The fire of European wars increasingly engulfed Europe. At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia was also involved in this struggle. The result of this intervention was the unsuccessful foreign wars with Napoleon and the Patriotic War of 1812.

Causes of the war

After the defeat of the Fourth Anti-French Coalition by Napoleon on June 25, 1807, the Treaty of Tilsit was concluded between France and Russia. The conclusion of peace forced Russia to join the participants in the continental blockade of England. However, neither country was going to comply with the terms of the treaty.

The main causes of the War of 1812:

• The Peace of Tilsit was economically unprofitable for Russia, so the government of Alexander I decided to trade with England through neutral countries.
• The policy pursued by Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte towards Prussia was to the detriment of Russian interests; French troops concentrated on the border with Russia, also contrary to the provisions of the Tilsit Treaty.
• After Alexander I did not agree to give his consent to the marriage of his sister Anna Pavlovna with Napoleon, relations between Russia and France deteriorated sharply.

At the end of 1811, the bulk of the Russian army was deployed against the war with Turkey. By May 1812, thanks to the genius of M.I. Kutuzov, the military conflict was resolved. Türkiye curtailed its military expansion in the East, and Serbia gained independence.

Beginning of the war

By the beginning of the Great Patriotic War of 1812-1814, Napoleon managed to concentrate up to 645 thousand troops on the border with Russia. His army included Prussian, Spanish, Italian, Dutch and Polish units.

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The Russian troops, despite all the objections of the generals, were divided into three armies and located far from each other. The first army under the command of Barclay de Tolly numbered 127 thousand people, the second army, led by Bagration, had 49 thousand bayonets and sabers. And finally, in the third army of General Tormasov, there were about 45 thousand soldiers.

Napoleon decided to immediately take advantage of the mistake of the Russian emperor, namely, with a sudden blow to defeat the two main armies of Barclay de Toll and Bagration in border battles, preventing them from uniting and moving with an accelerated march to defenseless Moscow.

At five in the morning on June 12, 1821, the French army (about 647 thousand) began to cross the Russian border.

Rice. 1. Crossing of Napoleonic troops across the Neman.

The numerical superiority of the French army allowed Napoleon to immediately take the military initiative into his own hands. The Russian army did not yet have universal conscription and the army was replenished using outdated recruitment kits. Alexander I, who was in Polotsk, issued a Manifesto on July 6, 1812 calling for the collection of a general people's militia. As a result of the timely implementation of such internal policy by Alexander I, different layers of the Russian population began to rapidly flock to the ranks of the militia. Nobles were allowed to arm their serfs and join the ranks of the regular army with them. The war immediately began to be called “Patriotic”. The manifesto also regulated the partisan movement.

Progress of military operations. Main events

The strategic situation required the immediate merging of the two Russian armies into a single whole under a common command. Napoleon’s task was the opposite - to prevent Russian forces from uniting and to defeat them as quickly as possible in two or three border battles.

The following table shows the course of the main chronological events of the Patriotic War of 1812:

date	Event	Content
June 12, 1812	Invasion of Napoleon's troops into the Russian Empire	Napoleon seized the initiative from the very beginning, taking advantage of serious miscalculations of Alexander I and his General Staff.
June 27-28, 1812	Clashes near the town of Mir	The rearguard of the Russian army, consisting mainly of Platov’s Cossacks, collided with the vanguard of Napoleonic forces near the town of Mir. For two days, Platov’s cavalry units constantly pestered Poniatowski’s Polish lancers with small skirmishes. Denis Davydov, who fought as part of a hussar squadron, also took part in these battles.
July 11, 1812	Battle of Saltanovka	Bagration and the 2nd Army decide to cross the Dnieper. To gain time, General Raevsky was instructed to draw the French units of Marshal Davout into the oncoming battle. Raevsky completed the task assigned to him.
July 25-28, 1812	Battle near Vitebsk	The first major battle of Russian troops with French units under the command of Napoleon. Barclay de Tolly defended himself in Vitebsk to the last, as he was waiting for the approach of Bagration’s troops. However, Bagration was unable to get through to Vitebsk. Both Russian armies continued to retreat without connecting with each other.
July 27, 1812	Battle of Kovrin	The first major victory of Russian troops in the Patriotic War. Troops led by Tormasov inflicted a crushing defeat on Klengel's Saxon brigade. Klengel himself was captured during the battle.
July 29-August 1, 1812	Battle of Klyastitsy	Russian troops under the command of General Wittgenstein pushed back the French army of Marshal Oudinot from St. Petersburg during three days of bloody battles.
August 16-18, 1812	Battle for Smolensk	The two Russian armies managed to unite, despite the obstacles imposed by Napoleon. Two commanders, Bagration and Barclay de Tolly, made a decision on the defense of Smolensk. After the most stubborn battles, the Russian units left the city in an organized manner.
August 18, 1812	Kutuzov arrived in the village of Tsarevo-Zaimishche	Kutuzov was appointed the new commander of the retreating Russian army.
August 19, 1812	Battle at Valutina Mountain	The battle of the rearguard of the Russian army covering the withdrawal of the main forces with the troops of Napoleon Bonaparte. Russian troops not only repulsed numerous French attacks, but also moved forward
August 24-26	battle of Borodino	Kutuzov was forced to give a general battle to the French, since the most experienced commander wanted to preserve the main forces of the army for subsequent battles. The largest battle of the Patriotic War of 1812 lasted two days, and neither side achieved an advantage in the battle. During the two-day battles, the French managed to take Bagration's flushes, and Bagration himself was mortally wounded. On the morning of August 27, 1812, Kutuzov decided to retreat further. Russian and French losses were terrible. Napoleon's army lost approximately 37.8 thousand people, the Russian army 44-45 thousand.
September 13, 1812	Council in Fili	In a simple peasant hut in the village of Fili, the fate of the capital was decided. Never supported by the majority of the generals, Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow.
September 14-October 20, 1812	Occupation of Moscow by the French	After the Battle of Borodino, Napoleon was waiting for envoys from Alexander I with requests for peace and the mayor of Moscow with the keys to the city. Without waiting for the keys and envoys, the French entered the deserted capital of Russia. The occupiers immediately began looting and numerous fires broke out in the city.
October 18, 1812	Tarutino fight	Having occupied Moscow, the French put themselves in a difficult position - they could not calmly leave the capital to provide themselves with provisions and fodder. The widespread partisan movement constrained all movements of the French army. Meanwhile, the Russian army, on the contrary, was restoring strength in the camp near Tarutino. Near the Tarutino camp, the Russian army unexpectedly attacked Murat's positions and overthrew the French.
October 24, 1812	Battle of Maloyaroslavets	After leaving Moscow, the French rushed towards Kaluga and Tula. Kaluga had large food supplies, and Tula was the center of Russian arms factories. The Russian army, led by Kutuzov, blocked the path to the Kaluga road for French troops. During the fierce battle, Maloyaroslavets changed hands seven times. Eventually the French were forced to retreat and begin to retreat back to the Russian borders along the old Smolensk road.
November 9, 1812	Battle of Lyakhov	The French brigade of Augereau was attacked by the combined forces of partisans under the command of Denis Davydov and the regular cavalry of Orlov-Denisov. As a result of the battle, most of the French died in battle. Augereau himself was captured.
November 15, 1812	Battle of Krasny	Taking advantage of the stretched nature of the retreating French army, Kutuzov decided to strike the flanks of the invaders near the village of Krasny near Smolensk.
November 26-29, 1812	Crossing at the Berezina	Napoleon, despite the desperate situation, managed to transport his most combat-ready units. However, no more than 25 thousand combat-ready soldiers remained from the once “Great Army”. Napoleon himself, having crossed the Berezina, left the location of his troops and departed for Paris.

Rice. 2. Crossing of French troops across the Berezina. Januariy Zlatopolsky...

Napoleon's invasion caused enormous damage to the Russian Empire - many cities were burned, tens of thousands of villages were reduced to ashes. But a common misfortune brings people together. An unprecedented scale of patriotism united the central provinces; tens of thousands of peasants signed up for the militia, went into the forest, becoming partisans. Not only men, but also women fought the French, one of them was Vasilisa Kozhina.

The defeat of France and the results of the War of 1812

After the victory over Napoleon, Russia continued to liberate European countries from the yoke of the French invaders. In 1813, a military alliance was concluded between Prussia and Russia. The first stage of the foreign campaigns of Russian troops against Napoleon ended in failure due to the sudden death of Kutuzov and the lack of coordination in the actions of the allies.

• However, France was extremely exhausted by continuous wars and asked for peace. However, Napoleon lost the fight on the diplomatic front. Another coalition of powers grew up against France: Russia, Prussia, England, Austria and Sweden.
• In October 1813, the famous Battle of Leipzig took place. At the beginning of 1814, Russian troops and allies entered PARIS. Napoleon was deposed and at the beginning of 1814 exiled to the island of Elba.

Rice. 3. Entry of Russian and allied troops into Paris. HELL. Kivshenko.

• In 1814, a Congress was held in Vienna, where the victorious countries discussed questions about the post-war structure of Europe.
• In June 1815, Napoleon fled the island of Elba and retook the French throne, but after just 100 days of rule, the French were defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena.

Summing up the results of the Patriotic War of 1812, it should be noted that the influence it had on the leading people of Russian society was limitless. Many great works were written by great writers and poets based on this war. The post-war peace was short-lived, although the Congress of Vienna gave Europe several years of peace. Russia acted as the savior of occupied Europe, but Western historians tend to underestimate the historical significance of the Patriotic War.

What have we learned?

The beginning of the 19th century in the history of Russia, studied in grade 4, was marked by a bloody war with Napoleon. A detailed report and table “Patriotic War of 1812” tells briefly about the Patriotic War of 1812, what the nature of this war was, the main periods of military operations.

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The official cause of the war was the violation of the terms of the Tilsit Peace by Russia and France. Russia, despite the blockade of England, accepted its ships under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg to its possessions. Napoleon considered Emperor Alexander's demand for the withdrawal of troops from the Duchy of Warsaw and Prussia to be offensive. The War of 1812 was becoming inevitable.

Here is a brief summary of the Patriotic War of 1812. Napoleon, at the head of a huge 600,000-strong army, crossed the Neman on June 12, 1812. The Russian army, numbering only 240 thousand people, was forced to retreat deeper into the country. In the battle of Smolensk, Bonaparte failed to win a complete victory and defeat the united 1st and 2nd Russian armies.

In August, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief. He not only had talent strategist, but also enjoyed respect among soldiers and officers. He decided to give a general battle to the French near the village of Borodino. The positions for the Russian troops were chosen most successfully. The left flank was protected by flushes (earthen fortifications), and the right flank by the Koloch River. The troops of N.N. Raevsky were located in the center. and artillery.

Both sides fought desperately. The fire of 400 guns was directed at the flashes, which were courageously guarded by the troops under the command of Bagration. As a result of 8 attacks, Napoleonic troops suffered huge losses. They managed to capture Raevsky's batteries (in the center) only at about 4 o'clock in the afternoon, but not for long. The French attack was contained thanks to a bold raid by the lancers of the 1st Cavalry Corps. Despite all the difficulties of bringing the old guard, the elite troops, into battle, Napoleon never risked it. Late in the evening the battle ended. The losses were enormous. The French lost 58, and the Russians 44 thousand people. Paradoxically, both commanders declared victory in the battle.

The decision to leave Moscow was made by Kutuzov at the council in Fili on September 1. This was the only way to maintain a combat-ready army. On September 2, 1812, Napoleon entered Moscow. Waiting for a peace proposal, Napoleon stayed in the city until October 7. As a result of fires, most of Moscow was destroyed during this time. Peace with Alexander 1 was never concluded.

Kutuzov stopped 80 km away. from Moscow in the village of Tarutino. He covered Kaluga, which had large reserves of fodder and the arsenals of Tula. The Russian army, thanks to this maneuver, was able to replenish its reserves and, importantly, update its equipment. At the same time, French foraging detachments were subjected to partisan attacks. The detachments of Vasilisa Kozhina, Fyodor Potapov, and Gerasim Kurin launched effective strikes, depriving the French army of the opportunity to replenish food supplies. The special detachments of A.V. Davydov also acted in the same way. and Seslavina A.N.

After leaving Moscow, Napoleon's army failed to get through to Kaluga. The French were forced to retreat along the Smolensk road, without food. Early severe frosts worsened the situation. The final defeat of the Great Army took place in the battle of the Berezina River on November 14–16, 1812. Of the 600,000-strong army, only 30,000 hungry and frozen soldiers left Russia. The manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War was issued by Alexander 1 on December 25 of the same year. The victory of 1812 was complete.

In 1813 and 1814, the Russian army marched, liberating European countries from Napoleon's rule. Russian troops acted in alliance with the armies of Sweden, Austria, and Prussia. As a result, in accordance with the Treaty of Paris on May 18, 1814, Napoleon lost his throne and France returned to its 1793 borders.

24.

Decembrist revolt of 1825

Revolutionary ideas appeared in Russia in the 1st quarter of the 19th century. The progressive society of that time was often disillusioned with the rule of Alexander 1. However, the best people of the country sought to end the backwardness of society in Russia.

During the period of liberation campaigns, having become familiar with Western political movements, the advanced Russian nobility realized that serfdom was the most important reason for the backwardness of the fatherland. The harsh reactionary policy in the field of education, Russia's participation in the suppression of European revolutionary events only strengthened confidence in the urgent need for change. Russian serfdom was perceived as an insult to the national dignity of everyone who considered himself an enlightened person. The ideas of Western national liberation movements, Russian journalism and educational literature had a serious influence on the formation of the views of future Decembrists. Thus, we can highlight the following most important reasons for the Decembrist uprising. This is the strengthening of serfdom, the difficult socio-economic situation in the country, the refusal of Alexander 1 to carry out liberal reforms, the influence of the works of Western thinkers.

The first political secret society was formed in St. Petersburg in February 1816. His goal was to adopt a constitution in the country and abolish serfdom. It included Pestel, Muravyov, S.I. Muravyov-Apostles. and M.I. (total 28 members).

Later, in 1818, a larger organization, the Union of Welfare, was created in Moscow, which numbered up to 200 members. It also had councils in other cities of Russia. The purpose of the secret society was the idea of ​​promoting the abolition of serfdom. The officers began preparing for a coup. But the “Union of Welfare”, having never achieved its goal, disintegrated due to internal disagreements.

“Northern Society”, created on the initiative of N.M. Muravyov. in St. Petersburg, there was a more liberal attitude. Nevertheless, for this society, the most important goals were the proclamation of civil liberties, the destruction of serfdom and autocracy.

The conspirators were preparing for an armed uprising. And the opportune moment for implementing the plans came in November 1825, after the death of Emperor Alexander. Despite the fact that not everything was ready, the conspirators decided to act, and the Decembrist uprising took place in 1825. It was planned to carry out a coup, seize the Senate and the monarch, on the day Nicholas 1 took the oath.

On December 14, in the morning on Senate Square there was the Moscow Life Guards Regiment, as well as the Life Guards Grenadier and Guards Marine Regiments. In total, about 3 thousand people gathered in the square.

But Nicholas 1 was warned that a Decembrist uprising was being prepared on Senate Square. He swore in the Senate in advance. After this, he was able to gather the remaining loyal troops and surround Senate Square. Negotiations were started. They did not bring any results. From the government side, Metropolitan Seraphim and Miloradovich M.A., the governor of St. Petersburg, took part in them. Miloradovich was wounded during the negotiations, which became fatal. After this, by order of Nicholas 1, artillery was used. The Decembrist uprising of 1825 failed. Later, on December 29, S.I. Muravyov-Apostol was able to raise the Chernigov regiment. This rebellion was also suppressed by government troops on January 2. The results of the Decembrist uprising turned out to be far from the plans of the conspirators.

Arrests of participants and organizers of the uprising took place throughout Russia. 579 people were charged in this case. 287 were found guilty. Five were sentenced to death. These were S.I. Muravyov-Apostol, K.F. Ryleev, P.G. Pestel, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P. G. Kakhovsky. 120 people were exiled to hard labor or to settlement in Siberia.

The Decembrist uprising, a summary of which is outlined above, failed not only because of the inconsistency of the actions of the conspirators, the unpreparedness of society for such radical changes, and the lack of support from the broad masses. However, the historical significance of the Decembrist uprising is difficult to overestimate. For the first time, a fairly clear political program was put forward, and an armed uprising took place against the authorities. And, although Nicholas 1 called the conspirators only crazy rebels, the consequences of the Decembrist uprising turned out to be extremely significant for the further history of Russia. And the brutal reprisal against them aroused sympathy in wide sections of society and forced many progressive people of that era to awaken.

25. Abolition of serfdom in Russia

The prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom arose at the end of the 18th century. All layers of society considered the serfdom an immoral phenomenon that disgraced Russia. In order to stand on a par with European countries free from slavery, the Russian government was faced with the issue of abolishing serfdom.

The main reasons for the abolition of serfdom:

Serfdom became a brake on the development of industry and trade, which hampered the growth of capital and placed Russia in the category of secondary states;

The decline of the landowner economy due to the extremely ineffective labor of the serfs, which was expressed in the obviously poor performance of the corvee;

The increase in peasant revolts indicated that the serf system was a “powder keg” under the state;

The defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) demonstrated the backwardness of the political system in the country.

Alexander I tried to take the first steps in resolving the issue of abolishing serfdom, but his committee did not figure out how to bring this reform to life. Emperor Alexander limited himself to the law of 1803 on free cultivators.

Nicholas I in 1842 adopted the law “On Obligated Peasants”, according to which the landowner had the right to free the peasants by giving them a land allotment, and the peasants were obliged to bear duties in favor of the landowner for the use of the land. However, this law did not take root; the landowners did not want to let the peasants go.

In 1857, official preparations began for the abolition of serfdom. Emperor Alexander II ordered the establishment of provincial committees, which were supposed to develop projects to improve the life of serfs. Based on these projects, the drafting commissions drew up a bill, which was transferred to the Main Committee for consideration and establishment.

On February 19, 1861, Emperor Alexander II signed a manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and approved the “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom.” Alexander remained in history with the name “Liberator”.

Although liberation from slavery gave peasants some personal and civil freedoms, such as the right to marry, go to court, trade, enter the civil service, etc., they were limited in freedom of movement, as well as economic rights. In addition, peasants remained the only class that bore conscription duties and could be subject to corporal punishment.

The land remained the property of the landowners, and the peasants were allocated a settled estate and a field allotment, for which they had to serve duties (in money or work), which were almost no different from serfs. According to the law, peasants had the right to buy out an allotment and an estate, then they received complete independence and became peasant owners. Until then, they were called “temporarily obligated.” The ransom amounted to the annual quitrent amount multiplied by 17!

To help the peasantry, the government organized a special “redemption operation.” After the establishment of the land allotment, the state paid the landowner 80% of the value of the allotment, and 20% was assigned to the peasant as a government debt, which he had to repay in installments over 49 years.

Peasants united into rural societies, and they, in turn, united into volosts. The use of field land was communal, and to make “redemption payments” the peasants were bound by a mutual guarantee.

Household people who did not plow the land were temporarily obliged for two years, and then could register with a rural or urban society.

The agreement between landowners and peasants was set out in the “statutory charter”. And to sort out emerging disagreements, the position of peace mediators was established. The general management of the reform was entrusted to the “provincial presence for peasant affairs.”

The peasant reform created the conditions for the transformation of labor into goods, and market relations began to develop, which is typical for a capitalist country. The consequence of the abolition of serfdom was the gradual formation of new social strata of the population - the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

Changes in the social, economic and political life of Russia after the abolition of serfdom forced the government to undertake other important reforms, which contributed to the transformation of our country into a bourgeois monarchy.

Tsar Alexander 2, son of Nicholas 1, was born on April 29, 1818. Since he was the heir to the throne, he received an excellent education and had deep, versatile knowledge. Suffice it to say that the education of the heir was carried out so different people like combat officer Merder and Zhukovsky. His father Nicholas 1 had a great influence on the personality and subsequent reign of Alexander 2.

Emperor Alexander 2 ascended the throne after the death of his father in 1855. It must be said that the young emperor already had quite serious management experience. He was entrusted with the duties of the sovereign during periods of absence from the capital of Nicholas 1. A brief biography of this man, of course, cannot include all the most important dates and events, but it is simply necessary to mention that the internal policy of Alexander 2 brought with it serious changes in the life of the country.

The War of 1812, in short, became the most difficult and important event of the 19th century for the Russian Empire. In Russian historiography it was called the Patriotic War of 1812.

How did it happen that France and Russia, which had friendly relations and were allies for many years, became adversaries and began military operations against each other?

The main reason for all the military conflicts of that time involving France, including the Patriotic War of 1812, in short, was associated with the imperial ambitions of Napoleon Bonaparte. Having come to power thanks to the Great French Revolution, he did not hide his desire to extend the influence of the French Empire to as many countries as possible. Enormous ambition and excellent qualities as a commander and diplomat made Napoleon in a short time the ruler of almost all of Europe. Dissatisfied with this state of affairs, Russia left the alliance with France and joined England. So former allies became enemies.

Then, during the unsuccessful wars of the Allies with Napoleon's troops, the Russian Empire was forced to agree to a peace agreement with France. This is how the Peace of Tilsit was signed. His main condition was that Russia maintain the continental blockade of England, which Napoleon wanted to weaken in this way. The authorities of the Russian Empire wanted to use this truce as an opportunity to accumulate forces, since everyone understood the need to further fight Napoleon.

But the blockade threatened the Russian economy, and then the Russian authorities resorted to a trick. They began to trade with neutral countries, through which they continued to trade with England, using them as intermediaries. At the same time, Russia did not formally violate the terms of peace with France. She was indignant, but could not do anything.

War of 1812, briefly about the reasons

There were many reasons why it became possible to conduct military operations directly between France and Russia:
1. Failure by Russia to fulfill the terms of the Tilsit Peace Treaty;
2. Refusal to marry first Alexander I’s sister Catherine, and then Anna, to the Emperor of France;
3. France violated the agreements of the Tilsit Peace by continuing the occupation of Prussia.

By 1812, war became inevitable for both countries. Both France and Russia hastily prepared for it, gathering allies around them. Austria and Prussia were on France's side. Russia's allies are Great Britain, Sweden and Spain.

Patriotic War of 1812 - The course of its military operations

The war began on June 12, 1812 with the transfer of Napoleon's army across the border river Neman. The Russian troops were divided into three parts, since the exact location of the border crossing by the enemy was not known. French troops crossed it in the area of ​​the army under the command of Barclay de Tolly. Seeing the enormous numerical superiority of the enemy and trying to preserve his strength, he ordered a retreat. The armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration managed to unite near Smolensk. The first battle of this war took place there. Russian troops failed to defend the city, and they continued their retreat deeper into the country in August.
After the failure of the Russian troops near Smolensk, the people entered the fight against Napoleon's army. Active partisan actions of the country's inhabitants against the enemy began. The partisan movement provided enormous support to the army in the fight against French troops.

In August, General M. Kutuzov became commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. He approved of the tactics of his predecessors and continued the army's orderly retreat towards Moscow.
Near Moscow, near the village of Borodino, the most significant battle of this war took place, which completely debunked the myth of Napoleon's invincibility - the Battle of Borodino. The strengths of the two armies by that time were almost identical.

Following the Battle of Borodino Neither side could call itself the winner, but the French troops were greatly exhausted.
In September, according to the decision of Kutuzov, with which Alexander I agreed, Russian troops left Moscow. Frosts began, to which the French were not accustomed. Virtually locked in Moscow, Napoleon's army was completely demoralized. Russian troops, on the contrary, rested and received support with food, weapons and volunteers.

Napoleon decides to retreat, which soon turns into flight. Russian troops force the French to retreat along the Smolensk road, which they had completely destroyed.
In December 1812, the army under the command of Napoleon finally left Russian territory, and the War of 1812 ended with the complete victory of the Russian people. Thus ended the Patriotic War of 1812

Patriotic War of 1812 - DETAILED VERSION

Patriotic War of 1812

CONTENT:

1. Background to the conflict
2. Diplomacy, intelligence
3. Armed forces of opponents
4. Strategic plans of the parties
5. Napoleon's offensive
6. From Neman to Smolensk
7. From Smolensk to Moscow
8. Attempts to achieve peace
9. People's War
10. Tarutino maneuver
11. Napoleon's retreat
12. Plans of the parties
13. From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets
14. From Maloyaroslavets to Berezina
15. From Berezina toNeman
16. Northern direction
17. South direction
18. Results of the Patriotic War
19. Causes of defeat us
20. Early consequences of war
21. Memory of the war
22. 100th anniversary of Victory
23. 200th anniversary of the Victory

BRIEFLY about the main thing

• The war was fought between Russia and France, on Russian soil. The reason for the war was that Russia refused to participate in the blockade of Great Britain. And also France’s policy towards European countries, without Russian participation.
• At first, the Russian army continuously retreated all the way to Moscow.
• Then Napoleon's army, retreating from Moscow, undertook various maneuvers, wanting to get to the apartments prepared in advance, but it had to move all the way to the border, constantly pursued by Russian troops. On the Russian side there was severe frost and famine that broke out in Napoleon's army.
• The war ended with the complete victory of the Russian army. The territory of Russia was completely liberated, military operations moved to Germany and Warsaw.
• The reasons for the defeat of the French were: the unification of the people in the face of the enemy; brave and heroic actions of Russian soldiers and officers; poor preparation of Napoleon's army for war in conditions of a vast territory and winter frosts. Kutuzov's military and strategic talent.

Background to the conflict

As a result of the Great French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power. Russia and several other large countries created anti-French coalitions. Their goal was the desire to restore the monarchy of the Bourbon dynasty. In 1807, Russia was defeated in the Fourth Coalition, and Alexander I was forced to make peace with Napoleon, pledging to participate in the blockade of Great Britain. This Tilsit peace was completely disadvantageous for Russia. The conditions were simply humiliating for the state. The Russian government began to prepare for war with France.And Napoleon was ready to conquer Europe; he moved his troops to the Russian borders.

Causes of the war

From France

Napoleon considered Great Britain his main enemy. She interfered with free trade by sea, taking over the American and Indian colonies. It was possible to create a continental blockade of England only with the help of other European countries. Russia did not want to take part in this.

The Russian government began trading through intermediaries, and significantly increased customs duties on imported goods from France.

In 1808, Napoleon first received a refusal to propose marriage to the Russian princess Catherine. The second offer to Princess Anna was also rejected. This caused the relationship to deteriorate. In 1810, Bonaparte finally married Marie-Louise, she was the daughter of the Austrian emperor.

From Russia

Participation in the continental blockade of Great Britain had a negative impact on Russia's agriculture and trade, which in turn significantly reduced the financial power of the state. Bread exports decreased and prices immediately fell. If earlier a pound of bread cost 40 kopecks, now it could be bought for 22 kopecks. Gold began to be exported from the country at a rapid pace, and the Russian ruble depreciated. Measures were taken to save the state's economy. Trade through neutral countries and increased customs duties on French wines and luxury items.

There is another opinion that merchants and peasants did not suffer large losses from the blockade of England. On the contrary, during this period they paid much more taxes, and a decrease in exports led to the development of Russian industry.

Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw from Polish lands in 1807. The Poles dreamed of independence; for this they needed to take part of their lands from Russia. Napoleon began to occupy Prussian territories, Alexander was categorically against this.

At the end of 1810 it became clear that war was inevitable.

Diplomacy, intelligence

In 1812, France and Austria drew up an agreement according to which an Austrian army under actual French command would be deployed against Russia. Napoleon, in case of victory, had to compensate for all military losses.

In February 1812, Prussia contributed 20,000 soldiers and supplied Napoleon's troops with everything they needed. For this she demanded Courland and Livonia.

Napoleon began an in-depth study of the political situation and economic condition of Russia. French spies infiltrated various areas of Russian life. They worked as tutors, teachers, doctors, artists, and merchants. In addition to the French, Poles and Prussians spied. Napoleon knew a lot of important information about the Russian army before the war, including the size of the army.

Russia did not lag behind in terms of intelligence activities. It was possible to find out that the Austrians do not plan to conduct active operations at the front and will not move far from their border.

Napoleon promised the Swedes, in exchange for entering the war, to give Finland. And Alexander I undertook to give up Norway for similar actions against France. The Prince of Sweden accepted Russia's offer and concluded an alliance treaty with it.

In May, Kutuzov signed a peace treaty with Turkey.
Successful reconnaissance actions bore fruit. Twice every month the French minister sent Alexander a report on changes in affairs in the army.

Armed forces of opponents

Parties to the conflict	Infantry (soldier)	Cavalry	TOTAL (soldiers)	Artillery	Cossacks
Russian army	405.000	75.000	480.000	40,000 soldiers 1.5—1.6 guns	117.000
Grand French Army	492.000	96.000	588.000	21,000—35,000 soldiers, almost 1.4 thousand guns	----

On the side of France

• By the beginning of the war, Napoleon's army numbered approximately 430 thousand people. There were 30,000 Austrians, 20,000 Prussians, 20,000 Lithuanians. And also soldiers from 16 countries. According to other sources, more than 650 thousand people were prepared for the invasion of Russia. In addition, there were about 200,000 more in reserve in Central Europe and about 100,000 in Prussia.
• Large warehouses of food and ammunition were created along the banks of the Vistula River, which could supply an army of 400 thousand for more than a month.
• The army was divided into 3 groups. Napoleon led the left.
• The advantages of Napoleon's army were:
• . huge numbers;
• . good training of soldiers;
• . fanatical belief in victory;
• . technical support.
• The downside was multinationality.

On the side of Russia

• The troops of Barclay de Toll were the first to take the French blow. The second army was commanded by Bagration and had just over 150,000 soldiers and 758 guns. The Third Army, under the command of Tormasov, stood in the south of Volyn and had 45,000 soldiers and 168 guns. Admiral Chichagov, with his troops, settled in Moldova. Essen building - in Riga.
• Weapons production in Russia was well established. Approximately 1,200 guns were produced per year. The Tula and Izhevsk factories alone could supply up to 96,000 guns annually. In France, approximately 100,000 guns were produced per year. The technical data of Russian weapons were no worse than their French counterparts. But the capacity was not enough for the entire army, so the regiments had Austrian and English guns.
• The artillery was armed with 6-pounder cannons and a small number of 12-pounder guns.
• Russia did not lag behind France in numbers and technical weapons. But theft and embezzlement of higher ranks on pay flourished in the army.

Reform in the army

• The Minister of Military Affairs, Barclay de Toll, began to carry out reform in March 1811. The experience of other countries, especially France, was studied.
• All troops were subordinate to the General Staff, headed by the commander-in-chief. Measures began to form army headquarters.
• Allies of Russia
• Great Britain signed a peace agreement with Russia, which provided for mutual assistance in the event of an attack by another country.
• Spain helped Russian troops by waging a guerrilla war with the French.

Strategic plans of the parties

Napoleon

• Napoleon's goals were:
• . strict blockade of England;
• . the revival of Poland and the expansion of its borders;
• . military campaign in India, together with Russia.
• He hoped that Russia would attack first, military operations would take place on Polish territory and the war would end with a quick victory for the French army. When the Russians began to retreat, Napoleon was very puzzled; his plans did not include a deep invasion of enemy territory.

Russian command

• Russian plans provided for both offensive and defensive tactics. To prevent heavy losses during the battles, there were plans for a long retreat. Fortified points were created as the battle progressed. A bet was placed on winter frosts.
• Based on Pfuel's plan, battles could be fought by 3 armies at once. The 1st should be part of the front, the 2nd should reliably protect the rear, the third should work on all flanks and behind enemy lines. But during the war, this plan turned out to be impossible; the military operations of the armies turned out to be too maneuverable.
• Bagration's plan was offensive, but Alexander rejected it, because the 200,000th French army was already concentrated at the border.

Napoleon's offensive

On June 22, 1812, Napoleon voiced appeals to his army. Russia was accused of violating the treaty and the need to attack it.

On June 24, using the built bridges, the French crossed to the Russian coast and entered the Kovno fortress. This was immediately reported to the emperor.

The four-day crossing ended, and 220,000 French soldiers found themselves on the Russian side near Kovno. 67,000 - near Prena, 79,000 - near Grodno.

On June 28, when Vilna fell, Alexander I sent General Balashov to Napoleon. It was proposed to make peace and withdraw the army from Russian territory. Napoleon refused.

From Neman to Smolensk

North direction

Marshal MacDonald's corps was sent to capture St. Petersburg. It was necessary to first occupy Riga and, uniting with the second corps, move on. Macdonald did not have siege weapons and, approaching a well-fortified city, the marshal stopped. The governor of Riga, having destroyed nearby villages, closed himself within the city. Prussian soldiers were afraid of direct clashes with the enemy.

Moscow direction

The First Western Army was scattered over a vast area. It was commanded by Barclay de Tolly. The French were advancing, and there was a threat of destroying it piece by piece. The retreat to Vilna began. Alexander's ineptitude in commanding the army became apparent. Confidants convinced him to leave for the capital, supposedly to create reserves.

The Second Western Army was located near Grodno. It was commanded by Bagration. He wanted to unite the two armies, but realizing that this was impossible, he retreated to the south. The rear of the army, which began to retreat, was covered by the Cossacks.

Napoleon really wanted to destroy Bagration, for this he sent 50,000 soldiers. But the rapid march allowed Bagration to break away from his pursuers. Now the armies of Bagration and Davout were separated by 60 kilometers. There was a battle near Saltanovka. The Russians headed towards Smolensk, Davout could not pursue her.

The 1st Army, under the leadership of Barclay de Tolly, was supposed to connect with the first. But as a result of the battle at Ostrovno, he had to retreat to Smolensk. And only on August 3 they managed to unite, this was the first success. The armies of both opponents needed a respite. The soldiers were tired of rapid marches and battles. Napoleon has already covered more than 400 km.

South direction

The army of General Tormasov fought with the right flank of the French. He managed to return Brest and Pinsk. Napoleon sent Schwarzenberg's corps against him. On August 12, the Russians retreated to Lutsk. Throughout September there were minor battles in the Lutsk swamps.

Ertel's reserve was located in the south. The Polish division of Dombrowski stood against him.

From Smolensk to Moscow

The Russian armies united, and the command began to demand a decisive battle from Barclay. At this time, Napoleon's troops were scattered from each other. Taking advantage of the situation, the general decided to defeat them.

Napoleon tried to gather all his strength into a fist and, going behind the Russian rear, crossed the Dnieper. Neverovsky's division stood in his way. The general's decisive actions allowed General Raevsky to arrive at Smolensk on time.

On August 16, the French, who numbered 180,000, approached the city. The defense of Smolensk was entrusted to Raevsky, who had 15,000 soldiers under his command. Early in the morning the assault on the city began. The bloody battle went on for 2 days. The city was burning, and Barclay de Toly decided to withdraw his troops to Dorogobuzh. Bagration covered the retreat.

Ney began to pursue the rapidly retreating Russian army. But in the battle at Valutina Mountain he suffered heavy losses. General Junot was sent to the Russian rear, but he did not carry out Napoleon’s orders. The Russians went to the Dorogobuzh side.

The destruction of Smolensk marked the beginning of the war of the Russian people against the French. All villages in the path of the invading army were burned, and the residents became partisans. Napoleon tried to make a peace proposal to Alexander, but as a strong party. The Russian Tsar did not answer.

Management reorganization

The king did not leave the commander-in-chief in the troops after his departure. Bagration and Barclay could not find a common language after the retreat from Smolensk. An Emergency Committee was created, at a meeting of which Field Marshal Kutuzov was elected commander-in-chief. He immediately formed the army headquarters.

Borodino

Kutuzov's political and moral principles did not allow him to avoid the decisive battle. On September 3, the Russians retreated to Borodino. It was impossible to retreat further, and Kutuzov decided to fight. In order to have time to build fortifications at the battle site, General Gorchakov was ordered to pin down the French troops near Shevardino.

On September 7, the famous Battle of Borodino took place. There was approximately the same number of troops, but the Russian militias were poorly armed. They attacked with pikes.

The French attacked Russian fortifications using artillery. At noon the eighth attack began. The battle lasted about 12 hours. Napoleon lost 30,000 killed, but he managed to break through the defenses on the left flank. The Russians had 45,000 killed. Kutuzov decided to retreat.

Council in Fili

By September 13, the army concentrated near Moscow. The front line stretched for 4 km. Poor communication between units made this position unacceptable.

A Military Council was assembled in the village of Fili. Barclay expressed the difficult decision to surrender Moscow. Bennigsen was strongly opposed to this turn of events. But Suvorov ordered the troops to begin retreating. It was decided to leave Moscow and go along the Ryazan road. Kutuzov was very worried and did not sleep at all.

Surrender of Moscow

Moscow was left without a fight. And at night a terrible fire started in the city. Napoleon could not remain in the Kremlin. The civilian population was blamed for the arson, and 400 people were shot.
The arson could have been organized by:
. people of Rostopchin;
. criminals;
. Russian spies;
. chaos in the city.

Several fires were discovered. In 5 days, a significant part of the city was destroyed. Of the 30,000 houses, less than 5,000 remain.

Attempts to achieve peace

Napoleon understood perfectly well that the capture of Moscow was more of a political victory. Next in his plans was a campaign against St. Petersburg. All French marshals were against this. They were afraid of the coming winter and deep behind enemy lines.

• On September 18, Napoleon made the first attempt at a truce with Russia.
• On September 20, he made a second attempt, but again there was no answer.
• On October 4 there was another one, but Alexander remained silent.

People's War

At first, upon learning of the French advance, rumors spread among the peasants that Napoleon wanted to free them from serfdom and give them land. There were attacks by peasants on troops. In some regions, peasants handed over their landowners to the French.

As Napoleon's army advanced, violence began against the local population, looting in populated areas, robberies, and fires in cities. This was the impetus for the start of the guerrilla war.

Army partisan units

In pursuit of the retreating Russian army, the French covered about 1,200 km in 3 months. Its divisions and communications have expanded significantly. Russian commanders decided to create mobile units to operate behind enemy lines. The task was set to destroy communications and deprive the advanced combat detachments of supplies. Such units received all kinds of help from the local population.

Peasant partisan units

Partisan detachments were formed by escaped captured soldiers and local volunteers. Such detachments acted very cruelly towards the enemy. The partisans destroyed 25,000 soldiers stationed in Moscow.

The peasants did not want to give food and fodder to the enemy. Napoleon's plan to replenish the army with everything necessary at the expense of the local population failed.

Militia

In July 1812, according to the manifesto, the nobles and their peasants were supposed to join the ranks of the militia. Muscovites also created their own militia. The first ring surrounding Moscow was the partisans, the second - the militia warriors. While Kutuzov's army was preparing for new battles, they created a ring around Napoleonic troops located in Moscow.

Tarutino maneuver

• When the French army was already entering Moscow, the last Russian convoys were just leaving it. In addition to the soldiers, the convoy included local residents. While retreating, Kutuzov maneuvered all the time, and Napoleon had no idea where the Russian army was now located.
• The Russians stopped near the village of Tarutino. The location was not chosen by chance. The Tula, Kaluga and bread-rich southern regions were under cover, and on the other hand, the army became a threat to the French rear.
• While in Moscow, Napoleon's army fell into a trap. It was impossible to stay in the burned-out city for the winter. Food and fodder were running out, communications were badly damaged by the partisans. Disobedience and sabotage began in the army. Napoleon decided to retreat. The apartments prepared for winter were very far away, near the Dnieper
• On October 18, a battle took place near Tarutino, as a result the French lost 4,000 soldiers. There was a turning point in the war.

Napoleon's retreat

Napoleon went far into Russia. On his left flank was Wittgenstein's army. The right flank is stuck in Belarus. Its rear was protected by garrisons stretched along the Smolensk road.

Plans of the parties

Napoleon

There is no reliable information about Napoleon's plans after the capture of Moscow. He said that it was impossible to stay in the city for the winter, we had to look for other acceptable positions and move to St. Petersburg.

Kutuzov

Based on the testimony of French prisoners, Kutuzov concluded that Napoleon would move along the Smolensk road. He ordered all possible escape routes from Moscow to be placed under round-the-clock surveillance. At this time, the northern borders were being strengthened. A detailed analysis of all the events taking place on the fronts was presented by Kutuzov to the Tsar. He provided a plan to expel Napoleon from Russian territory. Showing ingenuity and foresight, the commander-in-chief guessed Napoleon's intentions.

From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets

• In October, a convoy of the French army stretched along the Kaluga road to Smolensk. Napoleon was leaving Moscow. There was a large food base in Smolensk. But the path was blocked by Kutuzov’s army.
• The French had very few horses left, respectively, artillery and cavalry. Realizing that it was impossible to break through the Russians, Napoleon decided to bypass the Russians near the village of Troitsky. But Kutuzov managed to cut off this route of retreat.
• A heavy battle took place in the Maloyaroslavets area. As a result, the city was occupied by the French. Kutuzov created fortified lines outside the city. The advantage in the number of soldiers, equipment, and cavalry was on the side of Russia.
• The Cossacks continued to raid French convoys. As a result of one of them, Kutuzov himself almost suffered. He circled his positions. Realizing that there was no way to delay, the French began a meeting on the army's further actions. Murat suggested going back. Opinions differed and Napoleon, after thinking for a long time, nevertheless ordered a retreat. We had to return along the already ruined, plundered road. We walked along the road along which we had previously moved with victories.

From Maloyaroslavets to Berezina

The Russians, under the command of Miloradovich, pursued the French all the way to Krasnoye Selo. The Cossacks and partisans did not give them a break. The supply of troops has deteriorated greatly. Kutuzov at this time was moving south. The next battle took place near Vyazma. The units bringing up the rear of the retreating army suffered greatly.

On November 8, the army stopped in Smolensk for 5 days. The lagging troops were waiting. There were about 45,000 combat-ready soldiers left, and the same number of wounded and unarmed. Napoleon's hope of replenishing food supplies in Smolensk collapsed. Crowds of hungry soldiers destroyed everything that remained in the city. The army quartermaster was shot. The second quartermaster justified himself, citing the legendary Praskovya, the commander of the partisan detachment.

The partisan detachments defeated the Augereau brigade. More than 60 officers and 1,500 soldiers were captured.

The position of Napoleon's army was getting worse every day. The Danube Army was concentrated in the south, and General Wittgenstein was in the north. Vitebsk was captured, where food supplies remained.

If the vanguard of the French army left Smolensk on November 14, the rearguard left the city only on November 17. Kutuzov was able to take advantage of the greatly stretched enemy army. The battle on November 18 ended with a breakthrough of Napoleonic soldiers. But their losses were enormous.

The Danube Army, having liberated Minsk, completely deprived the French of a rear center. The crossing of the Berezina was in doubt. Admiral Chigarov with his army controlled all approaches to possible crossing points.
On November 24, the French, having broken away from the Russians, stood by the river.

From Berezina to Neman

Northern direction

As a result of the battles for Polotsk, Wittgenstein's army came dangerously close to the rear of the French. Napoleon was already retreating from Moscow. Victor's corps went to his aid from the city of Smolensk. He was just transferred from European countries as a reserve. The number of soldiers in both armies was almost equal. On October 31 a battle took place and the French were forced to retreat south.

On November 7, Wittgenstein took Vitebsk. 300 French surrendered. All food intended for the retreating troops was captured.
Marshal Victor attempted to attack Wittgenstein's soldiers, trying to drive them beyond the Dvina, but this was unsuccessful. The troops remained in their positions until Napoleon's approach. The French armies united, and Victor took up the rearguard.

MacDonald's corps was located near Riga. The Russians, being in their positions, only occasionally made forays behind enemy lines. But on November 15, MacDonald suddenly attacked and inflicted heavy damage on the Russian detachment. The corps headed to Prussia only after Napoleon had completely left Russian territory.

South direction

Chichagov's army, which numbered 38,000 people, arrived on the southern front. Teaming up with General Tormasov, they forced Schwarzenberg to retreat from Lutsk. The army, after a two-week rest, moved to Minsk. Schwarzenberg began pursuit. After conducting several successful skirmishes with the French, he managed to get behind Napoleon's rear and occupy Minsk. He approached the Berezina River, where he marked Napoleon's crossing.

Collaborationism in the War of 1812

There were cases of collaboration on Russian soil during the occupation. The Archbishop from Mogilev immediately at the end of July 1812 swore an oath of allegiance to Napoleon. Most of the clergy swore allegiance to him. In the territories where partisan detachments were created, there were also cases of betrayal. Russian officers very rarely went over to the enemy’s side. The cornet of the dragoon regiment began to collaborate with the French in the summer of 1812. When he was captured by the Russians, he was shot.

Results of the Patriotic War

The main result of the war was the absolute victory of the Russian army over Napoleon's army. Military historian Clausewitz believes that an army of 610,000 soldiers entered Russia. Only about 30,000 reached Prussia. All were in deplorable condition, many soon died from various diseases.
Those officers who remained alive in the Russian company joined the French army in 1813.

Napoleon's losses amounted to approximately 580,000 soldiers, more than 1.2 thousand guns.
Russian losses amounted to approximately 210,000 soldiers.

At the very beginning of 1913, hostilities continued in Germany. Napoleon was finally defeated near Leipzig in October.
April 1814 was marked by Napoleon's abdication of the throne.

Causes of defeat

Most often called:
. a manifestation of the heroism and steadfastness of the Russian army;
. the vast territory of Russia;
. severe frost;
. the intelligence and foresight of Kutuzov and the Russian generals.

Another very important reason for Napoleon’s defeat was the unification of the entire Russian people to defend their homeland.

The fact that the Russians abandoned the plan to give battle near their border forced Napoleon to urgently change his plans. And the offensive deep into Russian territories, beyond the borders of supply bases, was fatal for Napoleon.

Russian generals, led by Kutuzov, tried to preserve the army. Napoleon's plans for a quick victory near the Russian borders did not come true.

The further the French army moved from the Neman, the worse the supply became. The army was overstretched and the foraging teams were undisciplined. The Russian population did not want to give food to the French. Guerrilla warfare played a role in the collapse of the supply system. Famine began, which made a pitiful semblance of a combat-ready army.

Frost continued the destruction of soldiers and officers. The Russian army, retreating almost all the time, took the French to its border.

Early consequences of war

• Russia's victory over Napoleon helped the coalition defeat France. Russia's prestige in international politics has risen to a high level. It enabled Russia to influence Europe.
• But if everything was fine at the foreign policy level, the internal state left much to be desired. The socio-economic system has not been changed. But the peasants who passed through Europe saw that there was no longer serfdom anywhere. The year 1812 ended, and serfdom was still not abolished. Peasant uprisings began. The formation of an opposition began among the progressive nobility.
• After the victory, the people's desire for freedom intensified. This led to the Decembrist uprising.
• During Napoleon's invasion, culture began to develop in Russia. Pushkin might not have existed if there had not been the War of 1812.
• Many prisoners of war from Napoleon's army remained on Russian territory. They accepted citizenship and began to work for the benefit of Russia. Former captured Poles became Siberian Cossacks. They were given the opportunity to return to Poland, but many remained on Russian soil and started families. Later they were able to obtain the ranks of officers. There were also those who had a good European education. They began teaching in the cadet corps. The descendants of former prisoners of war did not stand out from the mass of the population. Only the surname could give away the origin.
• The Patriotic War remains in the memory of the Russian people. She helped during the difficult years of the Great Patriotic War, when it was hard. When they retreated and died, especially in the first years of the war.

Memory of the war

Alexander I issued a decree that Christmas, which is celebrated on December 25, will simultaneously be Victory Day.

The war was reflected in various ways in works of art, architecture, and scientific works. 15,000 books have already been written on the topic of the War of 1812. Monuments have been erected throughout the country. The Winter Palace displays portraits of more than 300 generals who took part in the war. Historical reconstructions of the battle are shown on the Borodino field. It is difficult to overestimate the novel “War and Peace” and the film of the same name by S. Bondarchuk. The Central Bank of Russia issued a silver coin in honor of the victory in the War of 1812.

100th anniversary of Victory

In 1912, the Russian government tracked down 25 eyewitnesses to the hostilities. 14 of them were direct participants in the fighting. 1 ruble was issued for the solemn date.

200th anniversary of the Victory

The grand opening of the Museum of the Patriotic War took place in Moscow. The Don Cossacks rode on horseback from Moscow to Paris, repeating the glorious campaign of their ancestors. Walking through the battlefields, they bowed to the graves of fallen Russian soldiers and officers.

More wars, battles, battles, riots and uprisings in Russia:

The unity of all layers of the Russian people in the war with Napoleon was the key to the triumph of Russian weapons over a powerful enemy and the growth of the country's authority.

Causes of the war

• The desire of Napoleon 1 to establish world hegemony, which was impossible without the complete defeat and subjugation of England and Russia.
• Exacerbation of contradictions between Russia and France caused by:

— Russia’s failure to comply with the terms of the continental blockade, which did not meet its national interests;

- Napoleon’s support of anti-Russian sentiments in the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which advocated the restoration of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth within the old borders, which posed a threat to the territorial integrity of Russia;

- Russia’s loss of previous influence in Central Europe as a result of the conquests of France, as well as Napoleon’s actions aimed at undermining its international authority;

— France’s incitement of Turkey and Iran to war with Russia;

- the increase in personal hostility between Alexander 1 and Napoleon before the start of the Patriotic War of 1812;

— growing dissatisfaction of the Russian nobility with the results of Alexander’s foreign policy.

Russian plans to restore monarchical regimes and old orders in countries occupied by Napoleon or under his control.

Preparation of the parties and the balance of forces in the Patriotic War of 1812

Military plans of the parties. Napoleon wanted to defeat the Russian army in a border battle and impose an enslaving peace treaty on Russia, which provided for the separation of a number of territories from it and entry into an anti-English political alliance with France.

Russian troops, according to the plan of General K.L. Fuhl, intended to lure Napoleon’s army into the interior of the country, cut off from supply lines and defeat it in the area of ​​​​the fortified Drissky camp.

Diplomatic training. Napoleon created a powerful anti-Russian coalition, which included Austria, Prussia, the Netherlands, Italy, the Duchy of Warsaw, and the German states. True, a powerful popular uprising broke out in Spain, diverting significant French military forces to suppress it.

Russia, forced under Napoleon's pressure to declare war on Sweden in 1808, which violated the continental blockade, managed to win a victory in 1809 and annex Finland under the Treaty of Friedrichsham. According to the Bucharest Peace Treaty with Turkey (1812), she also secured her southern flank. In addition, on the eve of the Napoleonic invasion, a secret mutual assistance agreement was concluded with Sweden, and Turkey took a neutral position during the war, which can also be attributed to the successes of Russian diplomacy. However, apart from England, Russia had no allies at the beginning of the war.

The balance of armed forces. The French army was one of the strongest in Europe, including because Napoleon put an end to medieval conscription and introduced universal conscription with 5 years of service. Napoleon's “Grand Army”, which invaded Russia, was led, in addition to the French emperor, by talented commanders Lan, Ney, Murat, Oudinot, MacDonald and others. It numbered up to 60,000 people and was multinational in its composition. Only half of it was French. Possessing rich combat experience, having seasoned soldiers in its ranks, including the “old guard,” it at the same time lost some of the qualities of the times of defending the gains of the revolution and the struggle for independence, turning into an army of conquerors.

During the War of 1812, Russia had an army of 590 thousand people. But she could oppose Napoleon with only about 300 thousand soldiers, dispersed into three main groups along its western borders (the army of Barclay de Tolly, who also served as Minister of War, P.I. Bagration and A.P. Tormasov). But the fighting qualities of the Russian soldiers who stood up to defend their homeland turned out to be superior to those of the invaders. The commander-in-chief of the Russian army at the beginning of the war was Alexander I himself.

The course of military operations in the Patriotic War of 1812

First stage(From the beginning of the invasion to the Battle of Borodino). On June 12, 1812, Napoleon's troops crossed the river. Neman. Their main task was to prevent the unification of the armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration and to defeat them separately. Retreating with fighting and maneuvering, the Russian armies with great difficulty managed to unite near Smolensk, but under the threat of encirclement, after bloody battles on August 6, they were forced to leave the destroyed and burning city. Already at this stage of the war, Alexander 1, trying to make up for the shortage of troops and taking into account the rise in patriotic sentiments of society and the people, issued orders to create a people's militia and launch a guerrilla war. Yielding to public opinion, he signed an order appointing M.K. Kutuzov, whom he personally disliked, as commander-in-chief of the Russian army.

Thus, the first stage was characterized by the superiority of the aggressor’s forces and the occupation of Russian territories. In addition to Moscow, Napoleonic corps moved to Kyiv, where they were stopped by Tormasov, and to Riga. But Napoleon never achieved a decisive victory, because his plans were thwarted. In addition, the war, even without the manifestos of Alexander 1, began to acquire a nationwide, “domestic” character.

Second phase(from Borodino to the battle for Maloyaroslavets). On August 26, 1812, the famous Battle of Borodino began, during which the French troops fiercely attacked, and the Russians bravely defended themselves.

Both sides suffered heavy losses. Subsequently, Napoleon assessed it as the most “terrible” of all the battles he fought and believed that “the French showed themselves worthy of victory in it, and the Russians acquired the right to be invincible.” Napoleon's main goal - the defeat of the Russian army - was again not achieved, but the Russians, not having the strength to continue the battle, retreated from the battlefield in the morning. -> After a meeting in Fili near Moscow, the army leadership decided to leave Moscow. The population began to leave the city, fires broke out in Moscow, military warehouses were destroyed or taken away, and partisans operated in the surrounding area.

As a result of a skillful maneuver, the Russian army escaped the pursuit of the French and settled down for rest and replenishment in a camp near Tfutino south of Moscow, covering the Tula arms factories and the war-ravaged southern grain provinces. Napoleon, while in Moscow, tried to make peace with Russia, but Alexander 1 showed fortitude and rejected all his proposals. It was dangerous to remain in devastated Moscow; fermentation began in the “Great Army,” and on October 7 Napoleon moved his army to Kaluga.

On October 12, near Maloyaroslavets, he was met by Kutuzov’s troops and, after a fierce battle, forced to retreat to the Smolensk road devastated by the war. From this moment on, the strategic initiative passed to the Russian army. In addition, as Leo Tolstoy put it, the “club of the people’s war” was actively working - partisan detachments created both by landowners and peasants, and by the Russian command, inflicted significant blows on the enemy.

Third stage(from Maloyaroslavets to the defeat of the “Great Army” and the liberation of Russian territory). Moving to the West, losing people from clashes with flying cavalry units, disease and hunger, Napoleon brought only 50 thousand people to Smolensk. Kutuzov’s army followed a parallel course, and all the time threatened to cut off the route to retreat. In the battles near the village of Krasnoye and on the Berezina River, the French army was virtually defeated. Napoleon handed over command of the remnants of his troops to Murat, and he himself hurried to Paris.

Reasons for victory in the Patriotic War of 1812

The national liberation, popular character of the war, which manifested itself:

— in the fortitude and courage of Russian soldiers and officers who selflessly defended their Fatherland;

- in the deployment of a partisan movement that caused significant damage to the enemy;

- in the nationwide patriotic upsurge of the country, the readiness of representatives of all classes for self-sacrifice

• The high level of military art of Russian military leaders
• Significant economic potential of Russia, which made it possible to create a large and armed army
• The loss of the French army's best fighting qualities, Napoleon's reluctance and inability to find support among the peasant masses due to their liberation from serfdom.
• England and Spain made a certain contribution to Russia's victory, diverting Napoleon's significant forces for the war with Spain at sea.

Foreign campaign 1813-1814. and the post-war world order after the Patriotic War of 1812

The end of the war. The liberation of Russia provided guarantees against Napoleon's new aggression. A modern, classless army of a new type, universal conscription, and the presence of trained, served, and experienced reservists allowed France to form new corps.

Therefore, in January 1813 Russian troops entered the territory of Central Europe. Prussia and then Austria switched to the side of Russia. Napoleon fought with the passion of a doomed man and inflicted a number of defeats on his allies. But in the decisive battle near Leipzig (October 1813), called the “Battle of the Nations,” he was defeated. At the beginning of 1814 the allies crossed the borders of France. Soon Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba.

Post-war world.

Congress of Vienna. In September 1814 Delegations of the victorious countries gathered in Vienna both to resolve controversial territorial issues and to discuss the future of Europe. The acute disagreements that arose were pushed into the background when in March 1815. Napoleon returned to power for a short period of time (“one hundred days”). The reconstituted coalition defeated his troops at the Battle of Waterloo (June 1815), and territorial disputes were resolved as follows: Saxony passed to Prussia, and the main part of the Duchy of Warsaw with its capital went to Russia. In European countries, the former monarchical regimes were restored, but serfdom, which was swept away in a number of countries (including Prussia) during the Napoleonic Wars, was not restored.

The Holy Alliance was created in September 1815. It included all the monarchies of Europe, but Russia, Prussia and Austria played a key role. The goals of the union were:

• in protecting the state borders established by the Congress of Vienna, declared inviolable.
• in the defense of so-called legitimate monarchies and the suppression of revolutionary national liberation movements.

Conclusions:

As a result of the War of 1812, many people died, and the Russian economy and culture suffered enormous damage.

Victory in the war united Russian society, caused a rise in national self-awareness, and led to the development of a social movement and social thought, including opposition. The Decembrists called themselves “children of 1812.”

On the other hand, it strengthened the country's ruling circles in the idea of ​​the strength and even superiority of the Russian social system, and therefore the unnecessaryness of reforms, and thereby strengthened the conservative tendency in domestic politics.

Russian troops marched through Paris with victories along with the armies of the Allies, which unusually raised the international authority of Russia, turned it into a powerful military power, which gave rise to Social movements under Nicholas I.

Due to new acquisitions, the population expanded. But, having included the lands of “Greater Poland” in its composition, it acquired a very painful Polish problem for many years, due to the undying struggle of the Polish people for national independence

Introduction

Relevance. The Patriotic War of 1812 is one of the most outstanding events in the history of our Motherland. The heroic struggle of the Russian people against Napoleon led his army to defeat, which began the decline of Napoleonic power in Europe.

The War of 1812 caused an unprecedented surge in national self-awareness among the Russian people. Everyone defended their Fatherland: from young to old. By winning this war, the Russian people confirmed their courage and heroism, and showed an example of self-sacrifice for the good of the Motherland.

There are many studies, both domestic and foreign authors, devoted to the war of 1812, which indicates that the war of 1812 had not only pan-European, but also global significance: the clash of two major powers - Russia and France - involved others in the war European states and led to the creation of a new system of international relations.

Thus, realizing the significance of the Patriotic War of 1812, which played a crucial role in the fate of the Russian people and Russia as a whole, topic Our abstract was "The Patriotic War of 1812".

Target: conduct a historical analysis of the main aspects of the Patriotic War of 1812: causes, course of events and consequences.

To achieve this goal, we set the following tasks:

1. Consider the causes of the War of 1812.

2. Cover the course of battles.

3. Identify the consequences of the War of 1812.

Prerequisites for the outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812

The main prerequisite for the outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812 was the desire of the French bourgeoisie for world domination, the creator of whose aggressive policy was Napoleon Bonaparte, who did not hide his claims to world domination: " Three more years and I'm the master of the whole world"(1, pp. 477-503).

Napoleon Bonaparte, having proven himself an outstanding military leader during the French Revolution and becoming emperor in 1804, by 1812 was at the zenith of his power and glory. Almost all European powers (except England) by this time had either been defeated by Napoleon, or were close to it (like Spain).

Napoleon set as his ultimate goal the crushing of the economic and political power of England, which was a long-time rival of France, which was more economically developed than France. But in order to break England, Napoleon had to make the entire European continent dependent on himself. And only Russia remained on the path to achieving this goal.

Thus, by 1812, the fate of the peoples of Europe, including England, largely depended on Russia, on whether it would withstand the unprecedented invasion of the French army.

The conflict between Russia and France over the continental blockade of England also contributed to the outbreak of the war. The industrial bourgeoisie of France needed the complete ousting of Great Britain from European markets. The Russian Empire, under the terms of the Tilsit Peace Treaty of 1807, had to break off trade relations with England, but Russia poorly observed the continental blockade, as this had a detrimental effect on the Russian economy, since England was its main trading partner.

Patriotic War Battle of Borodino

Due to forced participation in the continental blockade of England, the volume of Russian foreign trade in 1808-1812. decreased by 43%, in 1809 the budget deficit increased almost 13 times compared to 1801. Things were heading towards the financial collapse of Russia. France could not compensate for this damage, since economic ties between Russia and France were superficial, mainly the import of luxury goods (2, pp. 27-50).

In addition, in August 1810, the French emperor increased duties on goods imported to France, which had an even worse impact on Russia's foreign trade.

Due to the continental blockade, Russian landowners and merchants were closed to trade routes to the northern seas, as well as to the east and the Black Sea due to the Russo-Turkish War, and they could not pay taxes to the treasury, and this led to the financial collapse of Russia. To normalize foreign trade turnover, Alexander I in December 1810 issued a prohibitive customs tariff, almost completely limiting the import of French goods.

Thus, the continental blockade was one of the main reasons for the outbreak of the War of 1812.

The tense international situation also contributed to the outbreak of the war. The main contradictions in political issues between Russia and France were related to Polish and German issues: Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw on Polish lands that belonged to Prussia, which posed a constant external threat to the Russian Empire; The essence of the German question was that Napoleon annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg to France, which infringed on the dynastic interests of tsarism.

In addition, there was a clash of interests between Russia and France in the Middle East: the Russian Empire sought to capture Constantinople, and Napoleon, who wanted to preserve Turkey as Russia’s enemy in the east, prevented this.

Thus, the main reasons for the contradictions between France and Russia that gave rise to the War of 1812 were: the economic difficulties that Russia experienced after being forced to participate in the continental blockade of England; political contradictions between France and Russia; the negative mood of court circles and the inflammatory anti-French activities of the City of London; Napoleon's aggressive policy is the desire of the French bourgeoisie for world domination.