One of the sad pages of our history is the fragmentation of Ancient Rus' in the Middle Ages. But internecine war is not the prerogative of the ancient Russian principalities. Interfeudal wars engulfed all of Europe; in France alone there were 14 large feudal majorates, between which there were continuous bloody clashes. Internecine warfare is a characteristic feature of the Middle Ages.

The weak power of Kyiv and the law of the ladder

The main reason for the emergence of civil strife was the weak centralization of power. Periodically, strong leaders appeared, such as Vladimir Monomakh or Yaroslav the Wise, caring for the unity of the state, but, as a rule, after their death, their sons began to fight again.

But there were always many children, and each branch of the family, descending from the common grandfather Rurik, tried to secure supremacy for itself. Everything was aggravated by the specifics of succession to the throne - the right of ladder, when power was transferred not by direct inheritance to the eldest son, but to the eldest in the family. Internecine wars raged throughout Rus' until the death of Moscow Prince Vasily II the Dark, that is, until the second half of the 15th century.

Disunity

In the early stages of the development of the state, some kind of alliances were periodically formed between several princes, and wars were fought in blocs, or for a time all of Kievan Rus united to repel the raids of the steppe peoples.

But all this was temporary, and the princes again locked themselves in their fiefs, each of whom individually had neither the strength nor the resources to unite all of Rus' under their leadership.

Very weak federation

An internecine war is a civil war. This is a bloody major confrontation between residents of one country, united in certain groups. Despite the fact that in those distant times our country represented several independent states, it remained in history as Kievan Rus, and its unity, albeit inactive, was still felt. It was such a weak federation, whose residents called representatives of neighboring principalities non-residents, and foreigners - strangers.

Explicit and secret reasons for the emergence of civil strife

It should be noted that the decision to go to war against his brother was made not only by the prince, but also by the townspeople, the merchants, and the church. The princely power was greatly limited by both the Boyar Duma and the city Veche. The causes of internecine wars lie much deeper.

And if the principalities fought among themselves, then there were strong and numerous motives for this, including ethnic, economic, and trade. Ethnic because on the outskirts of Rus' new states were formed, the population of which began to speak their own dialects and had their own traditions and way of life. For example, Belarus and Ukraine. The desire of the princes to transfer power by direct inheritance also led to the isolation of the principalities. The struggle between them was carried out due to dissatisfaction with the distribution of territories, for the Kiev throne, for independence from Kyiv.

Brothers' disunity

The internecine war in Rus' began in the 9th century, and minor skirmishes between the princes, in essence, never stopped. But there were also major civil strife. The first dispute arose at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th centuries, after the death of Svyatoslav. His three sons, Yaropolk, Vladimir and Oleg, had different mothers.

The grandmother, Grand Duchess Olga, who was able to unite them, died in 969, and 3 years later the father also died. There are few exact dates of birth of the early Kyiv princes and their heirs, but there are assumptions that by the time the Svyatoslavichs were orphaned, the eldest Yaropolk was only 15 years old, and each of them already had their own allotment left by Svyatoslav. All this did not contribute to the emergence of strong brotherly bonds.

First major civil strife

The internecine war began when the brothers grew up - they had already gained strength, had squads and looked after their fiefdoms. The specific occasion was the moment Oleg discovered Yaropolk’s hunters in his forests, led by the son of the governor Sveneld Lyut. After the skirmish that arose, Lute was killed, and, according to some sources, his father Svenald strongly encouraged Yaropolk to attack and in every possible way fueled hatred of the brothers who allegedly dreamed of the Kiev throne.

One way or another, in 977 Yaropolk kills his brother Oleg. Having heard about the murder of his younger brother, Vladimir, who was sitting in Veliky Novgorod, fled to Sweden, from which he returned with a strong army of mercenaries led by his commander Dobrynya. Vladimir immediately moved to Kyiv. Having taken the rebellious Polotsk, he besieged the capital city. After some time, Yaropolk agreed to a meeting with his brother, but did not have time to reach the headquarters, as he was killed by two mercenaries. Vladimir reigned on the Kiev throne just 7 years after the death of his father. Yaropolk in history, oddly enough, remained a meek ruler, and it is believed that very young brothers became victims of intrigue led by experienced and cunning confidants such as Sveneld and Blud. Vladimir reigned in Kyiv for 35 years and received the nickname Red Sun.

Second and third internecine wars of Kievan Rus

The second internecine war of the princes begins after the death of Vladimir, between his sons, of whom he had 12. But the main struggle unfolded between Svyatopolk and Yaroslav.

In this feud, Boris and Gleb, who became the first Russian saints, perish. In the end, Yaroslav, who later received the nickname Wise, gains the upper hand. He ascended the Kiev throne in 1016 and ruled until 1054, when he died.

Naturally, a third major feud began after his death between his seven sons. Although Yaroslav during his lifetime clearly defined the estates of his sons, and bequeathed the Kiev throne to Izyaslav, as a result of fratricidal wars, he reigned there only in 1069.

Centuries of fragmentation and dependence on the Golden Horde

The subsequent period of time until the end is considered a period of political fragmentation. Independent principalities began to form, and the process of fragmentation and the emergence of new fiefs became irreversible. If in the 12th century there were 12 principalities on the territory of Rus', then already in the 13th century there were 50 of them, and in the 14th century - 250.

In science, this process was called Even the conquest of Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols in 1240 failed to stop the process of fragmentation. Only being under the yoke of the Golden Horde for 2.5 centuries began to persuade the Kyiv princes to create a centralized strong state.

Negative and positive sides of fragmentation

Internecine wars in Rus' destroyed and bled the country dry, preventing it from developing properly. But, as noted above, civil strife and fragmentation were shortcomings not only of Rus'. France, Germany, and England all resembled a patchwork quilt. Oddly enough, at some stage of development, fragmentation also played a positive role. Within the framework of one state, individual lands began to actively develop, turning into large fiefdoms, new cities were erected and flourished, churches were built, large squads were created and equipped. The political, economic and cultural development of the peripheral principalities under the weak political power of Kyiv contributed to the growth of their autonomy and independence. And in some way the emergence of democracy.

However, civil strife in Rus' was always skillfully used by its enemies, of whom there were plenty. So the growth of peripheral fiefdoms was put to an end by the attack on Rus' by the Golden Horde. The process of centralization of Russian lands slowly began in the 13th century and continued until the 15th century. But even then there were internecine clashes.

Duality of rules of succession to the throne

The beginning of an internecine war in the Moscow principality deserves special mention. After the death of Vasily I, power passed into the hands of his son Vasily II the Dark, all the years of whose reign were marked by civil strife. Immediately after the death of Vasily I in 1425, until 1433, the war was fought between Vasily the Dark and his uncle Yuri Dmitrievich. The fact is that in Kievan Rus until the 13th century, the rules of succession to the throne were determined by the law of the ladder. According to it, power was transferred to the eldest in the family, and Dmitry Donskoy in 1389 appointed his youngest son Yuri as heir to the throne in the event of the death of his eldest son Vasily. Vasily I died with his heirs, in particular his son Vasily, who also had rights to the Moscow throne, because from the 13th century power was increasingly transferred from father to eldest son.

In general, Mstislav I the Great, who ruled from 1125 to 1132, was the first to violate this right. Then, thanks to the authority of Monomakh, the will of Mstislav, and the support of the boyars, the other princes remained silent. But Yuri disputed Vasily’s rights, and some of his relatives supported him.

Strong ruler

The beginning of the internecine war in the Moscow principality was accompanied by the destruction of small fiefs and the strengthening of tsarist power. Vasily the Dark fought for the unification of all Russian lands. Throughout his reign, which lasted intermittently from 1425 to 1453, Vasily the Dark repeatedly lost the throne in the struggle, first with his uncle, and then with his sons and other people eager for the Moscow throne, but he always returned it. In 1446, he went on a pilgrimage to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, where he was captured and blinded, which is why he received the nickname Dark. Power in Moscow at this time was seized. But even being blinded, Vasily the Dark continued a tough fight against Tatar raids and internal enemies tearing Rus' to pieces.

The internecine war in the Moscow Principality ceased after his death. The result of his reign was a significant increase in the territory of the Moscow Principality (he annexed Pskov and Novgorod), a significant weakening and loss of sovereignty of other princes who were forced to obey Moscow.

Most modern countries have gone through a period of feudal fragmentation. This means that once large states were fragmented into a number of smaller ones. They were weaker and could not resist the common enemy. Fragmentation is associated with the transfer of land to inheritance. Since there could be many heirs, this led to the virtual disappearance of a single state.

What is meant by the expression “internecine war”

To understand what internecine wars are, you need to understand the meaning of this expression. It can best be explained as follows:

• fragmentation leads to the formation of a number of small and independent states. Each of them has its own ruler with his own ambitions and interests;
• contradictions between rulers lead to wars between them. Often such wars arose after the death of one of the rulers. With imperfect inheritance law, each local ruler could lay claim to the lands of the deceased. This led to large-scale wars in which coalitions and alliances were created;
• wars between rulers of parts of the same country were called internecine. They brought ruin to traders and farmers. Meanwhile, internecine wars continued for centuries in Europe and Russia, stopping only for short periods.

Thus, internecine wars are a prototype of civil wars. They occur between people of the same nationality, representatives of the same culture. And they arise between rulers.

Examples of internecine wars

A striking example is Kievan Rus. Strong princes divided their lands among their sons. At the same time, one person must be in charge. But after the death of the prince, his sons began to challenge each other for primacy. In addition, they further fragmented their plots, distributing land to allies and relatives.

As a result of fragmentation, by the time of the Tatar-Mongol invasion in Rus' there were several dozen separate principalities. The consequence of this state of affairs was the seizure of the principalities by the Tatar-Mongols and their subjugation of Rus' until the end of the 15th century.

From the school history course we know that civil strife and civil wars are bad for any state. They bring destruction, weaken powers, which, as a rule, leads to their destruction by various external forces.

This was the case everywhere and at all times: in the ancient period in Greece and Rome, in the medieval period in Europe and Rus', etc. What wars are called internecine? Why did they weaken the states in which they occurred? We will try to answer these questions in our article.

Concept

Civil war is a war that occurs between cities and lands. This concept refers to the feudal period in the history of any state. However, sometimes the term “internecine war” is used in the study of the history of the ancient and ancient periods as a synonym for the term “civil war”.

Is feudal fragmentation a tragedy?

It is believed that feudal fragmentation and, as a consequence, internecine war is a tragedy for any state. This is how it is presented to us in school courses and cinema. But if you look at it, feudal fragmentation, on the contrary, is beneficial for the state as a whole, although it is sometimes accompanied by armed conflicts between lands and cities.

During a period of fragmentation, economic prosperity always occurs, the development of all lands on the territory of a once united state while maintaining cultural and religious ties. It is the latter factors that prevent the lands from completely separating from each other.

Let us remember our history: each appanage prince sought in his city to build something like the “mother of Russian cities” with powerful walls, churches, and estates. Also, fragmentation made it possible not to send all resources to the center, but to keep them for their own development. Therefore, the collapse of the state before the emergence of capitalist market relations always brings only benefits. However, it is always accompanied by two negative factors:

1. Constant wars between cities and lands.
2. The risk of being captured and enslaved by external forces.

Thus, we can conclude: internecine war is a normal process in the natural historical development of any state. The only tragedy is that sometimes this is taken advantage of by peoples who are experiencing a lower stage of cultural and socio-economic development - the stage of “military democracy”. So, we have said which wars are called internecine. Let's move on to some real examples from history.

Greece

The policies of Hellas have always been independent and independent, despite constant civil strife. They united only when Hellas was in mortal danger of being captured. The rest of the time, each policy developed independently, sometimes united into unions, and became either a metropolis or a colony, depending on the situation. This did not particularly affect the lives of ordinary citizens.

On the territory of Hellas there were two political centers on which peace in the region depended: Athens and Sparta. Peace between them was impossible by definition, since they adhered to diametrically opposed ideologies. Athens was supporters of democracy, engaged in trade, crafts, and art. Sparta was a harsh totalitarian state. The policy had strict discipline, complete hierarchical subordination of some group members to others. It was believed that the only necessary occupation of real Spartans was war and preparation for it. A wound in the back was regarded as a real shame for the men of this policy, which was punishable by humiliating death.

Athens dominated the sea; no one could defeat Sparta on land. A certain parity developed: some established their protectorate over the island cities, others captured those that could be reached without ships. However, in the 5th century BC. A long internecine war broke out, lasting about 30 years (431-404 BC).

Most of the Greek city-states were drawn into the war, divided into two camps. Some supported Athens, others - Sparta. This war was distinguished by the fact that it aimed to completely destroy the enemy, without thinking about future consequences: women and children were exterminated, olive trees and vineyards were cut down, workshops were destroyed, etc. Sparta won the war. However, over the course of 30 years, the Spartan ideology, based on asceticism and total submission, was undermined: gold coins began to be minted, public land began to be given and sold, and social stratification of Spartan society occurred.

Why did internecine wars weaken Greece? Firstly, almost the entire economic power of Hellas was destroyed, and secondly, processes began in Sparta that dealt an irreparable blow to the centuries-old ideology of the polis. The Spartans understood what wealth, entertainment, delicious food, and pleasure were. They no longer wanted to return back to the rigid confines of the police state. As a result, Hellas immediately lost both the economic power of Athens and the military power of Sparta. The northern tribes of nomadic shepherds from Macedonia took advantage of this, completely subjugating all of Hellas.

The first civil strife in Rus'

Internecine wars in Rus' also broke out quite often. It is believed that the first occurred between the sons of Svyatoslav - Yaropolk and Vladimir in the 10th century. As a result, Vladimir came to power and later baptized Rus'.

Second civil strife in Rus'

The second civil strife occurred after the death of Vladimir (from 1015 to 1019) - between his sons. Many worthy people died in it, including the first holy martyrs - Boris and Gleb - the sons of Vladimir from the Byzantine princess Anna. As a result of the second civil strife, Yaroslav the Wise came to power. Under him, Rus' reached its greatest power.

Final fragmentation in Rus'. Invasion of the Mongol-Tatars

The most active period of internecine princely wars begins with the death of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (1054). Formally, the state was still united, but it was already becoming clear that the processes of feudal fragmentation had actively begun. Not only Russians, but also Cumans, Lithuanians, Torques, Kosogi and other unfriendly tribes took part in the constant princely squabbles.

The Gentiles did not spare the Orthodox Russian population, and the princes did not spare each other. One of the most influential princes, Vladimir Monomakh, formally extended the unity of Rus'. His son, Mstislav the Great, was able to achieve this. However, after the death of the latter in 1132, Rus' completely plunged into endless internecine wars and feudal fragmentation. And here, too, there were external enemies: in the 13th century, hordes of Mongol-Tatars came to Rus', who captured most of our state.

Civil strife between the sons and grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise. The order of succession to the throne, established by Yaroslav the Wise, was maintained for 19 years. His eldest son stood at the head of Rus'. ruled in Chernigov, and Vsevolod ruled in Pereyaslavl, bordering the steppe. The younger sons sat in other distant cities. All of them, as the father established, obeyed their elder brother. But in 1073 everything changed.

There was a rumor in Kyiv that Izyaslav wants to rule just like his father, to be "autocratic". This alarmed the brothers, who did not want to obey their elder brother as they obeyed their father. Svyatoslav and Vsevolod moved their squads to Kyiv. Izyaslav fled to Poland, then to Germany. The Grand Duke's throne was captured by Svyatoslav, the second most important city in Rus' - Vsevolod took Chernigov into his own hands. But in 1076 Svyatoslav died. Not wanting to shed blood, Vsevolod voluntarily gave Kyiv to Izyaslav, and he himself retired to Chernigov. The brothers divided Rus' among themselves, pushing aside the sons of the late Svyatoslav. Vsevolod gave Pereyaslavl to his eldest son Vladimir, who was born in 1053 from the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh. From birth, Vladimir was assigned the family name of his Byzantine grandfather Monomakh. He entered Russian history as Vladimir Monomakh.

It was here that the beginning of another great and long unrest in Rus' was born. Svyatoslav's eldest son Oleg fled to Tmutarakan. In 1078, he gathered a large army, attracted the Polovtsians to his service and went to war against his uncles. This was not the first time that a Russian prince involved nomads in internecine wars in Rus', but Oleg made the Polovtsians his constant allies in the fight against other princes. For their help, he provided them with the opportunity to plunder and burn Russian cities and take people captive. No wonder he was nicknamed Oleg Gorislavich in Rus'.

A. Kalugin. Civil strife of princes

In the battle on Nezhatina Niva, Oleg was defeated and again took refuge in Tmutarakan. But in the same battle, Grand Duke Izyaslav was also killed. Vsevolod Yaroslavich settled in Kyiv, Chernigov passed to his son Vladimir.

Since the time of this internecine struggle, the Polovtsy began to constantly interfere in the struggle of the Russian princes with each other.

For the first time, hordes of Turkic Polovtsians appeared at the borders of Rus' in 1061. This was a new, numerous, merciless and insidious enemy. In the autumn, when the horses of the Polovtsians were well-fed after the free summer pastures, the time for raids began, and woe was to those who stood in the way of the nomads.

All adult Polovtsians went on a hike. Their horse avalanches suddenly appeared in front of the enemy. Armed with bows and arrows, sabers, lassos, and short spears, the Polovtsian warriors rushed into battle with a piercing cry, shooting while galloping, showering the enemy with a cloud of arrows. They raided cities, robbing and killing people, taking them captive.

The nomads did not like to fight with a large and well-organized army. To attack by surprise, to crush a numerically weak enemy, to suppress him, to separate enemy forces, to lure him into ambush, to destroy him - this is how they fought their wars. If the Polovtsy faced a strong enemy, they knew how to defend themselves: they quickly formed the carts in several circles, covered them with bull skins so that they could not be set on fire, and desperately fought back.

Illustration. Polovtsy in a devastated Russian city.

In former times, an invasion of such nomads would have brought Rus' to the brink of disaster. But now Rus' was a single state with large, well-fortified cities, a strong army, and a good security system. Therefore, nomads and Rus' began to coexist. Their relationship was sometimes peaceful, sometimes hostile. There was brisk trade between them, and the population communicated widely in the border areas. Russian princes and Polovtsian khans began to enter into dynastic marriages among themselves.

But as soon as the central government in Rus' weakened or strife began between the princes, the Polovtsians began their raids. They took part in the internecine struggle on the side of one prince or another, and at the same time robbed everyone. During their strife, the princes increasingly began to invite the Polovtsians to Rus'.

In the absence of a leader. In 1093, the last of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod, died. The time has come for Yaroslav's grandchildren. There were no big state affairs behind them, no deep reforms, no major military campaigns. But there was a lot of ambition, pride, envy, and scores against each other. And there was no leader among them who could calm this confusion.

Formally, Izyaslav’s son Svyatopolk became the eldest in the family. He laid claim to the grand-ducal throne. But he was an indecisive, lightweight person, distinguished by petty intrigue and a feeling of envy of his capable and bright cousins ​​Vladimir and Oleg. However, the Kiev veche proclaimed him Grand Duke. The second most important prince in Rus' remained, who continued to own Chernigov. And the third cousin Oleg Svyatoslavich was in Tmutarakan. Oleg, quite rightly, due to his seniority, now laid claim to the second table in Rus' - the Principality of Chernigov.

Oleg was a brave knight, but an extremely ambitious and touchy person. In anger, he destroyed everything left and right. If his honor, his right to primacy were hurt, he stopped at nothing. Wisdom, prudence, and the interests of the homeland receded into the background.

In Rus', with external unity and in the presence of the great Kyiv prince Svyatopolk, three groups of rival princes emerged: one - Kiev, led by Svyatopolk; the second - Chernigov-Pereyaslav, headed by Vladimir Monomakh; the third is Tmutarakan, led by Oleg. And behind each prince there was a squad, there were strengthened, rich, populous cities, supporters throughout Rus'. This situation threatened new strife, new civil strife.

The beginning of the military activities of Vladimir Monomakh. From a young age, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh showed himself to be a brave warrior, a talented commander and a skilled diplomat. For many years he reigned in different cities of Rus' - Rostov, Vladimir-Volynsky, Smolensk, but most of all in Pereyaslavl, next to the Polovtsian steppe. Already in those years he acquired extensive military experience.

Back in 1076, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich placed Monomakh, together with his son Oleg, at the head of his army, sent to help the Poles in their war with the Czechs and Germans. The army under his command fought through the Czech Republic, won a number of victories over the united Czech-German forces and returned to their homeland with glory and great booty.

Vladimir Monomakh became especially famous in the 80s. 9th century in the fight against the Polovtsians. Vsevolod, who sat on the Kiev throne, essentially entrusted his son with the defense of the entire steppe border of Rus'. At that time, Monomakh, fighting with the nomads, did not hesitate for an hour. He acted boldly and decisively. Monomakh himself more than once went deep into the Polovtsian steppe and crushed the Polovtsian hordes there. Essentially, he became the first Russian prince who sought to beat the nomads on their territory. This was a new military tactic for Rus'. Already at that time, in Polovtsian tents and wagons, mothers frightened children with the name of Vladimir Monomakh.

By the beginning of the 90s. XI century he became the strongest and most influential prince in Rus', who did not know defeat on the battlefield. He was known among the people as a patriotic prince who spared neither strength nor life for the defense of Russian lands.

The Battle of Trepol and Oleg's campaign. In 1093 the Polovtsians undertook a great campaign. Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, who had just ascended the throne, was eager to fight. He turned to Vladimir Monomakh for help, but the cautious prince advised this time to pay off his enemies, because Rus' was not ready for a big war. However, Svyatopolk insisted on the campaign. The united Kiev, Chernigov and Pereyaslav army set out on a campaign. The Pereyaslavl team was commanded by Vladimir's young brother Rostislav.

The troops converged near the city of Trepol, on the banks of the Stugna River, a tributary of the Dnieper. A thunderstorm was approaching. Monomakh persuaded them to wait out the bad weather. He did not want the river to remain in the rear of the Russian army during a thunderstorm. But Svyatopolk and his warriors were eager to fight.

The Russian army barely crossed the river, swollen from the flood, and prepared for battle. At this time a thunderstorm broke out. The water in Stugna was rising before our eyes. The Polovtsy struck the first blow against Svyatopolk’s squad. The Kievans could not withstand the onslaught and fled. Then the entire mass of the Polovtsy swept away the left wing of Monomakh. The Russian army disintegrated. The warriors rushed back to the river. During the crossing, Rostislav was blown off his horse and drowned. Only a small part of the Russian army made it to the opposite bank of the river and escaped. This was Monomakh's first and last defeat.

That year the Polovtsians inflicted enormous damage on Rus'. They plundered many cities and villages, took large booty, and took away hundreds of captives. Oleg Svyatoslavich chose this time to regain Chernigov.
Oleg and his allied Polovtsians approached this city, behind whose walls Monomakh took refuge with a small number of warriors. The Polovtsy carried out plunder of the area. Monomakh's warriors repulsed all the assaults, but the situation was hopeless. And then Vladimir Monomakh agreed to give Oleg his family nest - Chernigov. He himself was returning to Pereyaslavl, orphaned after the death of his brother. And so a bunch of people leave the city and move through the ranks of the enemy army. Monomakh later recalled that the Polovtsy, like wolves, licked their lips at the prince and his family, but Oleg kept his word and did not allow them to attack their sworn enemy.

Invasion of the Cumans

The fight against the Polovtsians and the strife of the princes. In 1095, the Polovtsians again came to Rus' and besieged Pereyaslavl, knowing that Vladimir had not yet managed to gather a new army and could not fight them in an open field. Having entered into negotiations with the enemy, Monomakh then managed to strike them. After this, he sent messengers to Kyiv and Chernigov, calling on his brothers to send squads and finish off the Polovtsians. Svyatopolk sent soldiers, but Oleg, an old friend of the steppes, refused. The Kiev-Pereyaslav army went deep into the steppe and destroyed several Polovtsian camps, capturing rich booty.

In 1096, the Russian princes decided with united forces to again strike at the Polovtsians in the depths of the steppes. But Oleg again refused to join his brothers, and then the Kiev-Pereyaslav army, instead of marching to the steppe, moved to Chernigov. The princes took this city from Oleg and assigned him to live in the forest Murom, away from the Polovtsian steppe. But while Vladimir Monomakh’s son Izyaslav reigned in Murom, this meant that Oleg was left without any possessions at all. This was unbearable for the ambitious prince, and he was only waiting for an opportunity to achieve his rights by force.

And such an opportunity presented itself in the same year: two large Polovtsian hordes moved towards Rus'. While Vladimir and Svyatopolk were repulsing one horde from Pereyaslavl, the other besieged Kyiv, took and plundered the Kiev Pechersky Monastery. The princes rushed to the rescue of Kyiv, but the Polovtsians, loaded with booty, left before the Russian squads appeared here.

At this time, Oleg headed towards Murom. The young and inexperienced prince Izyaslav Vladimirovich came out to meet him. Oleg defeated his squad, and the Murom prince himself fell in battle. The news of his son's death shocked Vladimir, but instead of taking up the sword and taking revenge on the offender, he took up the pen.

Monomakh wrote a letter to Oleg. He proposed not to destroy the Russian land, but he himself promised not to avenge his son, noting that the death of a warrior in battle is a natural thing. Monomakh called on Oleg to put an end to the bloodshed and reach a peace agreement. He admitted that he was wrong in many ways, but at the same time wrote about Oleg’s injustices and cruelties. But this time the cousin refused. And then the entire Monomakh tribe set out to attack him. He himself did not take part in the campaign, but instructed his sons to crush Oleg. In the decisive battle, they defeated Oleg's squad, who soon asked for peace, swearing on the cross that he would carry out any order of the other princes.

Lyubech Congress

Lyubech Congress. In 1097 The Russian princes decided to put an end to civil strife and rally their forces in the fight against the Polovtsians. The meeting place was chosen as the ancestral castle of Monomakh in the city of Lyubech. This fact alone can tell who initiated the congress.

Illustration. Lyubechsky Congress of Princes.

Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, brothers Oleg and David Svyatoslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, David Igorevich from Vladimir-Volynsky and his opponent Vasilko Rostislavich from the neighboring city of Terebovlya, the great-grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, a brave and enterprising young prince, gathered in Lyubech. They all came with their boyars and squads. The princes and their closest associates sat down at a common table in the huge castle hall.

As the chronicle tells, the princes said at the congress: “Why are we destroying the Russian land, bringing quarrels upon ourselves? And the Polovtsians are plundering our land and rejoicing that we are torn apart by internecine wars. From now on, let us unite wholeheartedly and preserve the Russian land, and let everyone own his homeland.”. So, the princes agreed that each of them would retain the lands of their fathers. And for violating this order, the renegade princes were threatened with punishment from other princes. Thus, the congress once again confirmed the covenant of Yaroslav the Wise to preserve for the princes their "father". This indicated that the united state began to disintegrate, because even the Kiev prince could not enter into other people's possessions. At the same time, the congress confirmed that the Kiev prince is still the main prince of Rus'. The princes also agreed on joint actions against the Polovtsians.

The reason for this increased independence of individual lands of Rus' was the strengthening of their economic and military power, the growth of cities, and the increase in their population. And Chernigov, and Pereyaslavl, and Smolensk, and Novgorod, and Rostov, and Vladimir-Volynsky, and other cities did not need protection from the central government to the same extent as before: they had their own numerous boyars, squads, fortresses, temples, bishops, monasteries, strong merchants, artisans. And most importantly, at that time, at the head of Rus' there was a weak ruler who did not have the will and strength to subjugate the entire country. The only thing that still united all the lands was their fear of Polovtsian invasions. The church also advocated the unity of Rus'.

Several days passed after the Lyubech Congress, and it became clear that no amount of oaths could appease the princes fighting for power and wealth.

The meeting participants had not yet reached their cities, and terrible news came from Kyiv: Svyatopolk of Kiev and Davyd of Vladimir-Volynsky captured Prince Vasilko of Terebovlsky, who stopped by the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery to pray. Davyd ordered the prisoner's eyes to be gouged out and thrown into prison.

This angered the rest of the princes, and first of all Monomakh, who had done so much to gather the princes in Lyubech. The united army of many princes approached Kyiv. This time Oleg Chernigovsky also brought his squad. The princes forced Svyatopolk to obey and join them in the campaign against David. Davyd, frightened, asked for mercy, released the blinded Vasilko and returned his possessions to him.

The fragile peace in Rus' was restored, which made it possible to intensify the fight against the Polovtsians.

The scheme is the second strife in Rus'

Reasons and background

There are several main reasons that pushed the heirs of Vladimir the Baptist to civil strife:

• Polygamy of Prince Vladimir - many of his sons were born from different women, which increased their hostility towards each other. (Svyatopolk was born from a concubine, the ex-wife of Yaropolk, who was killed on the orders of Vladimir).
• Polish connections of Svyatopolk - some researchers suggest that Prince Svyatopolk came under the influence of his wife, the daughter of the Polish prince Boleslav, and her confessor Reyenbern. The young prince was promised help from Poland if he agreed to turn Kievan Rus from Christianity to Catholicism
• The common tendency for large feudal states to break up into personal principalities headed by the children of a recently deceased supreme ruler (prince, king, emperor), followed by a struggle for power between them.

Murder of princes Boris, Gleb and Svyatoslav

After the death of Prince Vladimir July 15, 1015, Svyatopolk, with the help of the Vyshgorod boyars loyal to him, established himself in Kyiv and declared himself the new Kyiv prince. Boris, who led the princely squad, despite the persuasion of his comrades, refused to confront his brother. His father's warriors left him and he remained with his closest people.

According to official history, Svyatopolk, notifying Boris about the death of his father and offering to live with him in peace, simultaneously sent hired killers to his brother. On the night of July 30, Prince Boris was killed along with a servant who tried to protect the owner.

After this, near Smolensk, the hired killers overtook Prince Gleb, and the Drevlyan prince Svyatoslav, who tried to escape to the Carpathians, along with his seven sons, died in a battle against a large detachment sent in pursuit of him.

The death of Svyatoslav and the struggle for power between the sons of Vladimir Svyatoslavich deprived the Carpathian Croats of their last ally, and the Borzhava and Latoritsa valleys were annexed by the Hungarians.

The official version of Svyatopolk's guilt in fratricide was later challenged on the basis of the surviving and translated Norwegian sagas (about Eymund). Considering the fact that, according to the chronicles, Yaroslav, Bryachislav and Mstislav refused to recognize Svyatopolk as the legitimate prince in Kyiv, and only two brothers - Boris and Gleb - declared their allegiance to the new Kyiv prince and pledged to “honor him as their father”, for Svyatopolk it is very strange would be to kill their allies. But Yaroslav, whose descendants had the opportunity to influence the writing of chronicles, was very interested in eliminating competitors on the way to the Kyiv throne.

The struggle between Yaroslav and Svyatopolk for the Kyiv throne

1016 - Battle of Lyubech

In 1016 Yaroslav, at the head of a 3,000-strong Novgorod army and mercenary Varangian troops, moved against Svyatopolk, who called the Pechenegs for help. The two troops met on the Dnieper near Lyubech and for three months, until late autumn, neither side risked crossing the river. Finally, the Novgorodians did it, and they got the victory. The Pechenegs were cut off from Svyatopolk's troops by the lake and were unable to come to his aid.

1017 - siege of Kyiv

Next year 1017 (6525) The Pechenegs, at the instigation of Buritsleif (here the opinions of historians differ, some consider Buritsleif to be Svyatopolk, others - Boleslav) undertook a campaign against Kyiv. The Pechenegs launched an attack with significant forces, while Yaroslav could only rely on the remnants of the Varangian squad led by King Eymund, the Novgorodians and a small Kiev detachment. According to the Scandinavian saga, Yaroslav was wounded in the leg in this battle. The Pechenegs managed to break into the city, but a powerful counterattack by a selected squad after a heavy, bloody battle put the Pechenegs to flight. In addition, large “wolf pits” near the walls of Kyiv, dug and camouflaged by order of Yaroslav, played a positive role in the defense of Kyiv. The besieged undertook a sortie and during the pursuit captured the banner of Svyatopolk.

1018 - Battle of the Bug River
Svyatopolk and Boleslav the Brave capture Kyiv

In 1018 Svyatopolk, married to the daughter of the Polish king Boleslav the Brave, enlisted the support of his father-in-law and again gathered troops to fight Yaroslav. Boleslav's army, in addition to the Poles, included 300 Germans, 500 Hungarians and 1000 Pechenegs. Yaroslav, having gathered his squad, moved towards him and as a result of the battle on the Western Bug, the army of the Kyiv prince was defeated. Yaroslav fled to Novgorod, and the road to Kyiv was open.

August 14, 1018 Boleslav and Svyatopolk entered Kyiv. The circumstances of Boleslav's return from the campaign are vague. The Tale of Bygone Years speaks of the expulsion of the Poles as a result of the Kiev uprising, but Thietmar of Merseburg and Gallus Anonymus write the following:

Boleslav the Brave and Svyatopolk at the Golden Gate of Kyiv

“Boleslav put in his place in Kyiv one Russian who became related to him, and he himself began to gather for Poland with the remaining treasures.”

Boleslav received, as a reward for his help, the Cherven cities (an important trading hub on the way from Poland to Kyiv) the Kyiv treasury and many prisoners, and also, according to the Chronicle of Thietmar of Merseburg, Predslava Vladimirovna, Yaroslav’s beloved sister, whom he took as a concubine.

And Yaroslav prepared to flee “over the sea.” But the Novgorodians chopped up his boats and convinced the prince to continue the fight with Svyatopolk. They collected money, concluded a new treaty with the Varangians of King Eymund and armed themselves.

1019 - Battle of the Alta River

In the spring of 1019 Svyatopolk fought with Yaroslav in a decisive battle on the Alta River. The chronicle did not preserve the exact location and details of the battle. It is only known that the battle lasted all day and was extremely fierce. Svyatopolk fled through Berestye and Poland to the Czech Republic. On the way, suffering from illness, he died.