with the idea of ​​using the Northern Sea Route.

MIKHAIL LOMONOSOV

Scientific research

• He entered Russian history primarily as a cartographer.

He compiled three unique atlases: “Chorographic Book of Siberia”, “Drawing Book of Siberia” and “Service Book of Siberia” - all of them are the most valuable monuments of the Russian history of cartography.

REMEZOV

SEMEN ULYANOVICH

Academic expeditions 1768-1774.

The objectives of the expeditions are complex descriptions (nature, population, way of life, economic activity, religion, culture) of already known territories of the European part of Russia and Siberia.

Founding of the Russian Geographical Society

• The main goal of the founders of the Society was: the study of “the native land and the people who inhabit it,” that is, to collect and disseminate geographical, statistical and ethnographic information about Russia.
• Among the founders were I. F. Krusenstern, P. I. Ricord, F. P. Litke, F. P. Wrangel and others.
• Expeditions of the Russian Geographical Society played a big role in the development of Siberia, the Far East, Middle and Central Asia, the World Ocean, in the development of navigation, the discovery and study of new lands, in the development of meteorology and climatology.

Kropotkin P.A. IN 1874 laid the foundation for the theory of Quaternary glaciations and introduced the term permafrost. The activity began with scientific expeditions in Siberia.

Dokuchaev V.V. Materials received in 1871-1893. During the research, they made it possible to formulate the fundamentals of the study of soils and the law of latitudinal and altitudinal zonation.

Wrangel F.P.

Under the direction of Nevelsky G.I. in 1849-1850 sailors explored the coast of Kamchatka, the shores of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, the northern part of Sakhalin and proved that Sakhalin is an island.

IN 1820-1824 explored the country, described the coast of Siberia from the Indigirka River to Kolyuchinskaya Bay. He determined the position of the island, which was named after him.

Explorer of the Tien Shan, initiator of expeditions to Central Asia (1856-57, 1897, 1897, director of publications of multi-volume reports on Russian geography, vice-chairman and head of the Russian Geographical Society (since 1873), organizer of the first Russian population census (1897) .

SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKY

PETER PETROVICH

The leader of the expedition to the Ussuri region (1867-69), explorer of Central Asia (1870-1885), collected valuable collections of wild plants and animals.

PRZHEVALSKY

NICHOLAY

MIKHAILOVICH

Academic expeditions of the 18th century , the first scientific expeditions, org. AN for the purpose of studying the nature, economy and population of the Russian Empire. The beginning of a comprehensive study. The Urals, Siberia and D. East laid the Great North. (2nd Kamchatka) exp. and the Orenburg expedition (1734-44). June - Aug. 1742, returning from Siberia, one of the hands visited our region. academician detachment of the Great Northern. exp. (1733-43) academician I. G. Gmelin, who was one of the first to describe the population. points South. Ural, including Chel., in the 4-volume work “Travel through Siberia, from 1740 to 1743.” (Göttingen, 1751-52). Terr. modern Person region underwent scientific research during the academic exp. 1768-74, org. AN by decree of the Emperor. Catherine II. In accordance with the general plan, developed. M.V. Lomonosov, in the problem of exp. included deepening research nature and population of the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces. It was supposed to study techno-economics. metallurgist level and mining plants, collect ethnography. materials, information about people. education and medical service, identify development prospects for the village. farming, forestry, fish farming and crafts. In the spring of 1768 Orenb was formed. and Astrakhan “physical” exp. The 1st consisted of 3 detachments, headed by Acad. P.-S. Pallas, I.I. Lepekhin and prof. I. P. Falk (under the general leadership of Pallas). Their routes covered the Volga region from Simbirsk to Tsaritsyn, east. the shores of the Caspian Sea, the Urals, mountains and the Iset province, river. Irtysh and Tobol. Person played in the history of these experiments. role of the base city. In 1770-71, Pallas's detachment stopped here on the way to Siberia. From Chel. Pallas made trips around the territory. Wed. and Yuzh. Ural. In Chel. reports and natural sciences were prepared. collections for NA; meetings between Pallas and his experimental colleagues took place: Falk, I.G. Georgi, N.P. Rychkov; A meeting was held, at which the Sib routes were approved. exp. Pallas’s squad included gymnasium students A. Walter, V.F. Zuev, N.P. Sokolov; draftsman N. Dmitriev, scarecrow P. Shumskaya; Rychkov later joined them. After spending the winter in Ufa, on May 16, 1770 the detachment headed along the river. Ufa, through the southern Urals. mountains to their east. slope. Having studied the distribution of rocks and mineral wealth, Pallas came to the conclusion that there are differences in geol. buildings zap. and east slopes of the Urals, mountains, noted for each the specificity of the definition. types of minerals and the pattern in the change of rocks from 3. to E. The intersection of the Urals and mountains allowed Pallas to identify meridional zoning in the structure of mountains for the first time, to develop a diagram that later formed the basis of his theory of the formation of the Earth's mountain ranges. He explored the caves, located. along the banks of the river Ai, Katav and Yuryuzan. Having visited the Satkinsky plant on May 28-29, 1770, he described it: “The factory buildings... are in good condition, and consist of two blast furnaces, which usually operate only in the summer, and in winter there is barely enough water for two hammers. Then comes a small copper plant... The inhabitants will be 1800 souls, in addition to which another 500 people are hired by passports. The houses... are built on a slope near the banks of the factory pond in the wrong streets.” Pallas noted the high quality of iron. ores in mines, located between Satka and Yuryuzan, and the possibility of increasing iron production. Having stopped in the summer of 1770 in the Chebarkul fortress, he visited the lake. Uvildy, Argazi and others, opened on the lake. Elanchik field mica, pointed to signs of the presence of gold near the lake. Kundravy. He noted that Chebarkul Cossacks breed the same agriculturalists. culture, as in the center. regions of Russia (rye, oats, wheat, barley, peas); vegetables - cabbage, carrots, turnips; from tech. crops - flax, hemp, tobacco; when using 1 plot per hour. For 10-12 years the harvests are high (ten or more). On the lakes in the vicinity of Chel. Pallas recorded an abundance of waterfowl in the river. Yaik - sterlet and sturgeon, which broke the dams when moving to spawn. Returning from Yekaterinburg to Chel. (Aug. 1770), Pallas visited the Trinity fortress, described the south. part of modern Person region; wintered in Chel. Pallas's detachment crossed the Urals again on the way back from Siberia (1772); completed the collection of mineralogical, botanical, zoological. and paleontologist. collections. The detachment carried out meteorological, climate, and ethnographic studies. research; the relief and deposits were described for the first time. minerals, wealth of the Ilmen Mountains; rivers, mountain ranges, settlements, points are mapped; mounds, caves and numerous were examined. lakes. Research results presented in Pallas’s 3-volume work “Travel to Various Places of the Russian State” (1773-88), in “Orenburg Topography” by Rychkov. Lepekhin’s squad included gymnasium students A. Lebedev, T. Malygin, N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky; thin M. Shalaurov, scarecrow F. Fedotiev. In 1768, the detachment’s route passed through the territory. Volga region. In 1769, after wintering in Orenburg, the detachment studied the factory territories. Iset and Ufa provinces. Lepekhin, having discovered in the river valley. Inzer (influx of the White) viscous liquid (oil), called. them with “asphalt”, stated that the deposit. not being developed. Having examined the Kapova Cave, Lepekhin came to the correct conclusion about the formation of the Urals. caves with groundwater. Following through the Beloretsky plant along the river. Beloy, reached its origins, compiled a description of the sources of the river. Miass, Uy and Yaik. Lepekhin's detachment arrived at the Chebarkul fortress. (July 16, 1770), from where he moved to Kysh-tym, Yekaterinburg and Krasnoufimsk. Explored the territory. Simsky and Katav-Ivanovsky factories, visited Zlatoust and Ufaley; crossed the highlands of the South. Ural, crossed the ridge. Zigalga. Lepekhin collected information about the nature of the South. Ural, described factories and mines, deposits. jasper. The detachment completed the circular route on September 4. 1770 in Yekaterinburg, July 10, 1771 reached the upper reaches of the river. Kama. Material about Yuzh. The Urals was included in the 2nd and 3rd volumes of Lepekhin’s “Daily Travel Notes”. Falk's detachment included students I. Bykov, S. Kashkarev, M. Lebedev; scarecrow X. Bardanes. In July 1770, Georgi joined them in Orenburg. In the beginning. 1771 scientists moved in different ways to the Isetskaya Prov. and united in Chel. Having explored the Urals, Falk's detachment went to Siberia (July 1771), where due to hand disease. passed into the possession of Pallas. Exp. materials presented in “Notes of the Travel of Academician Falk”, publ. in Russian lane in 1824, and “Description of all the living peoples in the Russian state” by Georgi. The works of Gmelin, Lepekhin, Pallas, Rychkov, Falk contain information about the emergence and arrangement of fortresses: Verkhne-Yaitskaya (Verkhneural), Etkulskaya (“Etkulskaya”), Miasskaya, Troitskaya, Uyskaya, Chebarkulskaya, Chel.; South Urals settlements; “iron and hammer” factories: Zlatoust, Kaslinsky, Katav-Ivanovsky, Kyshtymsky, Nyazepetrovsky, Satkinsky, Simsky, Ust-Katavsky, Ufaleysky and Yuryuzansky. The authors provide descriptions of the natural climate. features of South. Ural, meteorological materials. observations, research life and customs of indigenous and Russian. population, toponyms, as well as problems emerging in the South. The Urals mining industry and, in particular, social relations in mining plants. During A. e. 18th century geogr. were clarified. the outlines of the outskirts of Russia, the riches of the subsoil, flora and fauna, households have been studied. resources of vast territories. Proceedings, publ. according to the results of A. e. 18th century marked the beginning of the region. local history.

ACADEMIC EXPEDITIONS, in Russia and the USSR, scientific expeditions organized by the Academy of Sciences with the aim of studying the territory of the country, its natural resources, population, historical monuments and the like.

Initially, the Academy of Sciences participated in equipping scientific expeditions along with other departments, such as the Kamchatka expeditions - the 1st (1725-30) and 2nd (Great Northern, 1733-43), carried out under the leadership of V.I. Bering ( until 1741). During their course, the existence of a strait between Asia and America was proven (received the name Bering Strait), materials were collected about the flora, fauna, relief, natural conditions of Siberia, as well as about its population, way of life, morals, cultural traditions, etc. (for example, I.E. . Fischer and J. Delisle). With the help of sources collected during the trip, G. F. Miller wrote “The History of Siberia” (published in 1750).

Academic expeditions proper were first organized in 1768-74: five so-called physical expeditions worked according to a common program, studied the nature of various regions of Russia, the economy, life, and culture of the population. They explored the Volga, Don, Ural and Terek rivers, using scientific methods they studied most of the East European Plain and the European-Asian border strip. The data obtained are systematized in the works of P. S. Pallas (“Travel through different provinces of the Russian Empire,” part 1-3, 1773-88), I. I. Lepyokhin (“Daily notes of a trip...”, part 1-4 , 1771-1805), Academician S. G. Gmelin (“Travel through Russia to explore the three kingdoms of nature,” part 1-3, 1771-85), N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky (“Travel of Academician N. Ozeretskovsky along the lakes Ladoga, Onega and around Ilmen", 1812) and others. In the last quarter of the 18th century, during academic expeditions, physical studies of the Valdai Upland and Olonets Mountains were carried out (led by E. G. Laksman, 1778), the territory between the Western Bug and Dniester rivers was surveyed, and the borders of the Russian Empire were clarified (V. F. Zuev, 1781 year), the exact coordinates of the largest cities of the Crimean Peninsula were determined [F. O. Cherny (Chernoy), 1785]. Based on the information obtained by academic expeditions, the “General Map of the Russian Empire, Compiled Based on the Latest Observations and News” (1776), “New Map of the Russian Empire, Divided into Viceroyalties” (1786) and “Atlas of the Russian Empire” (1796) were compiled ).

In the 19th century, academic expeditions became more specialized; the Academy of Sciences also continued to collaborate in organizing expeditions with other departments (for example, in 1803-06 it participated in the development of plans and equipment for a round-the-world expedition of the Maritime Ministry under the command of I. F. Krusenstern and Yu. F. Lisyansky). In 1804, during the academic expedition of V. M. Severgin and A. I. Scherer to the north-west of Russia and Finland, an extensive mineralogical collection was collected. In 1805-09, the expedition of M.I. Adams explored the paleontological monuments of Siberia. In 1806-15, V.K. Vishnevsky carried out astronomical expeditions, thanks to which the coordinates of over 300 settlements in the country were clarified. In 1821-27, E. E. Koehler explored the archaeological sites of Crimea. At the end of the 1820s, A. Ya. Kupfer and E. H. Lenz determined the heights of the peaks of the Caucasus mountains. In 1838-49, M. A. Castren studied the languages ​​and ethnography of the Finno-Ugric, Samoyed and Tungus-Manchu peoples during his trips to Siberia.

The main role in organizing scientific expeditions began to pass to new institutions that emerged in the 1830s and 40s, for example, the St. Petersburg Archaeographic Commission (see Archaeographic Commissions), the Russian Geographical Society and others; Members of the Academy of Sciences also participated in their work.

By the middle of the 19th century, the Academy of Sciences' own expeditionary activities became less active (the positions of geographer and navigator were abolished in the Academy of Sciences staff). Representatives of the Academy of Sciences participated in expeditions - the Siberian expedition of K. I. Maksimovich (1859-64), and the south of Russia of F. F. Brandt (1860s). In 1899-1901, the island of Spitsbergen was studied; in 1900-02, the expedition of E.V. Toll carried out a search for Sannikov Land in the Arctic Ocean. At the beginning of the 20th century, Academician S. F. Oldenburg organized archaeological and linguistic expeditions to study Turkestan. In 1910-1912, V.I. Vernadsky was engaged in the study of radioactive ore deposits in Siberia, the Urals and the Caucasus.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, the expeditionary activity of the Academy of Sciences has increased again. The number of archaeological and ethnographic expeditions has increased. The Commission for the Study of Natural Productive Forces of Russia (KEPS), formed in 1915 at the Academy of Sciences, began to undertake a complete and systematic accounting of natural resources. After the October Revolution of 1917, it and the research institutes created on its basis became centers of expeditionary research of the Academy of Sciences. In 1920, under the leadership of A.E. Fersman, research began on the Kola Peninsula, which led to the creation of an industrial center for the development of apatite nepheline deposits. At the end of the 1920s, the complex institutions of the Academy of Sciences (KEPS, Commission for Expeditionary Research, Commission for the Study of Individual Republics) merged into a single organization - the Council for the Study of the Productive Forces of the USSR (SOPS).

Academic expeditions in Kyrgyzstan found new deposits of lead, tin, molybdenum and tungsten. In 1936, 26 astronomical and geophysical expeditions were formed to observe the solar eclipse. Expeditions to study the stratosphere explored issues related to cosmic rays, the state of the atmosphere, and human physiology at high altitudes (1937). In 1939, the Academy of Sciences began a comprehensive, several-year study of the Urals (interrupted in 1941). In the middle and in the 2nd half of the 20th century, expeditions of the Academy of Sciences on specially equipped research vessels (for example, “Vityaz”, “Akademik Kurchatov”) were important in the comprehensive study of the World Ocean (geology, geophysics, hydrometeorology, biology and others). ), including using deep-sea underwater vehicles. One of the main trends in the history of academic expeditions in the 2nd half of the 20th century was the approach of the scientific bases of the Academy of Sciences to the study area. Scientists of the Academy of Sciences began to participate in expeditions of educational institutions (for example, the Novgorod archaeological expedition of Moscow State University and the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences, headed by V. L. Yanin). In the 1960-1970s, archaeographic expeditions of the Pushkin House worked, during which collections of monuments of ancient Russian literature were discovered (Ust-Tsilma new collection, Pinezhe, Severodvinsk and other book collections). Their own expeditions were organized by the Institute of Geography.

Lit.: Materials for the history of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. St. Petersburg, 1885-1900. T. 1-10;

Gnucheva V. F. Materials for the history of expeditions of the Academy of Sciences in the 18th and 19th centuries. // Proceedings of the Archive of the USSR Academy of Sciences. M.; L., 1940. Issue. 4; Knyazev G. A. Brief outline of the history of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 1725-1945. M.; L., 1945; Berg L. S. Essays on the history of Russian geographical discoveries. M.; L., 1949; Lebedev D. M., Esakov V. A. Russian geographical discoveries and research from ancient times to 1917. M., 1971.