Subject, tasks and sections of educational psychology
Pedagogical psychology is an interdisciplinary and typically applied branch of psychological science that arose in connection with real needs pedagogical theory and expanding educational practice. The presence of systematic and mass education is one of the significant achievements of civilization and at the same time a condition for the very existence and development of humanity.
In the pedagogical and educational process there is no special psyche set aside for it, different from that described in the previous chapters of the textbook. It’s just that in the psyche and personality, only some of its aspects, the accents of functioning and development, determined by the specifics of the educational process itself, stand out in relief. But since this process occupies one of the leading, decisive places in the life of a modern person, the need for the existence and practical application of educational psychology does not require special argumentation. Education needs separate and systematic psychological support.
Educational psychology studies human psyche as a subjective reflection of objective reality, carried out in special educational activities in order to implement other activities, for the entire life of a person.
Subject of educational psychology phenomena, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche appear subjects educational process: student(pupil, student) and teachers(teacher, lecturer). This involves a targeted study of the structure and dynamics, formation, functioning of the mental image in the course and as a result of processes training And education.
Since the specifics of the content and numerous tasks facing educational psychology are objectively determined by the characteristics of the educational, or pedagogical, process, let us first consider the initial concept education both process and result.
Education in the narrow sense of the word, this is the assimilation by a person of knowledge, skills and abilities, carried out in the learning process, therefore educated in everyday life is a literate, knowledgeable, well-read person.
In a broader and strictly psychological interpretation process and result of education take on a special meaning creation man, his "education"as a whole as an individual, and not just an increment, an arithmetic increase in knowledge and skills.
This is a fundamental, qualitative change, a basic redesign, a re-equipment of the psyche and personality. Education is a socially organized assistance the current and subsequent development of personality, its self-realization and self-change, the entire existence of a person. That is why the level of education of an individual is not reduced to the sum of years allotted for his education. Legalized questionnaire gradations of education: primary, secondary, specialized secondary, higher are very arbitrary, changeable, and relative. Education as a holistic result, it presupposes something different and much more than graduation certificates, certificates and diplomas, than a listing of compulsory disciplines attended by a person and passed during the period of study.
The amount of knowledge in itself does not change a person’s consciousness, his attitude towards the world in which he exists. Real, truly human education is inseparable from the process of education. Form a person - this means not only teaching him, but also helping to build image own personality, samples and models of social and professional behavior, life in general. Therefore, a competent, humanely organized educational process is certainly educational, those. complex in essence, inseparable into separate and seemingly sequential components.
Despite the apparent obviousness of this situation, even in the modern history of Russian education, for example, new ideological slogans and direct orders to remove the educational process from school and university practice have been recently proclaimed. Fortunately, this is almost impossible to implement even for the most order-obedient official from the education system. Thinking and consciousness are inseparable, like the psyche and personality. In a specific person, training and education are impossible without the other, although they are realized by different psychological mechanisms. To ensure the effectiveness of each of these processes, special conditions, targeted social and pedagogical efforts are required, a state educational system and special professional training and skill of teachers are required.
Varied and numerous tasks of educational psychology, can be reduced to five main ones, which in reality are interdependent, intersecting, interdisciplinary, i.e. not only psychological.
The first task is comprehensive study of the student’s psyche(educated) involved in a single educational process. Such organized, targeted research is necessary to optimize and individualize education, to promote the formation of the necessary psychological and personal characteristics, to provide competent, systematic psychological support and support for the processes of training and education. Here there are many particular and general psychological and socio-psychological problems, the solution of which provides an answer to the interdisciplinary and practically important question about the main subject of the process: "who is studying(educated, brought up)?"
People are not the same from birth, with the possible exception of monozygotic twins. But the number and scope of individual differences (behavioral and psychological) increases with age. The younger the child is, the more similar he is to his peers, although from a psychological point of view there are not even two identical personalities on the planet.
To identify and take into account the psychological characteristics of each student’s personality, it may be useful to use all seven parameters identified in the psychological structure of the individual: needs, self-awareness, abilities, temperament, character, characteristics of mental processes and states, mental experience of the individual (see Chapter 4), each of which can be decisive in the educational process.
The second task is psychological justification and selection of educational material to be learned. The problems solved here are intended to answer the never-ending and always debatable question: "why exactly what should be taught (educated, brought up)?" These are complex issues of selecting the content and volume of educational material, choosing compulsory (and elective, selective) academic disciplines.
Suppose it is necessary to study logic and Latin in a modern school (as previously in gymnasiums)? How much class time should I devote to geography and what sections should be taught? How to conceptually and logically build a Russian (or other) language course from first to 11th grade? There are no clear, universal or convincing answers to such questions. Everything depends on the level of civilization, cultural traditions, and state educational ideology and policy. A professional driver, for example, pragmatically does not need knowledge about the structure of the nervous system of the lancelet. But why does someone “at the top” have the right to decide what the same driver needs and does not need to know as a person, an individual, a citizen?
The school is designed to prepare people not only for work, but for life as a whole. In addition, every person has the right not only to choose, but also to a conscious, sometimes necessary change of profession. To do this, he must be sufficiently broad and comprehensively educated. Otherwise, mass education may become socially unjust, veiledly caste-based, and therefore inhumane. It is impossible (and not necessary) to “teach everyone and everything,” but it is absolutely necessary to facilitate the process of personal development as much as possible in teaching.
- The third psychological and pedagogical task is to answer probably the most popular question: “how to teach and educate?”, i.e. in the development and psychological testing, testing of pedagogical methods, techniques and holistic technologies of training and education. We can say that the majority of pedagogical and psychological-pedagogical research is aimed precisely at such methodological problems and issues of the processes of education, training and upbringing. The subsequent chapters of the textbook are devoted to their consideration (see chapters 39–41).
- The fourth task of educational psychology is study of the psyche, professional activity and personality of the teacher. This is the answer to a pressing, fundamentally important subjective question of the entire sphere of human education: "Who teaches (educates, educates)?". The problems raised here are equally social and psychological (see Chapter 42). Can anyone who wants to become a teacher? What are the individual psychological characteristics and professionally significant (necessary) qualities of a teacher, his social -psychological and material status? What are the objective and subjective opportunities for increasing mastery and self-realization (professional and personal)?
- The fifth, but theoretically central, initial task of educational psychology is participation in the development of theoretical and practical issues related to the conscious formulation and formulation goals public education, training and education. It is here that the social and the individual clearly appear in their inseparable and possibly contradictory (dialectical) unity. Society determines For what educate people; the personality transforms this question into his own, subjective one: " For what should I have an education?"
Without detailed, clearly formulated goal setting, there cannot be a controlled educational process; prediction, verification, and evaluation of the result are impossible. Psychologically reasoned answers to the basic vital, semantic and even moral question are needed: "For what educate (train, educate)?". Why and for whom does this education system exist? What can or should acquired knowledge and learned forms of behavior become for an individual? How have they changed the individual himself, his relationships and views on the world, on himself? What kind of personality (and not just a socially necessary professional, a narrowly oriented artisan) does society expect to create at the “output” of the educational process? For more information on this, see § 41.3.
It is clear that such educational issues go far beyond the scope of the subject of psychology, but even without its “shared” and often leading participation, they cannot be competently resolved. At the very least, maximum consideration of the so-called human factor is necessary; practical implementation in education of the well-known ideology of “human relations” is necessary.
The listed and many other problems are solved within the framework of three textbook sections of educational psychology:
- psychology of learning;
- psychology of education;
- psychology of work and personality of the teacher (teacher).
The first two sections relate primarily to the psyche of the subject being trained and educated. These sections of educational psychology are characterized by varying degrees of development and implementation in real educational practice. Currently more developed than others psychology of learning. It coexists many different scientific schools and concepts, which have their successors and critics (see Chapter 39). However, in any psychological and pedagogical design, methodological understanding and theoretical interpretation of fundamental categories and concepts such as “personality”, “psyche”, “education” are especially important. All other concepts, terminological constructs and specific pedagogical “techniques” are derivative, although this is not always recognized and clearly formulated by the authors of numerous modern psychological and pedagogical “innovations.” Unfortunately, behind these pedagogical schemes, a living person, his real psyche, is most often “lost.”
Like any applied branch of science, educational psychology has a pronounced interdisciplinary nature. Any practical, vital task is multi-subject and complex. This fully applies to the educational process, which is studied in its own way not only by pedagogy and educational psychology, but also by philosophy, medicine, sociology, cultural studies, physiology, economics, law, and management. All of these aspects of education in one way or another come to subject necessarily focus on a person - the real creator, performer and user of the public education system.
True, not all specialists and educational leaders are by any means always interested in or satisfied with some positions of domestic scientific psychology (see § 39.4; 39.5). For example, some directions and methods of the current reform of Russian education (early specialization of school education, simplification and reduction of curricula, mandatory two-stage higher education, fetishization of ubiquitous tests, mandatory “competency-based” approach, unproven effectiveness of a number of pedagogical “innovations”, etc.) cannot be considered scientifically indisputable and psychologically substantiated. But this, one must assume, is a traditionally temporary, transitory stage in the existence of modern Russian education and its constantly ongoing modernization. Mass education, according to the ideas of Russian psychology, should not be pragmatically minimal, but reasonable, verified, redundant, and in some ways ahead of both the current society and the current student. Education should work for the future, and therefore be developmental and educational. However, this requires hard efforts not only from the teaching, educational and scientific community, but also from the entire society, the entire Russian state.
To illustrate the deeply interdisciplinary nature of educational psychology, let us outline its connections with some other branches of scientific psychology, since in reality it is associated with almost all modern psychological science. Educational psychology is either part of some other applied branch of psychology, for example, legal, sports, engineering, or organically includes large parts and blocks of many types of modern psychology.
General psychology acts here as a kind of base that sets the necessary methodological, categorical and conceptual structure of educational psychology. It is impossible to list all the general psychological concepts and terms without which educational psychology simply cannot exist. Psyche, personality, consciousness, activity, thinking, motivation, abilities - all these categories “work” here in their own way, in the special context of education.
The relationship between pedagogical and child (age) psychology, especially in relation to school education. A child is not just a small adult, but a qualitatively different personality (J. Piaget), therefore, it is necessary to teach and educate, for example, a junior schoolchild differently than a teenager, and a teenager – differently than a young man. Without taking into account the basic age characteristics of students, effective education is impossible.
The processes of learning and development are not adjacent and not synonymous. They are in complex interaction, the research, organization and optimization of which is one of the pressing problems of modern education. Learning and development are now taking place in qualitatively different social (and personal, subjective) conditions than those presented in classical psychology of previous years and generations. The current subjects of the educational process - children, schoolchildren, teachers, parents, students - have become in some ways significantly different than just a decade ago (see Chapter 20). All this urgently requires systematic psychological and interdisciplinary research and direct access to mass educational practice at school and university.
A significant place in educational psychology should be occupied by socio-psychological problems(see chapter 25). Education exists in society, solves certain social, state, and not only personal tasks of the subjects of this process. Such tasks may not only not coincide, but also be in serious contradiction. Let's assume that society does not need as many lawyers, economists, bank employees as there are people who want it. But objectively, there are not enough specialists in engineering and blue-collar professions. Coordination of such “demand” and “supply” is a state, economic, political task, and not just an educational one, and even more so a narrowly psychological one. However, its optimal, humane solution cannot do without psychology: social, general, political, differential, pedagogical.
In addition, every teacher actually works not only with the individual student, but with a social group, a class, with parents, a group of professional colleagues, therefore, the educational process necessarily involves an extensive socio-psychological phenomenology of small and large groups, their interactions, group speakers. All these inevitable and significant influences of society on the process and result of education must be properly planned, taken into account, measured, and, if possible, coordinated.
Almost the most important, relevant and directly significant for educational psychology are its connections and interactions, relationships with pedagogy. It would seem that there are and should not be any problems in the cooperation and commonwealth of these two sciences. They have largely common goals and methods, identical scientific objects, a uniting scientific community represented by the Russian Academy of Education, and the presence of common historical roots, creators and great predecessors. In Russia, these are such extraordinary personalities and scientists of an organic psychological and pedagogical profile, such as K. D. Ushinsky, P. P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, P. F. Kapterev, A. S. Makarenko and many others, including including modern ones. There are many examples of a real, systematic, and not eclectic combination of educational psychology and “psychological pedagogy”; there are models for constructing modern psychodidactics. There are well-developed scientific and practically implemented psychological and pedagogical directions, concepts, and educational technologies. But, on the other hand, the interdisciplinary relations between psychology and pedagogy cannot be called idyllic, established, or problem-free.
For a future teacher, an introduction to general and educational psychology begins with the learning process at a pedagogical university. There is a psychological and pedagogical triad that has been established here for decades: psychology – pedagogy is a private teaching methodology. Such a combination of academic subjects is an absolutely necessary part, achievement and main feature of vocational pedagogical education in our country. This triad greatly contributes to ensuring mandatory psychological and pedagogical literacy and culture, the same name as the student’s readiness for future teaching activities.
The subject of professional work of a chemistry teacher, in contrast to, say, a chemist, is not only chemical substances and properties, but also the students themselves. Scientist and teacher are close, definitely related, but still not the same professions. Many people (including teachers, professors) may not understand this and may not subjectively accept this, but this is an essential, empirically established fact. The true professionalism of a teacher lies not only in knowledge of the subject taught, not only in the assimilation of pedagogical theories and techniques, but in an adequate understanding of the structure and functioning of the human psyche in the process of teaching or upbringing. The true psychological and pedagogical education of a teacher can only be comprehensive, holistic, and not narrowly subject-specific - musical, mathematical, historical, etc. Real educational practice does not need either “pure” teachers as “transmitters” of knowledge, nor “emasculated” psychologists as “all-knowing” and critical theorists. Everyday, labor-intensive and always creative “pedagogization” of psychology and “psychologization” of pedagogy are required.
However, it should be recognized that both in the content and in the execution of the educational psychological-pedagogical triad itself, there are unresolved issues, theoretical and methodological inconsistencies, shortcomings, and inconsistencies. In the mass teaching of these three disciplines there is often no proper methodological, conceptual and operational continuity. There may be substantial repetitions and obvious inconsistencies in the interpretations of the same educational, especially psychological, phenomena. The psychological-pedagogical triad is not always realized as a necessary integral, unified cycle of related, but subject-wise and operationally different disciplines. There are ambiguous, complex, and sometimes adversarial relationships between modern psychology and pedagogy, which is quite acceptable for academic theory as a means of promoting its development. In relation to real educational practice, this situation cannot be considered normal.
A school teacher or university teacher, of course, cannot and should not be professional psychologists. But the requirements for their psychological preparedness, education and culture should not be simplified, downplayed and reduced, for example, to pedagogical communication skills. This is only an integral part, albeit an important one, of the general professional and psychological culture of the teacher (see Chapter 42). In turn, a school psychologist is not obliged and cannot be a teacher without having the appropriate education. However, to ensure efficiency, i.e. practical usefulness of his specific and actually psychological work, he must professionally know and adequately perceive existing pedagogical theories, problems and everyday realities.
Pedagogical psychology
(from the Greek pais (paidos) - child and ago - I lead, educate) - a branch of psychology that studies the psychological problems of teaching and upbringing. P. p. explores psychological issues of the purposeful formation of cognitive activity and socially significant personality traits; conditions that ensure the optimal developmental effect of training; the possibility of taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of students; relationships between the teacher and students, as well as within the educational team; psychological foundations of pedagogical activity itself (teacher psychology). The essence of a person’s individual mental development is his assimilation of socio-historical experience, recorded in objects of material and spiritual culture; this assimilation is carried out through active human activity, the means and methods of which are updated in communication with other people. P.P. can be divided into the psychology of education (studying the patterns of assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities) and the psychology of education (studying the patterns of active, purposeful personality formation). According to the areas of application of pedagogical psychology, we can distinguish the psychology of preschool education, the psychology of training and education at school age, divided into junior, middle and senior school ages, which have their own significant specifics (see), psychology of vocational education, and psychology of higher education.
Brief psychological dictionary. - Rostov-on-Don: “PHOENIX”. L.A. Karpenko, A.V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. 1998 .
Pedagogical psychology Etymology.
Comes from the Greek. pais - child + ago - I educate and psyche - soul + logos - teaching.
Category.Section of psychology.
Specificity.Studies the patterns of the process of appropriation by an individual of social experience in the conditions of specially organized training.
Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000.
PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
(English) educational psychology) - a branch of psychology that studies the laws of the process assimilation individual social experience in the context of educational activities, relationships training and personal development.
P. p. arose in the 2nd half. XIX century The founder grew up. P. p. is K. D. Ushinsky. The works of P. F. Kapterev, A. P. Nechaev, A. F. Lazursky and others played a major role in its formation.
Until recently, P. p. studied g.o. psychological patterns of teaching and raising children. Currently, she goes beyond childhood and adolescence and begins to study the psychological problems of education and upbringing at later age stages.
The focus of P. p. is the processes of assimilation knowledge, formation of various aspects of the student’s personality. To reveal the patterns of assimilation of different types of social experience (intellectual, moral, aesthetic, industrial, etc.) means to understand how it becomes the property of an individual’s experience. Development of human personality in ontogenesis acts primarily as a process assimilation(appropriation) of the experience accumulated by humanity. This process is always carried out with one or another measure of help from other people, that is, as training and education. Because of this, the study of the psychological patterns of the formation of various aspects of the human personality in the conditions of educational activities significantly contributes to the knowledge of the general patterns of personality development, which is the task general psychology. P. p. also has a close connection with developmental and social psychology, together with them it forms the psychological basis of pedagogy and private methods.
Thus, psychological psychology is developing as a branch of both fundamental and applied psychology. Both fundamental and applied scientific research are divided, in turn, into two parts: psychology of learning(or teachings) and educational psychology. One of the division criteria is the type of social experience to be learned.
Psychology of learning, first of all, explores the process of assimilation of knowledge and adequate skills And skills. Its task is to identify the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for successful occurrence. A special task of teaching is the development of methods that make it possible to diagnose the level and quality of assimilation. Studies of the learning process, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of domestic schools of psychology, have shown that the process of assimilation is the performance by a person of certain actions or activities. Knowledge is always acquired as elements of these actions, and skills and abilities take place when the acquired actions are brought to certain indicators for some of their characteristics. Cm. , , ,Developmental education, . For the deductive method of learning, see .
Learning is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the learning process. The actions that make up the activity of the teaching are assimilated according to the same laws as any others.
Most studies on the psychology of learning are aimed at identifying patterns of formation and functioning educational activities in the context of the existing education system. In particular, rich experimental material has been accumulated, revealing typical shortcomings in the acquisition of various scientific concepts by secondary school students. The role of life experience in learning has also been studied, speeches, the nature of the educational material presented, etc. in the acquisition of knowledge.
In the 1970s In teaching, another path has increasingly begun to be used: the study of the patterns of knowledge formation and educational activity in general in the conditions of specially organized training (see. ). First of all, these studies have shown that managing the learning process significantly changes the course of assimilation of knowledge and skills; The results obtained are important for finding optimal ways of learning and identifying the conditions for effective mental development of students.
Large psychological dictionary. - M.: Prime-EVROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. 2003 .
Pedagogical psychology
A wide area of research related to the use of psychological methods in the educational process. Researchers in the field of educational psychology apply the principles of learning in classrooms, school administration, psychometric tests, teacher training, and other aspects closely related to the educational process. In Great Britain, educational psychologists take an active part in the work of educational institutions. They usually have an honors degree in psychology, a teaching qualification and relevant experience. Upon completion of graduate school, a specialist can receive a master's degree in educational psychology.
Psychology. AND I. Dictionary reference / Transl. from English K. S. Tkachenko. - M.: FAIR PRESS. Mike Cordwell. 2000.
See what “educational psychology” is in other dictionaries:
PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY- PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY. A branch of psychology that studies the psychological problems of teaching and upbringing students, the formation of thinking, as well as the management of knowledge acquisition, the acquisition of skills and abilities. P.P. identifies psychological factors... ... New dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)
PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY- a branch of psychology that studies the development of the human psyche in the process of education and training and develops the psychological foundations of this process... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Pedagogical psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of the process of appropriation by an individual of social experience in the conditions of specially organized training... Psychological Dictionary
Pedagogical psychology- This page requires significant revision. It may need to be Wikified, expanded, or rewritten. Explanation of reasons and discussion on the Wikipedia page: For improvement / March 20, 2012. Date of setting for improvement March 20, 2012 ... Wikipedia
Pedagogical psychology- a branch of psychology that studies mental phenomena that arise in the conditions of a purposeful pedagogical process; develops the psychological foundations of training (See Training) and education (See Education). P. p. is closely related to both... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
pedagogical psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the development of the human psyche in the process of education and training and develops the psychological foundations of this process. * * * PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY, a branch of psychology that studies the development... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Pedagogical psychology- a branch of psychological science that studies the features of socialization and development of the human psyche under the conditions and under the influence of his participation in the educational activities of a school, college, club, etc. Educational psychology studies mental... ... Fundamentals of spiritual culture (teacher's encyclopedic dictionary)
Educational psychology as a science. Subject of educational psychology.
Educational psychology is an independent branch of psychological science, most closely related to such branches as developmental psychology and occupational psychology. Both of these sciences are close due to the common object of study, which is man in the process of his development, but their subjects are different. The subject of educational psychology is not just the mental development of a person, as in developmental psychology, but the role in this process of training and education, that is, certain types of activities. This is what brings educational psychology closer to labor psychology, the subject of which is the development of the human psyche under the influence of work activity. One of the types of the latter is pedagogical activity, which directly affects the development of the psyche of both the student and the teacher himself.
The subject of educational psychology is also the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person’s mastery of sociocultural experience and the changes in the level of intellectual and personal development caused by this mastery. In particular, educational psychology studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, the peculiarities of the formation of active independent creative thinking in students, the influence of training and upbringing on mental development, the conditions for the formation of mental new formations, the psychological characteristics of the personality and activities of the teacher. The main problems of educational psychology have always been the following:
1. The connection between conscious, organized pedagogical influence on a child and his psychological development.
2. A combination of age patterns and individual developmental characteristics and optimal teaching and upbringing methods for age categories and specific children.
3. Finding and making the most effective use of sensitive periods of child mental development.
4. Psychological readiness of children for conscious education and training.
5. Pedagogical neglect.
6. Providing an individual approach to training.
The subject of each branch of scientific knowledge also determines its thematic structure, i.e., the sections included in this science. Traditionally, the structure of educational psychology is divided into three sections: 1) psychology of learning; 2) psychology of education; 3) the psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher. However, such a classification excludes from consideration the personality and activity of the student himself. In fact, the word “teaching” refers to the influence on the student by the teacher with the aim of the student acquiring knowledge and developing skills, i.e. the teacher is considered as an active party, a subject of activity, and the student as an object of influence. The concept of “education” also means influencing the person being educated with the aim of developing in him certain psychological properties and qualities desirable for the educator, i.e. the child again finds himself in the role of an object that needs to be influenced in a certain way, and only as a separate issue in this topic self-education is considered.
Structure and tasks of educational psychology.
Tasks of educational psychology:
1. - disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educational influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;
2.- determination of the mechanisms and patterns of students’ mastery of sociocultural experience, its structuring, preservation in the individual consciousness of the student, its use in different situations;
3. – determination of the connection between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educational influence (collaboration, active forms of learning, etc.).
4. – study of the characteristics of the organization and management of students’ educational activities and the influence of these processes on their intellectual and personal development;
5. – study of the psychological foundations of a teacher’s activity, his individual psychological and professional qualities;
6. – determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for knowledge acquisition;
7. – determination of the psychological foundations for diagnosing the level and quality of learning in accordance with educational standards.
Structure of educational psychology, those. sections included in this branch of scientific knowledge. Traditionally considered as part of three sections:
1. – psychology of learning;
2. – psychology of education;
3. – psychology of the teacher.
Or more broadly:
1. psychology of educational activities;
2. psychology of educational activity and its subject;
3. psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject;
4. psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.
Psychological and pedagogical experiment: schemes for its implementation.
Experiment(from the Latin eexperimental - “test”, “experience”, “test”) - the most complex type of research, the most labor-intensive, but at the same time more accurate and useful in cognitive terms. Famous experimental psychologists P. Kress and J. Piaget wrote: “The experimental method is a form of the mind’s approach, which has its own logic and its own technical requirements. He does not tolerate haste, but instead of slowness and even some cumbersomeness he gives the joy of confidence, partial, perhaps, but final.”
It is impossible to do without experiment in science and practice, despite its complexity and labor intensity, since only in a carefully thought-out, properly organized and conducted experiment can the most conclusive results be obtained, especially regarding cause-and-effect relationships.
The purpose of the experiment is to identify regular connections, i.e. stable, significant connections between phenomena and processes. It is this goal that distinguishes experiment from other research methods that perform the function of collecting empirical data.
Experiment- this means studying the influence of independent variables on dependent ones with constant characteristics of controlled variables and taken into account spontaneous ones.
Scheme of psychological and pedagogical experiment.
D. Campbell introduced the concept of an ideal experiment, which is satisfied by the following conditions:
1. The experimenter changes only one independent variable, and the dependent variable is strictly controlled.
2. Other conditions of the experimenter remain unchanged.
3. Equivalence (equality) of subjects in the control and experimental groups.
4. Carrying out all experimental influences simultaneously.
There are practically no ideal experiments.
General concept of learning.
Learningdenotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization under Earth conditions).
In foreign psychology, the concept of “learning” is often used as an equivalent to “teaching”. In Russian psychology (at least during the Soviet period of its development) it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov, etc.) have used this term in relation to humans.
The term “learning” is used primarily in behavioral psychology. In contrast to the pedagogical concepts of training, education and upbringing, it covers a wide range of processes in the formation of individual experience (habituation, imprinting, formation of the simplest conditioned reflexes, complex motor and speech skills, sensory discrimination reactions, etc.).
In psychological science, there are a number of different interpretations of learning.
All types of learning can be divided into two types: associative and intellectual.
Characteristic for associative learning is the formation of connections between certain elements of reality, behavior, physiological processes or mental activity based on the contiguity of these elements (physical, mental or functional). Types of associative learning:
1. Associative-reflex learning divided into sensory, motor and sensorimotor.
· Sensory learning consists in the assimilation of new biologically significant properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
· Motor learning consists in the development of new biologically useful reactions when the sensory component of the reactions is mainly kinesthetic or proprioceptive, i.e. when sensory information arises in the very process of performing a movement.
· Sensorimotor learning consists in developing new or adapting existing reactions to new conditions of perception.
2. Associative cognitive learning is divided into teaching knowledge, teaching skills and teaching actions.
· At learning Through knowledge, a person discovers new properties in objects that are important for his activity or life, and assimilates them.
· Learning skills lies in the formation of a program of actions that ensures the achievement of a certain goal, as well as a program for the regulation and control of these actions.
Learning Action involves the learning of knowledge and skills and corresponds to sensorimotor learning at the cognitive level.
At intellectual learning the subject of reflection and assimilation are the essential connections, structures and relationships of objective reality.
Types of intellectual learning:
More complex forms of learning relate to intellectual learning, which, like associative learning, can be divided into reflexive and cognitive.
1. Reflexive intellectual learning is divided into relational learning, transfer learning and sign learning.
· Essence relationship teaching consists in isolating and reflecting in the psyche the relations of elements in a situation, separating them from the absolute properties of these elements.
· Transfer learning is “the successful use, in relation to a new situation, of those skills and innate forms of behavior that the animal already possesses.” This type of learning is based on the ability to identify relationships and actions.
· Sign learning is associated with the development of such forms of behavior in which “the animal reacts to an object as a sign, that is, it responds not to the properties of the object itself, but to what this object signifies” (Ibid. p. 62).
In animals, intellectual learning is presented in its simplest forms; in humans, it is the main form of learning and occurs at the cognitive level.
2. Intelligent Cognitive Training is divided into teaching concepts, teaching thinking and teaching skills.
· Learning concepts is the assimilation of concepts that reflect the essential relations of reality and are enshrined in words and combinations of words. Through mastery of concepts, a person assimilates the socio-historical experience of previous generations.
· Learning thinking consists in “forming in students mental actions and their systems, reflecting the basic operations with the help of which the most important relations of reality are learned. Teaching thinking is a prerequisite for teaching concepts.
. Learning skills is to develop in students ways to regulate their actions and behavior in accordance with the goal and situation.
Learning theories.
T.n. strive to systematize existing facts about learning in the simplest and most logical way and direct the efforts of researchers in the search for new and important facts. In the case of T. n., these facts are associated with conditions that cause and maintain changes in behavior as a result of the organism acquiring individual experience. Despite the fact that some differences between T. n. are caused by variations in the degree of importance they attach to particular facts, most of the differences arising from disagreements about how best to interpret the total body of available facts. Theoret. an approach that calls itself experimental. analysis of behavior, tries to systematize facts at a purely behavioral level, without k.-l. appeal to hypothetical processes or physiologist. manifestations. However, many theorists do not agree with interpretations of learning that are limited only to the behavioral level. Three circumstances are often mentioned in this regard. Firstly, the time interval between behavior and its preconditions can be quite large. To fill this gap, some theorists have suggested the existence of hypothetical phenomena such as habits or memory processes that mediate the observed background and subsequent actions. Secondly, we often behave differently in conditions that superficially look like the same situation. In these cases, unobservable states of the organism, often called motivations, are invoked as a hypothetical explanation for observed differences in behavior. Finally, thirdly, complex evolutionary and individual developmental histories make it possible for highly organized reactions to occur in the absence of observable intermediate, transitional forms of behavior. In such circumstances, the previous external conditions necessary for the emergence of the skill, and the events that occur between the occurrence of the problem and the emergence of the answer to it, are inaccessible to observation. In conditions of limited knowledge about events that precede the observed behavior, and a lack of knowledge about intermediate physiologist. and neural processes, unobservable cognitive processes are invoked to explain behavior. Due to these three circumstances, the majority of T. n. assume the existence of unobservable processes - usually called intermediate variables - that interpose between observable events in the environment and behavioral manifestations. However, these theories differ with respect to the nature of these intervening variables. Although T.n. address a wide range of issues, the present discussion will focus on one topic: the nature of reinforcement. Experimental analysis of behavior In the experiment. Behavior analysis recognizes two procedures that can be used to induce changes in behavior: respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. With respondent conditioning - more often called in other theories. contexts, classical or Pavlovian conditioning - an indifferent stimulus is regularly followed by another stimulus that already causes a reaction. As a result of this sequence of events, the first, previously ineffective, stimulus begins to produce a reaction that may have a strong resemblance to the reaction caused by the second stimulus. Although response conditioning plays an important role in learning, especially emotional responses, most learning involves operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, a response is followed by a specific reinforcement. The response on which this reinforcement depends is called an operant because it acts on the environment to produce this reinforcement. Operant conditioning is believed to play a more important role in humans. behavior, since by gradually modifying the reaction, with which reinforcement is conditionally connected, it is possible to develop new and more complex operants. This process is called operant conditioning. In experimental In the analysis of behavior developed by B.F. Skinner, reinforcement is simply a stimulus that, when included in a system of connections determined by the use of respondent or operant procedures, increases the likelihood of subsequent behavior being formed. Skinner studied the importance of reinforcement in humans. behavior in a much more systematic way than any other theorist. In his analysis, he tried to avoid introducing k.-l. new processes that are not observable in laboratory experiments on animal learning. His explanation of complex behavior relied on the assumption that the often unobservable and subtle behavior of people follows the same principles as fully observable forms of behavior. Theories of intermediate variables Under the pressure of the three problems noted above - memory, motivation and cognition, most of the creators of the so-called. supplemented Skinner's experiment. analysis of environmental and behavioral variables by intervening variables. Intermediate variables are theories. constructs, the meaning of which is determined through their connections with various environmental variables, whose general effects they are intended to summarize. Tolman's expectancy theory. Thorndike, influenced by Darwin's premise of continuity of evolution, biologist. species, began the transition to a less mentalistic psychology. John B. Watson concluded it with a complete rejection of mentalistic concepts. Acting in line with the new thinking, Tolman replaced the old speculative mentalistic concepts with logically definable intermediate variables. As far as our subject is concerned, Tolman did not follow Thorndike's example. Thorndike viewed the consequences of a response as being of utmost importance in strengthening the associative connection between stimulus and response. He called this the law of effect, which was the forerunner of modern law. reinforcement theory. Tolman believed that reaction consequences do not affect learning as such, but only the external expression of the processes underlying learning. The need to distinguish between learning and execution arose in the course of attempts to interpret the results of experiments on latent learning. As the theory developed, the name of Tolman's intermediate learning variable was changed several times, but the most appropriate name was probably expectancy. Expectancy depended solely on the temporal sequence—or contiguity—of events in the environment rather than on the consequences of the response. Physiological theory of Pavlov. For Pavlov, as for Tolman, a necessary and sufficient condition for learning was the contiguity of events. These events are physiologist. are represented by processes occurring in those areas of the cerebral cortex, which are activated by indifferent and unconditioned stimuli. The evolutionary consequences of a learned response were recognized by Pavlov, but not tested experimentally. conditions, so their role in learning remains unclear. Ghazri's molecular theory. Like Tolman and Pavlov, and unlike Thorndike, Edwin R. Gasri believed that contiguity was a sufficient condition for learning. However, the events that coincided in time were not determined by such broad events in the environment as Tolman argued. Each molar environmental event, according to Ghazri, consists of many molecular stimulus elements, which he called signals. Each molar behavior, which Ghazri called an “action,” in turn consists of many molecular reactions, or “movements.” If a signal is combined in time with movement, this movement becomes completely determined by this signal. Learning a behavioral action develops slowly only because most actions require learning of many component movements in the presence of many specific signals. Hull's drive reduction theory. The use of intervening variables in learning theory reached its greatest development in the work of Clark L. Hull. Hull attempted to develop a general interpretation of behavioral changes resulting from both classical and operant procedures. Both stimulus-response conjugation and drive reduction were included as necessary components in Hull's concept of reinforcement. Fulfillment of learning conditions influences the formation of an intermediate variable - habit. Habit was defined by Hull as a theory. a construct that summarizes the overall effect of a number of situational variables on a number of behavioral variables. The relationships between situational variables and the intervening variable, and then between habit and behavior, were expressed in the form of algebraic equations. Despite the use of some of his intermediate variables in the formulation of physiologist. terms, experiment. research and Hull's theory were concerned exclusively with the behavioral level of analysis. Kenneth W. Spence, a collaborator of Hull who made significant contributions to the development of his theory, was particularly careful in defining intermediate variables in purely logical terms. Subsequent development Although none of these theories of intermediate variables retained their significance in the second half of the 20th century, the subsequent development of the theory of theory was influenced by the subsequent development of the theory of intermediate variables. two of their key features were influential. All subsequent theories, as a rule, were based on mat. apparatus and considered a strictly defined range of phenomena - that is, they were “miniature” theories. Hull's theory was the first step towards creating a quantitative theory of behavior, but its algebraic equations served only to briefly formulate the basics. concepts. The first ones are really swear words. T.n. were developed by Estes. Dr. quantitative theories, instead of using probability theory and mathematics. statistics relied primarily on the theory of information processing. or computer models. Within the framework of intervening variable theories, the most significant contribution to the development of the principle of reinforcement came from empirical research. Leon Karnina and related theories. works by Robert Rescola and Alan R. Wagner. In the classical conditioning procedure, an indifferent stimulus combined with a k.-l. other effective reinforcement, does not gain control over the reaction if the indifferent stimulus is accompanied by another stimulus, which already causes this reaction. At the behavioral level, a certain discrepancy between the response elicited by the reinforcer and the response that occurs during the presentation of that indifferent stimulus must be complemented by similarity if learning is to occur. In addition, the nature of this discrepancy must be precisely defined. In terms of experimentation. behavior analysis theory. the work has become more obscene. character, although ch. arr. deterministic rather than probabilistic systems. Theoret. research here they developed in the direction from the analysis of a single reinforced reaction to multiple ones. reinforced reactions and the interaction of reinforced reactions with other reactions. In the broadest sense, these theories describe various reinforcers as causes that cause a redistribution of the body's responses within the range of possible behavioral alternatives. The resulting redistribution minimizes the change in the current reaction until a new operant conjugation is established and is sensitive to the instantaneous value of the probability of reinforcement for each reaction. There is reason to believe that the work carried out by representatives of the theory of intermediate variables in the field of classical conditioning and experimental. analysts in the field of operant conditioning, leads to a common understanding of reinforcement, in which behavior is changed in order to minimize the network of discrepancies associated with the action of all excitatory stimuli present in a given environment.
Types of learning in humans
1. Learning by mechanism imritinga , i.e. rapid, automatic adaptation of the body to the specific conditions of its life using forms of behavior that are practically ready from birth. The presence of imriting unites humans with animals that have a developed central nervous system. For example, as soon as a newborn touches the mother's breast, he immediately exhibits an innate sucking reflex. As soon as a mother duck appears in the field of view of a newborn duckling and begins to move in a certain direction, the chick, standing on its own paws, automatically begins to follow her everywhere. This - instinctive(i.e. unconditional-reflex) forms of behavior, they are quite plastic for a certain, usually very limited, period (the “critical” period), and subsequently are difficult to change.
2. Conditioned reflex learning – a conditioned stimulus is associated by the body with the satisfaction of corresponding needs. Subsequently, conditioned stimuli begin to play a signaling or orienting role. For example, a word as a certain combination of sounds. Associated with highlighting an object in the field of vision or holding an object in one’s hand, it can acquire the ability to automatically evoke in a person’s mind an image of this object or a movement aimed at searching for it.
3. Operant conditioning – knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired using the so-called trial and error method. This type of learning was identified by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner in addition to conditioned reflex learning. Operant learning is based on active actions (“operations”) of the organism in the environment. If some spontaneous action turns out to be useful in achieving a goal, it is reinforced by the result achieved. A pigeon, for example, can be taught to play ping-pong if the game becomes a means of obtaining food. Operant learning is implemented in the programmed training system and in the token system of psychotherapy.
4. Vicarious learning – learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately accepts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is partially represented in higher animals, such as monkeys.
5. Verbal learning – a person’s acquisition of new experience through language. In this case, we mean learning carried out in symbolic form through diverse sign systems. For example, symbolism in physics, mathematics, computer science, music literacy.
The first, second and third types of learning are characteristic of both animals and humans, while the fourth and fifth are only for humans.
If the learning conditions are specifically organized, are created, then such an organization of learning is called training. Training is broadcast a person with certain knowledge, skills, and abilities. Knowledge, abilities and skills are the forms and results of reflective and regulatory processes in the human psyche. Consequently, they can arise in a person’s head only as a result of his own activities, i.e. as a result of the mental activity of the student.
Thus, education – the process of interaction between the teacher (teacher) and the student (student), as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills and abilities.
Knowledge, abilities and skills will be formed only if the teacher’s influences cause certain physical and mental activity.
Teaching (learning activities)- this is a special type of cognitive activity of the subject, performed with the aim of acquiring a certain composition of knowledge, skills, and intellectual skills.
Structure of educational activities.
Target- mastering the content and methods of teaching, enriching the child’s personality, i.e. mastering scientific knowledge and relevant skills.
Motives- this is what encourages you to learn and overcome difficulties in the process of acquiring knowledge; a stable internal psychological reason for behavior, actions, and activities.
Classification of teaching motives:
Social : the desire to acquire knowledge, to be useful to society, the desire to earn the praise of the teacher, the desire to earn the respect of comrades, avoidance of punishment.
Cognitive : orientation towards mastering new knowledge, orientation towards the learning process (the child finds pleasure in being active in this type of activity, even if it does not immediately bring certain results), orientation towards results (the child tries in class to get a “10”, although the subject itself he is not interested).
Emotional: interest on an emotional level.
What are the main motives educational activities of six-year-olds? Research shows that dominant meaning children of this age have motives for learning that lie outside the educational activity itself. Most children are attracted by the opportunity to fulfill their needs as a schoolchild. recognition, communication, self-affirmation. At the beginning of the school year, motives associated with knowledge and learning itself have little weight. But by the end of the school year, there are more children with this type of learning motivation (obviously, under the pedagogical influence of the teacher, educator). However, researchers warn that it is too early to become complacent. Cognitive motives Six-year-olds are still extremely unstable and situational. They need constant, but indirect, unobtrusive reinforcement.
It is important for the teacher to maintain and increase children's interest in school. It is important for him to know what motives are most significant for the child at this stage, in order to build his education with this in mind. Let us remind you: an educational goal that is not connected with the motives that are relevant to the child, that does not affect his soul, is not retained in his consciousness, and is easily replaced by other goals that are more in tune with the child’s habitual motives.
Since at the age of six the internal, cognitive motivation for learning is just being formed and the will (so necessary in learning) is not yet sufficiently developed, it is advisable to maintain the maximum variety of motives for learning (its multi-motivated) when teaching children at school. Children need to be motivated in a variety of ways.- game, competitive, prestigious, etc. - and emphasize it to a greater extent than is currently done when teaching six-year-olds.
Learning task- this is what the child must master.
Learning action- these are the changes in educational material necessary for the child to master it; this is what the child must do in order to discover the properties of the subject he is studying.
Learning action is formed on the basis of mastery ways of teaching (operational side of the exercise) – These are practical and mental actions with the help of which the student masters the content of the teaching and at the same time applies the acquired knowledge in practice.
Practical actions - (actions with objects) – with images of objects, diagrams, tables and models, with handouts
Mental Actions : perceptual, mnemonic, mental (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, etc.), reproductive - according to given patterns, methods (reproducing), productive - creation of something new (carried out according to independently formed criteria, own programs, new ways, new combination of means), verbal - reflection of the material in the word (designation, description, statement, repetition of words and statements), i.e. performing actions in speech form, imagery (aimed at creating imaginary images).
To learn successfully, a child needs certain skills (automated ways of performing actions) and abilities (a combination of knowledge and skills that ensures the successful completion of an activity). Among them - specific skills and abilities required in certain lessons (addition, subtraction, phoneme identification, reading, writing, drawing, etc.). But along with them, special attention should be paid to generalized skills that are needed in any lesson or activity. These skills will fully develop later, but the rudiments of them appear already in preschool age.
Action of control (self-control) - this is an indication of whether the child correctly performs the action corresponding to the model. This action should not only be performed by the teacher. Moreover, he must specifically teach the child to control his actions not only in terms of their final result, but also in the process of achieving it.
Action of assessment (self-assessment)- determining whether the student has achieved the result or not. Result educational activity can be expressed by: the need to continue learning, interest, satisfaction from studying or reluctance to study, negative attitude towards the educational institution, avoidance of studies, failure to attend classes, leaving the educational institution.
Learning ability and its main components. Learning ability – This is a set of fairly stable and widely manifested features of a child’s cognitive activity that determine success, i.e. speed and ease of assimilation of knowledge and mastery of teaching methods.
Methods of influence in education
Method of formation of consciousness: story, explanation, clarification, lecture, ethical conversation; exhortation, suggestion, instruction, debate, report, example. Method of organizing activities and forming behavioral experience: exercise, training, pedagogical requirement, public opinion, educational situations. Stimulation method: competition, encouragement, punishment.
Pedagogical impact- a special type of activity of a teacher, the goal of which is to achieve positive changes in the psychological characteristics of the student (needs, attitudes, relationships, states, behavior patterns).
The goal of any psychological influence is to overcome the subjective defenses and barriers of the individual, restructuring his psychological characteristics or behavior patterns in the right direction. There are three paradigms of psychological influence and three corresponding influence strategies.
The first strategy is imperative influence strategy; its main functions: the function of controlling human behavior and attitudes, reinforcing them and directing them in the right direction, the function of coercion in relation to the object of influence. Second strategy - manipulative – is based on penetration into the mechanisms of mental reflection and uses knowledge for the purpose of influence. Third strategy - developing. The psychological condition for the implementation of such a strategy is dialogue. The principles on which it is based are the emotional and personal openness of communication partners,
Traditionally, psychological science distinguishes two main types of pedagogical influence: persuasion and suggestion.
Belief - psychological impact addressed to the consciousness and will of the child. This is a logically reasoned influence of one person or group of people, which is accepted critically and carried out consciously.
Suggestion - psychological impact, which is characterized by reduced argumentation, is accepted with a reduced degree of awareness and criticality.
38. Methods of self-education and self-education
Self-education is the acquisition of knowledge through independent studies outside educational institutions and without the help of a teaching person.
In an ever-changing world, learning and development abilities require more and more attention. Not so long ago, at the intersection of pedagogy and psychology, educational psychology arose, studying the processes of cognition, trying to answer the question “Why do some students know more than others, what can be done to improve their learning and motivate them?”
Educational psychology as a science arose as a result of the emergence of learning theories; it is closely related to psychology, medicine, biology, and neurobiology. Its achievements are used in the development of curricula, principles of educational organization, and methods of motivating students. The main task is to find ways of optimal development in a learning situation.
History and scope of application of forces
The history of the formation of educational psychology goes back far into the past, even if it was formed as a separate direction only recently. The stages of development of educational psychology can be represented by three periods: laying general didactic foundations, systematization, and development of independent theories.
Even Plato and Aristotle wrestled with the issues of character formation, possibilities and limits of education, especially highlighting music, poetry, geometry, and the relationship between mentor and student. Later, Locke came onto the scene, introducing the concept of a “blank slate” - the child’s lack of any knowledge before learning. So, from Locke’s position, the basis of knowledge is the transfer of experience.
In the middle of the 20th century, the first well-developed psychological theories of learning emerged; they required a new branch for themselves, which cannot be attributed entirely to either psychology or pedagogy. Theories about programmed and problem-based learning are becoming widely known.
Although the final formation of educational psychology took place during this period, Davydov expressed the idea that educational psychology could become part of developmental psychology, since developmental psychology examines the patterns of child development, and the characteristics of mastering a particular area of knowledge depend on its development.
On the other hand, Skinner defined educational psychology as dealing with human behavior in educational situations. Education, in turn, tries to shape the behavior of the student, the desired changes in him for the comprehensive development of his personality. So this is a science not just about the peculiarities of learning, but also about the organization of the educational process and the study of its influence in general.
Pedagogical psychology studies the patterns that make it possible to manage the development of people. She seeks to understand the possible paths of development of students, the range of their capabilities, and the processes that result in the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Now it is used as a basis for the development of methodological programs.
general information
Over the years of its existence, the main problems of educational psychology have been formulated. All of them are connected in one way or another with the study of the educational process or the student in it:
- The influence of training on development and education.
- The influence of genetic and social factors on development.
- Sensitive periods.
- Child's readiness for school.
- Individual training.
- Diagnosis of children in the psychological and pedagogical aspect.
- Optimal level of teacher training.
All of them are considered together, each problem is based on the fact that we do not yet fully understand how learning occurs, what impact this or that action has on the development of the student. In connection with these problems, the following tasks of educational psychology are distinguished:
- Reveal the influence of training on development.
- Determine mechanisms for optimal assimilation of social norms, cultural values, etc.
- To highlight the patterns of the learning process for children at different levels of development (intellectual and personal).
- Analyze the nuances of the influence of the organization of the learning process on the development of students.
- Study teaching activities from a psychological point of view.
- Identify key points of developmental learning (mechanisms, facts, patterns).
- Develop ways to assess the quality of knowledge acquisition.
The structure of educational psychology consists of three main areas of its study - education, training, and teacher psychology. The tasks are accordingly divided into these areas.
The basic methods of educational psychology coincide with the methods that psychology uses in its activities. Research methods in educational psychology: tests, psychometrics, paired comparisons, experiments. And if earlier the methodology used more theoretical concepts, now the basis of the theories put forward are achievements in cognitive psychology.
Experiments and conclusions
The tasks and problems assigned to educational psychology intersect with other areas, so it often uses the work of cognitive psychologists, neuroscientists and sociologists. Data are used in educational psychology both for the design of possible practical research and for purely theoretical revision or modification of existing methods and views. Let's look into the brain and see how it learns.
In particular, quoting Aleksandrov almost verbatim, we can say that learning leads to the formation of specialized neurons, so learning is the creation “in the head” of specialists of various profiles. Many already known patterns have been found in the psychology of learning:
1. Eternity of skill. The formation of specialization is associated with gene activity, which, in turn, serves as a trigger for the processes of neuronal restructuring. How long does specialization last? Perhaps forever. In an experiment by Thompson and Best, the response of a rat neuron to a specific segment of the maze did not change over six months.
In this case, the memory is not erased, excluding special methods. New experience associated with a certain specialization is layered on the old one, neurons are modified. In this regard, the question arises whether it is worth teaching people first simple schemes and then complicating them, whether past understanding will prevent them from learning new ones.
3. Sum of actions or goal? An experiment by researchers Koyama, Kato and Tanaka showed that different goals are controlled by different groups of neurons, even if the behavior in both cases is the same! It follows that for one result some neurons will be involved, and for another - different ones, although the behavior itself may be the same.
There are no neurons specializing specifically for a particular skill. There are groups of neurons for some results, there are groups responsible for other results, but not skills. Therefore, it is impossible to form a skill that will not be aimed at some result, and learning for future use is useless, according to Aleksandrov.
If you can't learn something not to achieve a specific result, then what do children learn? Get good grades and approval.
5. Rewards or punishments? What is the best way to motivate? Intimidate or reward? As a result of research, it was found that these two pathways have fundamental differences in their effects on memory, attention and learning. Apparently, both methods can bear fruit under different conditions. For example, as a result of working with children, it was found that before puberty, their behavior is more influenced by encouragement, after - punishment.
6. Time. Experiments on animal learning of a skill have shown that brain activity in animals performing the same task varies depending on the time that has passed since learning.
In conclusion, here are the words of Bill Gates, who spoke at the TED conference about the problems of education and the need to increase the general level of education to open equal opportunities for different people. Although his words relate to the US experience, it is unlikely that the situation in other countries is much different. “The difference between the best and worst teachers is incredible. The best teachers give a 10% increase in test scores in one year. What are their characteristics? This is not experience, not a master's degree. They are full of energy, they track those who are distracted and engage them in the learning process.” Of course, the research that Gates relies on is not enough to say who the best teachers are and what matters most, but without attention, knowledge will not arise. Author: Ekaterina Volkova
