Psychology is the science of the psyche. Psychology as a science. Subject of psychology Psychology as a science questions

Test
Discipline: "Psychology"

"Psychology as a Science"

Completed:

3rd year student of North-West Technical University

Pavlov A.A.

Introduction 3

1. Psychology as a science 4

1.1. The emergence and development of psychology 4

1.2. Branches of psychology 5

1.3. Methods of psychological research 6

2. Stages of development of psychology 12

2.1. The origins of psychology as a science 12

2.2. Basic psychological schools 13

2.3. Evolution of schools and directions 14

References 16

Introduction

The human psyche is complex and diverse. Since ancient times, philosophers have tried to penetrate its depths. From the simple, people came to the complex gradually. Previously, psychologists believed that a person has only consciousness, and all his actions are subject to it. Consciousness determines desires, motivation of a person’s actions, etc. This is what representatives of classical psychology believed.

But time did not stand still; it demanded new discoveries, new answers to old questions. Even ancient philosophers tried to explain where dreams come from, what they mean, why a person dreams, makes reservations, mistakes, how does a person automate movements? The “omnipotent” consciousness was unable to answer these and some other questions. And then the unconscious came onto the scene as a kind of piggy bank of all the secret and repressed desires and thoughts of a person. Unconsciousness is inaccessible to consciousness; they coexist separately, as if next door.

If the boundaries between mental (virtual) reality and objective reality were blurred, then the integrity and adequacy of the psyche would be violated. A conscious person is often unaware of the desires and thoughts stored in the unconscious.

1. Psychology as a science

1.1. The emergence and development of psychology

Psychology is the science of the laws of development and functioning of the psyche. The interaction of all living beings with the surrounding world is carried out through a special kind of mental processes and states. These special processes are inseparable from physiological processes, but cannot be reduced to them. For many centuries, these amazing and mysterious phenomena were designated by the general term “soul” and were considered the product of a higher entity - God. In the views of the ancients, the soul was interpreted animalistically, i.e. as a special ethereal entity that inhabits the human body. But Aristotle already proposed an interpretation of the soul as a way of organizing a living body and its behavior, which served as a powerful stimulus for the development of scientific views in the field of the psyche in the West.

Having emerged as a branch of philosophical science, psychology has been inextricably linked with it for more than two millennia. Within the framework of philosophy, a huge amount of knowledge has been accumulated about various mental processes and states, the processes of perception and cognition of the surrounding world, emotional processes, mechanisms of development of mental phenomena have been studied, and attempts have been made to typology of people. The biological basis of the psyche has been studied in medical science. Much knowledge about the psyche has been accumulated in astrology, the so-called occult sciences.

Since that time, the development of psychological science has progressed by leaps and bounds. Already at the end of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century, many psychological schools appeared, differing in their approaches to understanding the nature of the psyche: functionalism, behaviorism, reflexology, psychoanalysis, humanistic schools, Gestalt psychology. The presence of a large number of schools emphasizes the complexity of the tasks facing psychology and the possibility of interpreting mental phenomena from various theoretical positions. At the same time, when studying certain mental processes and states, an eclectic approach is often used, synthesizing the points of view of various schools.

1.2. Branches of psychology

Modern psychology is a branched system of relatively independent scientific disciplines related to various types of human activity. These disciplines are called branches of psychology. The emergence of many industries is associated with the accumulation of a huge amount of scientific facts and the need for their more strict systematization, as well as with the peculiarities of the functioning of the psyche when performing various types of activities. Many of the industries are in turn subdivided into a number of more specialized disciplines with a narrower subject of study.

So, for example, medical psychology, which studies the psychological aspects of the doctor’s activity and the patient’s behavior, is subdivided within itself into neuropsychology, which studies the relationship of mental phenomena with the physiology of the brain; psychopharmacology, which studies the effect of drugs on human mental activity; psychotherapy, which studies and uses means of mental influence on the patient; psychoprophylaxis and mental hygiene, developing a system of preventive measures that prevent the development of psychopathologies.

The following branches of psychology are distinguished:

* general psychology- studies the general patterns of mental activity of an adult;

* age-related psychology- explores the features of mental development at various age stages; in turn, the mental characteristics of children and schoolchildren of various ages are studied by the branch of developmental psychology, which is called child psychology;

* pedagogical psychology- deals with the psychological characteristics of training and education;

social psychology - studies relationships between people in groups;

* work psychology- considers the psychological characteristics of various types of work activity, etc.

The emergence of new types of activity determines the emergence of a corresponding branch of psychology. For example, due to the need to study the psyche of people during space flight, such a branch as space psychology appeared.

1.3. Methods of psychological research

Psychology, like other sciences, uses various methods to collect scientific information. But the specificity of the object of research - the human psyche - leaves its mark both on the possibilities of using a particular method and on its effectiveness.

Let us consider the advantages and disadvantages of the main methods of psychological research.

Observation

Observation- historically the most ancient method, used by almost all sciences. Various modifications of this method have been used in psychology: self-observation, objective observation, which can be direct and indirect, direct and indirect, included and external, natural and laboratory, systematic and exploratory.

Self-observation or “introspection” is the observer’s study of himself, his inner world, and various mental reactions.

For a long time, among thinkers involved in the study of psychic phenomena, there was a widespread opinion that it is impossible to study the psyche from the outside, because it is a world closed in itself, accessible only to itself.

The advantage of this method is its high information content and ease of use. But as scientific psychology developed, numerous negative aspects of introspection emerged, the main ones being the inability to verify results and extreme subjectivity in the interpretation of mental facts. With the advent of the first ideas about the unconscious and its influence on behavior and, in general, on the entire mental life of an individual, it became obvious that the reliability of this method is very limited. This is precisely what explains the transition in psychological knowledge to objective methods, of which the simplest are various types of observation.

Direct observation involves contact between the researcher and the object of observation.

With indirect observation, the researcher gets acquainted with the observed object in absentia, through various documents, for example, diaries, autobiographies, and creative results. An example is Z. Freud's analysis of F. Dostoevsky's personality based on his works or E. Fromm's analysis of Hitler's personality based on the testimony of his associates and known biographical facts.

Direct observation provides information about processes that can be assessed qualitatively and quantitatively.

Indirect observation is used when we want to use objective methods to study processes that cannot be directly observed, for example, the degree of fatigue of a person. In this case, we can judge the severity of this process only indirectly, for example, by changes in the degree of concentration of attention, by the number of mistakes made.

With participant observation, the researcher becomes part of the observed team.

During third-party observation, the researcher does not come into contact with the observed situation.

Natural observation occurs under normal conditions, and laboratory observation occurs under artificially created or significantly altered conditions.

Systematic observation involves studying the specific aspect of behavior that the study is intended to examine.

Exploratory observation is not subject to a specific goal, but often changes the entire picture of the study if the original hypothesis was incorrect.

The advantages of observation are obvious, but various errors in assessing the observed facts are also possible, associated with various effects known to psychology, for example, the halo effect and the Pygmalion effect.

The Pygmalion effect lies in the fact that when putting forward an initial hypothesis, the researcher then tends to involuntarily interpret the observed facts in its favor.

The halo effect, or gala effect, leads to inappropriate generalization of specific impressions of the researcher and transfer of assessments from one situation to another.

In addition, the observer can interpret mental facts from the point of view of the basic tenets of the psychological school to which he belongs, or he may be subject to various kinds of prejudices concerning, for example, the abilities of women for certain types of activities (so-called sexism) or concerning the dependence of the characteristics of functioning psyche from belonging to a particular race, nationality, sociocultural group, etc.

Experiment

An experiment called a method in which the researcher himself causes the phenomenon under study.

Most often, when conducting an experiment, subjects are randomly or according to some criteria divided into two groups - an experimental group, for which modified operating conditions are created, and a control group, which is not subject to such changes. These precautions are necessary to ensure that the observed manifestations of the psyche are associated with altered conditions and not with some other factors.

In modern psychology, experiment is the main research method, which does not mean that its use is absolutely reliable. Distortions called Rosenthal and Hawthorne effects are associated with the use of experiments in practice.

The Rosenthal effect is associated with the experimenter's expectations. When the experimenter is deeply convinced that the subjects' reactions will change, he involuntarily conveys his expectations to the subjects in various non-verbal (non-verbal) ways, and this can influence their behavior.

The Hawthorne effect occurs when subjects know the initial hypothesis. In this case, there is a high probability that they will behave in accordance with the experimenter's expectations. A special case of the Hawthorne effect is the placebo effect, in which doctors who are convinced of the effectiveness of a drug transfer their belief to patients, and as a result, the expected improvement in health occurs, although in fact the drug does not have such an effect.

Questionnaires and tests

To obtain large amounts of information, questionnaires are used, which is a modification of another method - conversation. During the survey, subjects are offered a carefully designed questionnaire. The researcher then uses the answers to judge the presence or absence of certain mental properties.

Tests allow you to quantitatively measure various mental characteristics: for example, intelligence, attention, mental operations, memory, as well as various mental states, such as anxiety, frustration, depression.

Along with verbal tests, various non-verbal tests are used, for example, the Rosenzweig drawing test, aimed at studying the individual’s reactions in response to a traumatic situation.

Projective techniques

Projective techniques are based on the ability of individuals to attribute their own states and qualities to presented objects.

The best known is the Rorschach inkblot technique, during which subjects are presented with cards with standard inkblots of various colors and, based on what they see in them, the realism of perception, level of anxiety, and emotional state are assessed.

When carrying out other projective techniques, subjects are asked to draw a house, a tree, a person, a non-existent animal, and the features of the drawing are used to judge the state of the individual’s psyche.

There are also verbal projective techniques, for example, the “Unfinished Sentence” technique, in which the researcher offers subjects the beginning of a sentence that they must complete.

2. Stages of development of psychology

The subject of psychology is the natural connections of the subject with the natural and sociocultural world, imprinted in the system of sensory and mental images of this world, motives that awaken action, as well as in the actions themselves, experiences of their relationships to other people and to themselves, in the properties of the individual as the core of this system .

A) Animism– an ancient idea of ​​​​the surrounding world (from the Latin “anima” - soul, spirit) – belief in what is hidden behind visible things.

B) Hylozoism– transition from antiquity (from the Greek “hyle” - substance, matter and “zoe” - life). Hylozoism was the first to place the soul (psyche) under the general laws of nature.

IN) Heraclitus and the idea of ​​the development of law (logos).“Logos” - introduced by Heraclitus - which means law. “The small world (microcosm) of an individual soul is similar to the macrocosm of the entire world order.”

2.1. The origins of psychology as a science

At the beginning of the 19th century, new approaches to the psyche began to take shape. Müller (1801-1858) formed the “law of specific energy of the sense organs.” Psychophysics was discovered by the physiologist Weber (1795-1878). Dondres (1818-1889) was engaged in experiments to study the speed of mental processes.

“Direct experience” was recognized as a unique subject of psychology, not studied by any other discipline. The main method is introspection: the subject’s observation of processes in his consciousness. Sechenov I.M. (1829-1905) studied the nature of the psyche.

Self-regulation of the body’s behavior through signals – this was the physiological basis of Sechenov’s scheme of mental activity.

2.2. Main psychological schools

The more successful experimental work went in psychology, the more extensive the field of its phenomena being studied became, the more rapidly grew dissatisfaction with the versions that unique subject of this science consciousness serves, and method– inpersia.

A) Functionalism.

William James (1842-1910) was at the origins. He is known as a leader of the pragmatist philosophy, which evaluates ideas and theories based on how they work in practice to benefit the individual.

B) Reflexology.

Pavlov introduced the principle of convention into this concept. Hence its main term – conditioned reflex.

IN) Behaviorism.

The credo of this movement is captured in the term “behavior” (English “behavior”), and it itself was called behaviorism. His “father” is considered to be Watson, who in 1913 outlined the manifesto of the new school.

G) Psychoanalysis.

Freud (1856-1939) can be considered the founder; like many other classics of modern psychology, he spent many years studying the central nervous system, acquiring a solid reputation as a specialist in the field of psychoanalysis. The main one among these processes was recognized as the energy of attraction of a sexual nature.

D) Psychoanalytic attraction.

Created by Freud's students and associates: K. Jung (1875-1961) and A. Adler (1870-1937). Jung called his psychology analytical, Adler - individual.

2.3. Evolution of schools and directions

A) Neo-behaviourism.

Tolman E. (1886-1956) - the formula of behavior should consist not of two, but of three members, and therefore look like this: stimulus (independent variable) - intermediate variables - dependent variable (response). The middle link (intermediate variables) is nothing more than psychological aspects that are unacceptable to direct observation: expectations, attitudes, knowledge. Another option belongs to Hal (1884-1952) and his school. He introduced the “stimulus-response” formula, as well as an additional link to the body’s needs (nutritional, sexual, etc.)

B) Operant behaviorism.

Skinner called the conditioned reflex operant. The work of Skinner, like other behaviorists, has enriched knowledge about the general rules for developing skills, the role of reinforcement (which serves as an indispensable motive for these skills), and the dynamics of the transition from one form of behavior to another.

IN) Vygotsky. Theory of higher mental functions.

All of Vygodsky’s thoughts were focused on putting an end to the version of “two psychologies”, which regarded a person and made him involved in different worlds.

Conclusion

Having emerged as a branch of philosophical science, psychology has been inextricably linked with it for more than two millennia. Within the framework of philosophy, a huge amount of knowledge has been accumulated about various mental processes and states, the processes of perception and cognition of the surrounding world, emotional processes, mechanisms of development of mental phenomena have been studied, and attempts have been made to typology of people.

The biological basis of the psyche has been studied in medical science. Much knowledge about the psyche has been accumulated in astrology, the so-called occult sciences.

The accumulation of knowledge about the nature and mechanisms of mental functioning occurred at two levels: empirical (experimental) and theoretical, and led in the second half of the 19th century to the emergence of psychology as an independent science. The emergence of scientific psychology is associated with the name of W. Wundt, who in 1879 created the largest psychological school, called structuralist.

Bibliography

    Blum G. Psychoanalytic theories of personality. – M.: KSP, 2002. – 247 p.

    Introduction to psychology / Ed. ed. prof. A.V.Petrovsky. – M.: Publishing Center “Academy”, 1996. – 496 p.

    Godefroy J. What is psychology: In 2 volumes. T. 1. - M.: Mir, 1992, - 496 p.

    James W. Psychology / Ed. L. A. Petrovskaya. – M.: Pedagogy, 2000. – 368 p.

    Zhmurov V. A. Psychopathology. Part II. Psychopathological syndromes: Textbook. – Irkutsk: Irkut Publishing House. University, 1994. – 304 p.

    Leontyev A. N. Activity, consciousness, personality. – M.: Education, 1975. – 304 p.

    Kon I. S. Sociology of personality. – M.: Publishing House of Political Literature, 1967. – 243 p.

Theoretical origins psychology(from the Greek psyche - soul, logos - word, concept, teaching) as a separate field of knowledge we find in ancient Greek philosophy more than two thousand years ago. In his treatise On the Soul, Aristotle first put forward the idea of ​​the inseparability of the soul and the living body. He distinguishes the rational and unreasonable parts of the soul. The irrational part is divided into plant (vegetative) and animal. The rational part of the soul has its own levels: sensations, memory, will, concepts, reason. In 1590, Rudolf Gocklenius first used the term “psychology” to designate the science of the soul in the title of his work “Psychology, i.e. about the perfection of man, about the soul and, above all, about its origin.” But the term “psychology” became generally accepted only in the 18th century. after the appearance of Christian Wolf's works "Empirical Psychology" and "Rational Psychology", which became the first textbooks on psychology. Experimental, strictly scientific research into the human psyche began 150 years ago, when the German scientist Wilhelm Wundt created the first experimental psychological laboratory. Since that time, it has been customary to count down the history of psychology as an independent experimental science.

Let's highlight the main stages of the development of psychology, bearing in mind that the understanding of the object, subject and goals of psychology changed in the course of its historical development.

Stage I: psychology as the science of the soul. For many centuries, starting from Ancient Greece and including the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the soul has been the subject of discussion by philosophers and theologians, therefore, at this stage of development, understanding the soul was the subject of psychological knowledge.

Stage II (from the 17th century): psychology as the science of consciousness. The concept of “soul” began to turn into the concept of “consciousness”. The ways of forming human consciousness, the processes of knowing the world and oneself are the main scientific problem of psychology at this stage.

Stage III (XX century): psychology as the science of behavior. The task of psychology is to conduct experiments and observe human behavior and reactions, using objective methods of recording and analyzing externally observable reactions and human actions.

Stage IV (modern): psychology as a science that studies objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche. At the present stage, the object of psychology is the psyche as a natural phenomenon, a special case of which is the psyche of humans and animals.

The main object of psychology- a person as a subject, involved in many relationships with the physical, biological and social world, acting as a subject of activity, cognition, and communication. Psychology studies the inner world of subjective (mental) phenomena, processes and states, conscious or unconscious of the person himself, as well as his behavior. Thus, psychology today can be defined as scientific study of behavior and internal mental processes, and also how practical application of acquired knowledge.

Problems of psychology basically comes down to this:

  • o learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns;
  • o learn to manage them;
  • o use the acquired knowledge to improve the effectiveness of people in various fields of practice, as well as to improve the mental health, satisfaction and happiness of people in their daily life.

The place of psychology in the system of sciences. Branches of psychology

Academician B. M. Kedrov placed psychology in the center of the “triangle of sciences.” The top of this triangle is made up of the natural sciences, the lower left corner is the social sciences, and the lower right corner is the philosophical sciences (logic and epistemology). Mathematics is located between the natural sciences (natural) and philosophical sciences, and technical sciences are located between the natural and social sciences. Psychology occupies a central place, uniting all three groups of sciences. It acts both as a product of all other sciences and as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development (Fig. I).

Psychology is closely related to social (public) sciences, studying human behavior. Social sciences include psychology, social psychology, sociology, political science, economics, as well as anthropology and ethnography. They are joined by a group of other related

Natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry, mathematics, etc.)

Rice. 1.

disciplines: philosophy, history, cultural studies, art history, literary criticism, pedagogy, aesthetics. They are classified as humanities. Among the humanities, pedagogy has the deepest connections with psychology. Psychology is also closely related to natural sciences, primarily with physiology, biology, physics, biochemistry, medicine, mathematics. At their junction, related fields arise: psychophysiology, psychophysics, bionics, medical psychology, neuropsychology, pathopsychology, etc.

Thus, psychology is a science in which social, humanitarian and natural science knowledge are correlated, which determines its role foundation in the system of sciences. Psychology integrates data from these branches of scientific knowledge and, in turn, influences them, becoming a general model of human knowledge. The historical mission of psychology in modern times is to be an integrator of all spheres of human knowledge and the main means of constructing its general theory. Psychology fulfills the mission of combining the natural and social sciences in the study of man into a single concept.

Recently, the connections between psychology and technical sciences, related disciplines emerge: engineering psychology, ergonomics, space and aviation psychology, etc.

The field of psychological science is a highly branched system of theoretical and applied disciplines, developing on the borders with the sciences of nature, society and man. The reasons for this development may be different. On the one hand, the demands of the practical activities of people and society encourage the formation and development of new psychological disciplines, such as engineering psychology, space psychology, educational psychology, etc. This practical (empirical) reasons for the development of science. On the other hand, psychology includes new methods of research and knowledge. In particular, the use of physical methods in psychology gave rise to experimental psychology and psychophysics. In turn, the application of physiological methods in psychology shaped psychophysiology; the introduction of mathematical methods led to the formation of mathematical psychology, engineering psychology, and bionics. This cognitive (epistemological) reasons for the branching of psychological sciences. Today, according to various sources, there are at least one hundred branches of psychology.

The core of modern psychology is general psychology, which studies the most general laws, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche, includes theoretical concepts and experimental research. Traditionally, the branches of psychology include social, developmental, engineering, occupational psychology, clinical psychology and psychophysiology, and differential psychology. Zoopsychology studies the characteristics of the animal psyche. The human psyche is the subject of the following branches of psychology:

  • o genetic psychology studies the hereditary mechanisms of the psyche and behavior, their dependence on the genotype;
  • o differential psychology explores individual differences in the psyche of people, the prerequisites for their occurrence and the process of formation;
  • o age-related psychology studies the patterns of development of the psyche of a normal healthy person; psychological characteristics and patterns inherent in each age period, from infancy to old age, and in connection with this is divided into child psychology, psychology of youth and adulthood, psychology of old age (gerontopsychology);
  • o child psychology studies the development of consciousness, mental processes, activity, the entire personality of a growing person, the conditions for accelerating development;
  • o pedagogical psychology explores the patterns of personality development in the process of training and education;
  • o social Psychology studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person’s personality, his relationships with people, with the group; psychological compatibility of people, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups (the effect of radio, press, fashion, rumors on various communities of people).

We can distinguish a number of branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of human activity:

  • o work psychology examines the psychological characteristics of human labor activity, patterns of development of labor skills;
  • o engineering psychology studies the patterns of processes of interaction between humans and modern technology with the aim of using them in the practice of designing, creating and operating automated control systems and new types of technology;
  • o aviation, space psychology analyzes the psychological characteristics of the activities of a pilot and cosmonaut;
  • o medical psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor’s activities and the patient’s behavior, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy;
  • o clinical psychology explores the manifestations and causes of various disorders in the human psyche and behavior, as well as the mental changes that occur during various diseases. Clinical psychology includes as a separate section pathopsychology, which studies deviations in the development of the psyche, the breakdown of the psyche in various forms of brain pathology;
  • o legal psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the behavior of participants in criminal proceedings (psychology of testimony, psychological requirements for interrogation, etc.), psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the criminal’s personality;
  • o military psychology explores human behavior in combat conditions.

A controversial area is parapsychology, which studies the manifestations and mechanisms of unusual “paranormal” human abilities, such as telepathy, clairvoyance, telekinesis, etc.

Thus, modern psychology is characterized by a process differentiation, giving rise to its significant branching into separate branches, which often diverge very far and differ significantly from each other, although they retain general subject of study- facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche. The differentiation of psychology is complemented by a counter process integration, as a result, psychology connects with all sciences (through engineering psychology - with technical sciences, through educational psychology - with pedagogy, through social psychology - with social and social sciences, etc.).

In practical psychology, there is such an important area as psychological counseling on a variety of problems (unsettled personal life and troubles in the family, problems of relationships between spouses, parents and children, deviations in the development of children, difficulties in studying at school or at university, difficulties at work, choice of profession, conflicts with colleagues and management, etc.). Another area of ​​practical psychology is psychological correction and psychotherapy, aimed at providing psychological assistance to the client to neutralize and eliminate the causes of his deviations, disturbances in behavior, communication, interpretation of events and information.

Canadian scientist J. Godefroy identifies the following specialties of practicing psychologists: clinical psychologist, school psychologist, industrial psychologist, educational psychologist, ergonomist psychologist, consulting psychologist.

At identification the researcher imagines himself in the place of another person, as if mentally embodied in him. Unlike empathy, identification uses intellectual, logical operations: comparison, analysis, reasoning, etc.

3. Methods of psychological practice

Psychological practice in its tasks, methods, and forms represents diverse types of practices. It includes work with people with mental disabilities or problems, and is focused on working with representatives of communicative professions and people of different ages. It is impossible to describe all the methods and techniques used in modern psychological practice, especially since their arsenal is constantly expanding. The main ones are:

Psychotherapy;

Psychological consultation;

Psychocorrection;

Psychotraining, etc.

Choosing methods in psychology is not an easy matter. The study of complex socio-psychological phenomena, as a rule, should be based not on individual methods, but on their combination.

2. The place of psychology in the system of sciences

A person as a subject of research can be considered from various points of view: as a biological object, as a social being, as a bearer of consciousness. At the same time, each person is unique and has his own individuality. The variety of manifestations of man as a natural and social phenomenon has led to the emergence of a significant number of sciences that study man. Psychology as a field of humanitarian and anthropological knowledge is closely related to many sciences. It occupies an intermediate position between philosophical, natural, social and technical sciences.

First of all, it is necessary to dwell on the relationship between psychology and philosophy. Having become an independent science, psychology retained a close connection with philosophy. Today there are scientific problems and concepts that are considered both from the perspective of psychology and philosophy, for example, the meaning and purpose of life, worldview, political views, moral values, the essence and origin of human consciousness, the nature of human thinking, the influence of the individual on society and society on the individual and etc.

For a long time there was a fundamental division of philosophy into materialistic and idealistic. Most often, this opposition was antagonistic in nature, that is, there was a constant opposition of views and positions. For psychology, both of these main trends of philosophy have the same significance: materialist philosophy was the basis for the development of problems of activity and the origin of higher mental functions, the idealistic direction made it possible to study such concepts as, for example, responsibility, the meaning of life, conscience, spirituality. Consequently, the use of both directions of philosophy in psychology most fully reflects the dual essence of man, his biosocial nature.

Another science that, like psychology, studies problems related to the individual and society is sociology, which borrows from social psychology methods for studying personality and human relationships. At the same time, psychology widely uses traditional sociological methods of collecting information in its research, such as surveys and questionnaires. There are problems that psychologists and sociologists study together, such as relationships between people, the psychology of economics and state politics, the socialization of the individual, the formation and transformation of social attitudes, etc. Sociology and psychology are in close relationship both at the level of theoretical research and at the level using certain methods. Developing in parallel, they complement each other's research in the study of the relationship between man and human society.

Another science closely related to psychology is pedagogy, since the upbringing and training of children cannot fail to take into account the psychological characteristics of the individual.

Psychology is closely related to history. One example of a deep synthesis of history and psychology is the theory of the cultural and historical development of higher mental functions of man, developed by L. S. Vygodsky, the essence of which is that the main historical achievements of mankind, primarily language, tools, sign systems, became a powerful factor that significantly advanced the phylogenetic and ontogenetic development of people. Another, no less famous example of the relationship between history and psychology is the use in psychology historical method, the essence of which is that in order to understand the nature of any mental phenomenon it is necessary to trace its phylogenetic and ontogenetic development from elementary forms to more complex ones. In order to understand what the highest forms of the human psyche are, it is necessary to trace their development in children. Thus, the opinions of psychologists and historians agree that modern man, with his psychological qualities and personal properties, is a product of the history of human development.

A distinctive feature of psychology is its connection not only with social, but also with technical sciences. This is due to the fact that a person is a direct participant in all technological and production processes. Psychological science considers man as an integral part of technological progress. In the research of psychologists involved in the development of sociotechnical systems, a person acts as the most complex element of the “man-machine” system. Thanks to the research of psychologists, samples of technology are being created that take into account the mental and physiological capabilities of a person.

Psychology is no less closely related to medical And biological sciences. This connection is due to the dual nature of man - both a social and a biological being. Most mental phenomena and, above all, mental processes have a physiological basis, therefore knowledge in the field of physiology and biology helps to better understand certain mental phenomena. Today the facts of psychosomatic and somatic mutual influence are well known. The essence of this phenomenon is that a person’s mental state is reflected in his physiological state, and vice versa, various diseases, as a rule, affect the mental state of the patient. Taking this into account, methods of psychotherapeutic influence have received active development in modern medicine.

Thus, modern psychology is closely related to various areas of science and practice. It can be argued that wherever a person is involved, there is a place for psychological science. Therefore, the rapid development of psychology, its introduction into various areas of scientific and practical activity led to the emergence of various branches of psychology.

3. Main branches of psychology

Modern psychological science is a multidisciplinary field of knowledge and includes more than 40 relatively independent branches. Their emergence is due, firstly, to the widespread introduction of psychology into all areas of scientific and practical activity, and secondly, to the emergence of new psychological knowledge. Some branches of psychology differ from others, first of all, in the complex of problems and tasks that one or another scientific direction solves. At the same time, all branches of psychology can be conditionally divided into fundamental (general, or basic! and applied (special!)

Fundamental branches of psychological science are of general importance for understanding and explaining various mental phenomena. This is the basis that not only unites all branches of psychological science, but also serves as the basis for their development. Fundamental branches, as a rule, are united by the term “general psychology.”

General psychology– a branch of psychological science that includes theoretical and experimental research that reveals the most general psychological patterns, theoretical principles and methods of psychology, its basic concepts and categories. The basic concepts of general psychology are:

Mental processes;

Mental properties;

Mental states.

The emergence of general psychology as an independent and fundamental branch of psychological science is associated with the name of SL. Rubinstein, who prepared and published in 1942 a major general work, “Fundamentals of General Psychology,” which included the advanced achievements of both domestic and world science.

Applied are called branches of psychology, the achievements of which are used in practical activities. In most cases, with the help of applied branches of psychological science, specific problems are solved within a certain direction, for example:

¦ educational psychology studies psychological problems, patterns of personality development in the process of training and education;

¦ developmental psychology studies the patterns of stages of mental development and personality formation from birth to old age, and therefore is divided into child psychology, psychology of youth And mature age, psychology of old age (gerontopsychology);

¦ differential psychology studies differences between individuals, between groups of individuals, as well as the causes and consequences of these differences;

¦ social psychology studies the patterns of behavior and activity of people included in social groups, the psychological characteristics of the groups themselves, the socio-psychological compatibility of people;

¦ political psychology studies the psychological components of people's political life and activities, their moods, opinions, feelings, value orientations, etc.;

¦ psychology of art studies the properties and states of an individual or group of persons that determine the creation and perception of artistic values, as well as the influence of these values ​​on the life of both an individual and society as a whole;

¦ medical psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor’s activities and the patient’s behavior, the manifestations and causes of various disorders in the psyche and behavior of a person, mental changes that occur during illnesses, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy;

¦ legal psychology studies the psychological characteristics of participants in criminal proceedings, as well as psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the criminal’s personality.

In addition to those mentioned, there are other branches of psychology that are no less interesting for scientific research and no less significant for practical human activity, including: labor psychology, engineering psychology, military psychology, advertising psychology, environmental psychology, animal psychology, sports psychology, space psychology and etc.

Note that applied sectors are not isolated from each other. Most often, one branch of psychology uses knowledge or methods from other branches. For example, space psychology, which deals with the problems of psychological support for human activity in space, is closely related to engineering psychology, medical psychology, etc.

4. Main stages in the development of psychological science

Historically, the doctrine of the soul was the first to appear. Psychology owes its name to Greek mythology - the myth of Cupid and Psyche told by Apuleius, which talks about a king and his three daughters. The youngest was the most beautiful of all, her name was Psyche. The fame of her beauty spread throughout the entire earth, but Psyche suffered from the fact that she was only admired: she wanted love. Psyche's father turned to the oracle for advice, and the oracle replied that Psyche, dressed in burial clothes, should be taken to a secluded place to marry the monster. The unfortunate father fulfilled the will of the oracle. A gust of wind carried Psyche to a wonderful palace, where she became the wife of an invisible husband. Psyche's mysterious husband made her promise that she would not strive to see his face. But the evil sisters, out of envy, persuaded the trusting Psyche to look at her husband when he fell asleep. At night, Psyche lit a lamp and, seeing her husband, recognized him as the god of love, Cupid. Struck by the beauty of his face, Psyche admired Cupid, but a drop of hot oil from the lamp fell on his shoulder, and Cupid woke up. Insulted, he flew away, and Psyche went across the earth to look for her lover. After long wanderings, she found herself under the same roof with Cupid, but could not see him. Cupid's mother, Venus, forced her to do unimaginable work; Only thanks to the miraculous help of the gods did Psyche cope with the trials. When Cupid recovered from the burn, he began to beg Zeus to allow him to marry Psyche. Seeing their love and Psyche's exploits in the name of love, Zeus agreed to their marriage, and Psyche received immortality. Thus, thanks to their love, the lovers were united forever. For the Greeks, this myth is an example of true love, the highest realization of the human soul, which, only when filled with love, became immortal. Therefore, it was Psyche that became the symbol of immortality, the symbol of the soul seeking its ideal.

Written sources of knowledge that have reached us from time immemorial indicate that interest in psychological phenomena arose among people a very long time ago. The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism- the most ancient view, according to which everything that exists in the world has a spirit, or soul, an entity independent of the body that controls all living and inanimate objects. The scientific treatises of Democritus, Plato, and Aristotle speak about this.

Democritus (460–370 BC) developed an atomic model of the world. The soul is a material substance that consists of spherical, light, mobile atoms of fire. All mental phenomena are explained by physical and mechanical causes. For example, human sensations arise because the atoms of the soul are set in motion by atoms of air or atoms directly emanating from objects.

According to the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427–347 BC), the soul exists along with the body and independently of it. The soul is an invisible, sublime, divine, eternal principle. The body is a visible, base, transitory, perishable principle. The soul and body are in a complex relationship. By its divine origin, the soul is called upon to control the body. However, sometimes the body, overwhelmed by various desires and passions, takes precedence over the soul. Mental phenomena are divided into reason, courage (in the modern interpretation - will) and lust (motivation). According to Plato, a person's reason is located in the head, courage in the chest, and lust in the abdominal cavity. Their harmonious unity gives integrity to a person’s mental life.

The pinnacle of ancient psychology was the doctrine of Aristotle (384–322 BC) about the soul. His treatise “On the Soul” is the first special psychological work. He rejected the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, Aristotle considered it impossible to consider the soul in isolation from matter (the living body1. The soul, according to Aristotle, although incorporeal, is the form of the living body, the cause and goal of all its vital functions. The driving force of human behavior is the desire, or internal activity of the body. Sensory perceptions constitute the beginning of knowledge. Memory stores and reproduces sensations.

The scientific study of the soul, which began in the era of Antiquity, was partially lost in the Middle Ages and was replaced by a religious-mystical worldview, scholasticism and philosophy of spirit. Under the influence of the atmosphere characteristic of the Middle Ages (increasing church influence on all aspects of social life, including science1), the animistic interpretation of the soul began to be linked with the Christian understanding of the essence of man. The soul, according to medieval authors, is a divine, supernatural principle, and therefore the study of mental life must be subordinated to the tasks of theology. Only the outer side of the soul, which is turned to the material world, can be amenable to the human mind, and the greatest mysteries of the soul are manifested only in religion.

During the Renaissance, interest in the natural sciences of the soul reappeared. Gradually, specific material about the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the human body was accumulated. In the 17th century, a new era began in the development of psychological knowledge. It is characterized by attempts to comprehend the human spiritual world primarily from general philosophical, speculative positions, without the necessary experimental basis. This period in the development of psychological science is associated, first of all, with the names of R. Descartes, G. Leibniz, T. Hobbes, B. Spinoza, J. Locke.

R. Descartes (1596–1650) is considered the founder of rationalist philosophy. According to his ideas, knowledge should be based on obvious data and deduced from them through logical reasoning. Based on this point of view, in order for a person to find the truth, he must first question everything. In his works, R. Descartes claims that not only the work of internal organs, but also the behavior of the body in its interaction with the outside world does not need a soul. In his opinion, this interaction is carried out through a kind of nervous machine, consisting of a brain center and nerve “tubes” or “threads”. Thus, R. Descartes came to the conclusion that there is a difference between the human body and his soul, and argued that there are two substances independent of each other - matter and spirit. In the history of psychology, this doctrine was called “dualism”. Descartes laid the foundations for a deterministic (causal) concept of behavior, at the center of which lies the idea of ​​a reflex as a natural motor response of the body to external physiological stimulation.

B. Spinoza (1632–1677) made an attempt to reunite the body and soul of man, separated by the teachings of R. Descartes. The soul is one of the manifestations of extended substance (matter); soul and body are determined by the same material causes.

G. Leibniz (1646–1716) introduced the concept of the unconscious psyche. According to his theory, in the human soul there is a continuous hidden work of many mental forces - “small perceptions” (perceptions), from which conscious desires and passions arise. G. Leibniz explained the connection between the mental and the physical (physiological) in man not as a result of their interaction, but as a result of a “pre-established harmony” created thanks to divine wisdom.

In the 18th century Empirical psychology is emerging. In the books of the German philosopher H. Wolff “Rational Psychology” and “Empirical Psychology” this term first appears in scientific use to denote a direction in psychological science, the main principle of which is the observation of specific mental phenomena, their classification and the establishment of an experimentally verified natural connection between them. This principle underlies the teaching of J. Locke (1632–1704), according to which the human soul is a passive, but capable of perception medium. Under the influence of sensory impressions, the soul awakens, is filled with ideas, and begins to think.

Psychology became an independent science in the 60s. XIX century It was associated with the creation of special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher educational institutions, as well as with the introduction of experiments to study mental phenomena. One of the first such laboratories was the Experimental Psychological Laboratory in Leipzig (later the Institute of Experimental Psychology1, founded by W. Wundt (1832 - 1920).

I.M. Sechenov (1829–1905) is considered the founder of Russian scientific psychology. In his book “Reflexes of the Brain” (18631), the main psychological processes receive a physiological interpretation. An important place in the history of Russian psychology belongs to G. I. Chelpanov (1862–1936), who created the first institute of psychology in Russia in 1912, and I. P. Pavlov (1849–1936), who studied conditioned reflex connections in the activity of the body, thanks to which it became possible to understand the physiological foundations of mental activity.

Significant contribution to the development of psychology in the 20th century. contributed by: B. G. Ananyev (1907–1972), who studied the problems of perception and psychology of pedagogical assessment; A. N. Leontyev (1903–1979), who created a new psychological theory - the “theory of activity”; S. L. Rubinstein (1889–1960), who published the fundamental general work “Fundamentals of General Psychology” in 1942; P. Ya. Galperin (1902–1988), who created the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions.

5. Main directions of psychology

After the emergence of psychology in the middle of the 19th century. It was differentiated into several directions (or currents) into an independent scientific discipline. The main directions of development of psychology in the 20th century:

Behaviorism;

Psychoanalysis, or Freudianism;

Gestalt psychology;

Humanistic psychology;

Genetic psychology;

Individual psychology.

Behaviorism- one of the leading trends, which has become widespread in different countries and primarily in the USA. The founders of behaviorism are E. Thorndike (1874–1949) and J. Watsen (1878–1958). In this direction of psychology, the study of the subject comes down, first of all, to the analysis of behavior, which is broadly interpreted as all types of reactions of the body to environmental stimuli. At the same time, the psyche itself, consciousness, is excluded from the subject of research. The main position of behaviorism: psychology should study behavior, and not consciousness and psyche, which cannot be observed directly. The main tasks were set as follows: to learn to predict a person’s behavior (reaction) based on a situation (stimulus) and, conversely, to determine or describe the stimulus that caused it based on the nature of the reaction. According to behaviorism, a person has a relatively small number of innate behavioral phenomena (breathing, swallowing, etc.), over which more complex reactions are built, up to the most complex “scenarios” of behavior. The development of new adaptive reactions occurs with the help of tests carried out until one of them gives a positive result (the “trial and error” principle). A successful option is fixed and subsequently reproduced.

Psychoanalysis, or Freudianism,– a general designation for various schools that arose on the basis of the psychological teachings of S. Freud (1856–1939). Freudianism is characterized by an explanation of mental phenomena through the unconscious. Its core is the idea of ​​the eternal conflict between the conscious and unconscious in the human psyche. According to S. Freud, human actions are controlled by deep motivations that elude consciousness. He created a method of psychoanalysis, the basis of which is the analysis of associations, dreams, slips and slips, etc. From the point of view of S. Freud, the roots of human behavior are in his childhood. A fundamental role in the process of human formation is given to his sexual instincts and drives.

Gestalt psychology- one of the largest areas of foreign psychology, which emerged in Germany in the first half of the 20th century. and put forward a program for the study of the psyche from the point of view of its organization and dynamics in the form of special indivisible images - “gestalts”. The subject of study was the patterns of formation, structuring and transformation of the mental image. The first experimental studies of Gestalt psychology were devoted to the analysis of perception and later made it possible to identify a number of phenomena in this area (for example, the figure-ground relationship1. The main representatives of this direction are M. Wertheimer, W. Keller, K. Koffka.

Humanistic psychology- a direction of foreign psychology, which has recently been rapidly developing in Russia. The main subject of humanistic psychology is personality as a unique integral system, which is not something predetermined, but an “open possibility” of self-actualization, inherent only to man. Within the framework of humanistic psychology, a prominent place is occupied by the personality theory developed by the American psychologist A. Maslow (1908–1970). According to his theory, all needs are built into a kind of “pyramid”, at the base of which lie the lower, and at the top – the highest human needs (Fig. 11. Leading representatives of this direction: G. Allport, K. Rogers, F. Barron, R. May .

Genetic psychology- a doctrine developed by the Geneva psychological school of J. Piaget (1896–1980) and his followers. The subject of study is the origin and development of intelligence in a child, the main task is to study the mechanisms of the child’s cognitive activity. Intelligence is studied as an indicator of individual development and as an object of action on the basis of which mental activity arises.


Rice. 1. Pyramid of needs according to A. Maslow


Individual psychology- one of the areas of psychology developed by A. Adler (1870–1937) and based on the concept of an individual having an inferiority complex and the desire to overcome it as the main source of motivation for individual behavior.

Psychology has come a long way in its development. Throughout the development of psychological science, different directions have developed in parallel. Teachings based on materialistic views, first of all, contributed to the development of natural scientific understanding of the nature of mental phenomena and the formation of experimental psychology. In turn, thanks to idealistic philosophical views in modern psychology, problems such as morality, ideals, personal values, etc. are considered.

The science of psychology appeared in the middle of the 19th century. She has come a long and difficult path in studying the mental state of the individual. With the help of this science, a person’s character, attention, and memory are determined. Many people like psychology. It helps you understand not only the people around you, but also yourself. Psychology is very broad. You can write and talk about her a lot. In this article we will look at some important aspects of the psychology of social groups and personality.

Psychology as a science

Consciousness, attention, memory, will, human soul - this is a whole science about personality. It's called psychology. Only thanks to this science does a person know himself and those around him. Not everyone understands what psychology is. The definition is quite simple. This is a science that studies the behavior, thoughts, processes of both humans and animals. A good knowledge of psychology helps to understand any personality. After all, everyone is interested, for example, in what motivates a child when he performs some action incomprehensible to his parents. Or you want to understand what kind of inner world your boss has.

Psychology will answer all questions concerning the human soul. This science will help you correctly understand your loved one, child, director or subordinate. In order to understand themselves or a loved one, some people visit a psychologist on their own initiative. Only because they want to be happy. However, some are afraid to contact a psychologist, but in vain. If it doesn’t work out for you, a specialist will definitely help you understand the problem and sort it out. So we figured out the question of what psychology is as a science. Now you can understand the intricacies of personality.

Understanding personality in psychology

A person is an individual. It’s unlikely that anyone asks the question: “What is personality in psychology?” This is the youngest psychological science. It is very extensive. Let's focus on the main thing.

No one even thinks that you need to communicate loyally with a person, even with a small child. He is, first of all, a person who deserves to be treated normally. After all, one person may not pay attention to your words, while another, on the contrary, even lets through his facial expressions, not to mention his words.

As you may have guessed, psychology has a direct bearing on personality. A person thinks, pays attention to you, knows how to listen, controls his emotions, character, feelings, etc. All this is controlled by personal psychology. A person heard bad or good news, and accordingly showed certain emotions at that time. Any unpredictability affects the state of mind very much. Therefore, if you cannot cope with yourself, something is gnawing at you, try to understand yourself first. Maybe you were stressed the other day or your joyful emotions were overwhelming, switch to a good, positive, but calm book, or just go for a walk. This will help you get distracted and understand your inner world. Now do you have an idea of ​​what personality is in psychology? It has some subsections: character, state of mind, attention, thinking, etc.

Representation of memory in psychology

Memory is, in some way, a storage device that stores and, over time, voices some events or facts. It can be short-term or long-term.

Psychologists have identified several types of memory:

  1. Visual - saw and remembered.
  2. Auditory - heard, remembered, voiced it after a while.
  3. Motor - remembering movements.
  4. Tangible - remembering by touch.
  5. Figurative - even after a certain time, the image you saw emerges in your memory.
  6. Emotional - a person remembers previously experienced feelings.

In principle, everyone understands what memory is in psychology. This is a very complex and difficult process. It is memory that helps pass on our experience and knowledge to our children and grandchildren. This is the longest process. It’s not in vain that an 80-year-old grandmother will remember her experiences from that time when she was only 25 or 30. Quite often, a person may not remember some events from his life. This mainly happens when the information was very painful, and the memory erases this process on a subconscious level.

Manifestation of attention in psychology

If a person is focused on one object and observing it, what does this mean? Of course, attention. Without this psychological aspect it would be difficult for a person to exist. Let's look at the terminology to understand what attention is in psychology. This is the reaction of a living organism to external stimuli. When psychologists analyzed the types of attention, they concluded: there is selective attention (when it is possible to choose an object of attention), distributed (focusing on several objects simultaneously), switchable attention (attention is not constant). What happens to a person when he chooses an object of attention? Take, for example, a child who was shown a green square and the teacher asked: “What color?” Do you think he will give a substantive answer? Maybe. However, it will also be noted that this is a square that has corners, etc. Attention will not be focused only on color. It’s the same with an adult. For example, you meet an old friend, stop to chat, and in any case you will divert your attention to some little thing. Therefore, during a conversation you may miss an important detail. Attention cannot be distributed evenly to each object. This is how our brain functions.

In principle, the importance of such attention in psychology has become clear. It’s just that many people don’t think about such questions, and this is very important. Especially for parents who raise kids and are angry with them for their inattention. Listen to psychologists.

Personality abilities in psychology

Many parents, with the birth of a child, understand that he needs to be put on his feet. What does this mean? Raise him naturally, and also give him a decent education. From preschool age, children begin to go to sections in order to understand what abilities they have and begin to develop them. This could be art or music school, swimming, dancing, and much more. etc.

A child cannot pick up a brush and paint from birth, but perhaps he has the inclination for this. They need to be developed. If parents follow a path that only they like, the child will not be able to use his abilities. Therefore, it is necessary to give your baby the opportunity to do what he likes. Only then will he have a chance to develop in the right direction and become a great artist or composer. Absolutely every person has talent. One's parents were able to open it in early childhood, the other's were unable to.

Personality temperament in psychology

Character is an individual trait of each person. Temperament refers to human behavior. I.P. Pavlov developed the main traits of temperament a long time ago and divided them into 4 types:

1. A sanguine person is a cheerful person who does not linger on one object. Sociable, but does not stay long in one place of work. Doesn't like monotony. The new environment is a joy for him; he enjoys making contact with strangers.

2. Phlegmatic - slow, calm, rarely shows violent emotions. He approaches any task very thoughtfully. Never takes the wrong step. No one ever knows the true feelings of a phlegmatic person.

3. Choleric - very active, emotions are always overflowing. He does not know how to restrain himself, he can flare up over a trifle. No matter how quickly a choleric person takes on a new job, just as quickly he gets tired of it. Sometimes those around him find it difficult to tolerate a choleric person due to his excessive mobility.

4. Melancholic is a passive person who does not like to be interested in anything new. Feelings and emotions in slow motion. He gets offended and upset very quickly, although he doesn’t show it. He is reserved and prefers solitude rather than noisy companies. Melancholic people feel calm and confident in a familiar environment.

In any job, knowledge of temperaments is necessary. This will make it easier to communicate with people.

Psychology of emotions

Very often people do not know what feelings are. This is the emotional state of a person’s soul, which is expressed by certain body movements, facial expressions or voice.

Since childhood, we have heard about the cessation of emotions, that we need to express our feelings less. However, psychologists say the opposite. Every person should be able to throw out emotions, and not accumulate them over the years. What causes diseases and mental disorders? From the fact that a person has been holding back all his feelings and emotions within himself for years. You need to be able to express your opinion everywhere: at work, at home, in communication with others. Thanks to emotions, a person quickly determines for himself all the needs he needs. Don't be afraid to spill your feelings and emotions out. The circle that needs you will accept you like this. It costs nothing to prove to others. After all, health is more valuable.

The need for psychology

A person does not always realize what he needs. A need is something that a person feels an urgent need for. There are 3 types:

1. Labor need - a person needs to understand the world, to work.

2. Developmental need - the individual learns, self-realizes.

3. Social need - a person needs to communicate with friends, team, etc.

These are sociogenic needs. The need ends when the goal is achieved. Then a person has something else that he needs. Need is the entire mechanism in the human psyche. In other words, needs are the mental state of the individual. Thanks to them, a person strives for his goal in order to achieve what he wants, that is, he becomes more active, and passivity disappears almost completely.

You now understand what psychology is; a more precise definition can now be given. Need, attention, memory, emotions - this is what human psychology is.

Social psychology as a science

Every person lives in a world where he has many relatives, loved ones, acquaintances, friends, colleagues, etc. For this, a person needs social psychology. Thanks to it, people get to know each other and relationships. Relationships develop not only between two individuals, but also between entire groups. You probably guessed what social psychology is. In this subject two sciences are intertwined. Sociology and psychology. Therefore, relationships are studied here not just between people, but the following types are distinguished: social, economic, political and many others. Social psychology in society allows you to occupy a certain place among people. In social psychology, there are 3 types of personality:

1. Picnics - they adapt well to a social environment. They strive to build profitable relationships with the right people. They know how to defend their interests without conflicts.

2. Athletics are sociable, love to attract due attention, dominant personality.

3. Asthenics - it is not easy for them to be in society. They are not sociable, closed, reserved.

To each person his own. Some people like to be the center of attention in society, others like to be in the shadows. There's nothing you can do about it. We must accept the personality as it is. You can write a lot about what social psychology is. Since this is not a book, but just an article, the most important definitions and concepts are given.

» Psychology and its subject

What is psychology as a science?
Subject of study psychology

Word "psychology" literally means the science of the psyche (from other Greek ψῡχικός “soul, spirituality, breath of vitality”, in myths the goddess Psyche was personified as the tender beloved of Eros). Psychologists themselves, however, are dissatisfied with this definition, since the psyche is an extremely general concept. In fact, the psyche covers a huge sphere of existence: from electrochemical materiality to immaterial semantic patterns of the spiritual world. Therefore, there are a large number of different definitions of psychology and its subject, depending on the scientific school and the prevailing circumstances.

In different historical periods, psychology was understood as the science of the soul, consciousness, and behavior.

The understanding of psychology as a science of the soul covers the longest period, dating back to archaic societies and ancient philosophers. Thus, Aristotle, about 2350 years ago, defined the soul as “the first entelechy of the body, created by nature and endowed with organs.”

In modern times, in the era of the development of mechanism, rationalism and atheism, the concept of psychology as the science of consciousness became widespread (thanks to the philosophical works of R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, T. Locke, D. Hobbes, etc.).

The behavioral understanding of psychology developed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries under the influence of the works of I. Sechenov, I. Pavlov and V. Bekhterev. They became the pioneers of modern science, the subject of which is mentally regulated behavior.

It can be said that Today psychology is the science of behavior and experience, as well as the experiences that follow from them.

Karl Bühler, in his work “The Crisis in Psychology” (1927), defines the subject of the study of psychology by these three aspects: “Experiences, behavior and that not yet recognized third, which we previously designated by the letter G.” The names of this “third” often changed, unlike the content.

Max Dessoir, in his “History of Psychology” (1911), traces these three aspects, starting from antiquity: “Under the influence of religious ideas, the contemplation of nature and life experience reflected in art, three objects and ways of viewing arose, which are still distinguished in our outwardly unified psychology... The real state of affairs was almost always the result of a struggle between three directions.”

Nowadays, these three areas are studied mainly:

  • experiences - in phenomenology and clinical psychology;
  • behavior - in behaviorism;
  • cognition (in Bühler designated by the letter “G” as “the image of the objective spirit”, and in antiquity it was designated as the “thinking soul”) - in cognitive psychology.

An impartial consideration of the psyche in all three incarnations seems extremely difficult to many scientists. Therefore, it is common to choose one aspect instead of considering them all. And the subject “Psychology” in universities is accordingly classified as the humanities, natural or social sciences.

Most modern psychologists define psychology as the science of the behavior (relationships) of a living being. Behavior refers to all types of activity and processes that can be objectively established (in particular, isolated reactions of muscles, glands and other parts of the body), as well as reactions that characterize behavior as a whole.

Thus, the famous American psychologist Philip Zimbardo defines psychology as an applied social science and sets himself the task of building a new concept of the system of psychology. Zimbardo calls his subject matter "the overarching discipline of behavioral science."

This understanding of the content and purpose of psychology in American science is considered as a fairly long tradition of presenting the psychological. It has primarily practical application. As it is extremely close to real life, psychological knowledge, having applied significance, should manifest itself in “fresh and dynamic argumentation”, which, in fact, is what Zimbardo’s work is devoted to "Essentials of Psychology and Life". In it, the author defines psychology as the science of behavior and behavioral relationships between people.

In the concept of “behavior,” psychologists also include internal processes, such as thinking, memory, emotional reactions, etc., thanks to which the personality can be indirectly observed and which can be inferred from observations of external behavior.

Different schools of psychology focus on different aspects of behavior (learning, perception, personality etc.) and reveal exactly what psychology received as a result of research and how it could do it. In general, it should be stated that these schools do not have ideological coherence in their initial positions and especially in their results. Today there is no truly universal, comprehensive "theories of psychology" which would be recognized as such by everyone and would predetermine the further movement of psychological knowledge, regardless of the scientific and ideological directions of its representatives.

Before continuing our discussion about the possibility of the creation and existence of a “universal theory as such” in science, it is advisable to turn to one documentary fact, which at first glance is remote from the subject of conversation. F. Zimbardo cites it in his book. Somehow it was discovered that the water in El Paso (Texas, USA) has calming tranquilizing properties, which significantly affects the character of the inhabitants of these places. They have fewer psychological problems and a healthier attitude to life than, for example, residents of Dallas. The chemical Lithium, which is often used in the psychotherapeutic field to treat severe depression, is found in large quantities in El Paso water, and this water is pumped from very deep wells. In Dallas, on the contrary, water is taken from very shallow wells, and the Lithium content in it is very small.

In 1971, a biochemist reported at the Congress of American Physicians about a “mathematically demonstrable” relationship between the capacity of lithium and the number of patients in neurological clinics in Texas (Associated Press, 2 September 1971). In 1970, 2,796 Dallas residents were admitted to these facilities, but only 238 from El Paso. The data seems convincing, but there is a question about the existence of a causal relationship. Clean water was deliberately contaminated: for residents of El Paso, the nearest psychiatric hospital was 570 km away, while from Dallas it was 75 km away. Further, there was a significant difference between the two cities in terms of socio-ecological factors and population density.

Lithium is known to calm manic-depressive patients, but this effect cannot be transferred to normal people. How can we now evaluate the causal dependencies between ideas and the social perception of these ideas, when the true state of affairs remains far from random and superficial statements?

Relationship between psychology and other sciences

Behavior is determined by a number of factors that are partly biological, partly sociological, and partly psychological in origin. It follows that psychology is closely related to the biological and social sciences.

We are talking about physiology, neurology, embryology, genetics, anthropology, sociology. The latter, in particular, is more interested in the patterns of functioning of the group than in its individual members. However, sociology helps to understand not only attitudes in a group, but also the nature of social influence on individual behavior.

Psychologists, anthropologists, and sociologists have long understood that, despite all the intense competition, they significantly support and complement each other. From this interaction new disciplines emerge, in particular behavioral sciences, the main task of which is to uncover general patterns of behavior.

Social significance of psychological science

Science is sometimes seen as an elegant game with carefully constructed rules. The game provides its participants with a certain "intellectual tension" and the spectators with excitement as more and more things are revealed in almost mystical ways. From this point of view, psychology is an unconditional source of pleasure for those who seek to understand the sources of human behavior.

On the other hand, this pleasure is influenced by very serious material that can significantly influence human life. It is no coincidence that psychological knowledge today is perceived as a serious argument in the construction of strategies and means of social influence. It is fruitfully used by the leadership circles of various countries around the world. We are talking about psychological assistance in solving racial problems, problems of education, culture, military aspects and the like.

Psychological control over human behavior can have a humanistically oriented goal, or it can be aimed at suppressing and oppressing a person. If we consider that the ultimate goal of psychology is to control human behavior, which always leads to intervention and certain changes, then it can in a certain way expose the idea of ​​​​human nature. And this is exactly what psychological science should avoid.

Sources:

  1. Romenets V.A. Manoha I.P. History of psychology of the 20th century. - Kyiv, Lybid, 2003
  2. Benesh G. Psychology: a reference book. - Kyiv, Znannya-Press, 2007

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