Owners of patent RU 2533846:

The invention relates to biology and medicine, namely to the study of the influence of the environment and internal environment of the body on human or animal health. The method concerns the study of entropy in the body. To do this, determine the relative mass of the heart relative to body weight in % (X), the number of heartbeats (A) and the oxygen content in the alveolar air of the lungs in % (Co2). The calculation is carried out according to the formula: α = (0.25/T) Co 2, where α is entropy in%, T is the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the circulating blood flow in sec, with T = [(0.44 75) /(X A)] 21.5. The method makes it possible to measure the main characteristic of an organism that unites living systems, which can be used to determine biological age, health status, and to study the effect of various means of preventing health problems and prolonging life. 1 table

The invention relates to biology and medicine, namely to methods for studying the influence of the environment and internal environment of the body on the health of humans and animals, and can be used to determine their biological age, the rate of aging, predicting the longevity of individuals in various conditions of the body and managing these vital signs .

It is known that living systems are open thermodynamic systems and are characterized by a complex ordered structure. Their levels of organization are much higher than in inanimate nature. To maintain and increase their high orderliness, living systems, to the extent of their inherent openness (including at the organismal level), continuously exchange energy, matter and information with the external environment and at the same time perform work to reduce entropy (energy dissipation into the environment), which inevitably increases due to losses due to heat transfer, Brownian motion and aging of molecules, etc. [Nikolis G., Prigozhy I. Cognition of the complex. M., 1990. - P.293]. The process of this exchange is called metabolism. It is known that metabolism with a minimum level of entropy is preferable, since it is this that ensures the operation of the system with maximum savings in losses and stability in the external environment [Prigozhy I. From existing to emerging. - M., 1985. - 113 p.; Prigozhy I. Introduction to the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. Per. from English M., 1960; Frank G.M., Kuzin A.M. About the essence of life. - M., 1964. - 350 p.]. On this basis, we put forward the hypothesis that the higher the level of metabolism in a living system, that is, the more intensively it exchanges energy, matter and information with the external environment, the more work this system is forced to do to maintain homeostasis in order to maintain a minimum level of entropy , incur more significant losses in this regard, become more open to the environment, and therefore vulnerable to its adverse effects. Following this hypothesis, the level of openness of a living system can be considered as an indicator of the quality of its physiological state, which has an inverse relationship with the characteristics of this quality - health, performance, life expectancy. It should be noted that other authors [Frolov V.A., Moiseeva T.Yu. A living organism as an information-thermodynamic system. - Bulletin of RUDN University, 1999, No. 1. - P.6-14] also consider the openness of a living system in connection with its lifespan at the stage of evolution to a closed thermodynamic system. Thus, metabolism, entropy, and openness of a living system to the surrounding air environment can not only characterize the quality of life support processes occurring in this system, but also be its root cause. The very concept of openness of a living system to the environment can be given the following definition: openness of a living system is its inherent development of the universal property of expediently life-sustaining interaction with the environment.

In connection with the above, we have set the task of developing a method for determining entropy in the human or animal body in order to be able to control life support processes.

Entropy in the human or animal body can be characterized by the kinetics of O 2 at the stages of its movement from the atmosphere into the body, which depends on the O 2 content in the inhaled air and in the air contained in the alveoli of the lungs (alveolar), the time of complete saturation of the red blood cell with oxygen in the lungs, time provided to the erythrocyte for the release of O 2 received in the lungs to the cells of the body, and the strength of the connection of erythrocyte hemoglobin with O 2.

It is known that the O2 content in the inhaled air depends on its content in the breathing zone. The natural content of O 2 in the air of open spaces is higher than in closed spaces and is on average 20.9%. The O 2 content in the alveolar air is one of the individual homeostatic constants and (other things being equal: age, resistance to oxygen deficiency, etc.) interacts with indicators of performance and general health of the body [Sirotinin N.N., 1971; Evgenieva L.Ya., 1974; Karpman V.L., Lyubina B.G., 1982; Meerson F.Z., 1981, etc.].

It is known that the duration of residence of erythrocytes in the pulmonary capillaries depends on the speed of pulmonary blood flow and is 0.25-0.75 s. This time is sufficient for oxygenation of the blood, since normally the erythrocyte is completely saturated with O 2 in 0.25 s [Zayko N.N., Byts Yu.V., Ataman A.V. and others. Pathological physiology (Textbook for students of medical universities). - To "Logos", 1996]. Thus, the time of complete saturation of an erythrocyte with oxygen in the lungs, equal to 0.25 s, characterizes the period or phase of effective (direct or open) contact of the erythrocyte with O 2 of the alveolar air. It is known that the time the erythrocyte releases the oxygen received in the lungs to the cells of the body before the next passage of the erythrocyte through the lungs for oxygen saturation characterizes the period or phase of ineffective (indirect or closed) contact of the erythrocyte of the circulating blood with O 2 of the alveolar air. The duration of this period (phase) significantly exceeds the duration of direct contact of a circulating blood erythrocyte with O 2 of the alveolar air and depends on the speed of blood circulation or the time (T) of a complete turnover of circulating blood in the body, which (all other things being equal) is affected by the heart rate (HR) ) [Babsky E.B., Zubkov A.A., Kositsky G.I., Khodorov B.I. Human physiology. - M.: Medicine, 1966. - P.117]. For example, in a normal adult, with a heart rate of 75 beats/min (muscle rest state), T is an average of 21.5 s. Taking into account the known age, sex and interspecies differences in the ratio of heart mass to body weight [Zhedenov V.N. Lungs and heart of animals and humans. 2nd ed. M., 1961. - 478 pp.] the value of T at different heart rates in animals and humans can be determined by the following mathematical expression:

T = [ (0.44 ⋅ 75) / (X ⋅ A) ] ⋅ 21.5 ; (1)

T is the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the current of circulating blood in the body (the time of complete turnover of circulating blood in the animal and human being studied, during which the circulating blood makes a full turn in the sum of the pulmonary and systemic circulations), s;

0.44 - average relative mass of the human heart (in relation to the total body mass), which is characterized by a complete blood circulation time of 21.5 s at a heart rate of 75 beats/min, %;

75 - heart rate (HR), at which the time of complete circulation of circulating blood in a person occurs on average in 21.5 s, beats/min;

21.5 - time of complete circulation of circulating blood in a person at a heart rate of 75 beats/min, s;

X is the actual or (if it is impossible to measure) the average relative heart mass characteristic of humans and the animal species under study, %; (according to [Zhedenov V.N. Lungs and heart of animals and humans. 2nd ed. M., 1961. - 478 pp.] the weight of the heart from the total body weight is on average 1/215 in men and 1/250 in women );

A - actual heart rate, measured at the time of examination of the individual, beats/min.

It is known [Eckert R., Randall D., Augustine J. Animal physiology. T.2. M., 1992], that the strength of the connection of erythrocyte hemoglobin with O 2 or the resistance of oxyhemoglobin to dissociation, other things being equal, depends on the pH value of the blood, which, for example, with an increase in the CO 2 tension in it decreases and, thereby, reduces the strength of the connection of hemoglobin with O 2 (the affinity of hemoglobin for O 2), which promotes the release of O 2 into the blood plasma and from there into the surrounding tissues. It is also known that there is a reciprocal (mutually feedback) relationship between changes in the concentrations of CO 2 and O 2 in the body. Therefore, if the CO 2 content in any part of the body naturally affects the strength of the bond of hemoglobin with O 2, then the influence of this force on the further movement of O 2 into the body’s structures can be taken into account by the concentration of alveolar O 2.

However, taken separately, these physiological indicators that influence the interaction of atmospheric O 2 with the structures of the body (phases of direct and indirect contacts of the erythrocyte of the circulating blood with alveolar O 2 in the lungs and its concentration) cannot fully characterize its entropy, since in this In this case, their combined effect on metabolic processes is not taken into account.

The objective of the invention is to determine entropy in the human or animal body by the interaction of the phases of direct and indirect contacts of the circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar O 2 in the lungs and its concentration.

This problem is solved in the inventive method for determining entropy in the human or animal body, which consists in taking into account the time of direct contact of an erythrocyte of circulating blood with alveolar O 2, equal to 0.25 s, determining the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the circulating blood flow in the body at the actual number of heart beats per minute according to the ratio of the product of the average relative mass of the human heart, expressed as a percentage, equal to 0.44, by the number 75, expressed in heart beats per minute, to the product of the relative mass of the heart of the individual under study, expressed as a percentage, by the number of actual heart beats available to him at the time of the study per minute, multiplied by the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the current of circulating blood, expressed in seconds, equal to the number 21.5 at 75 heartbeats per minute, a measurement expressed as a percentage of the O 2 content in the alveolar air, and characterized in that entropy in the human body or the animal is determined by the value obtained from the product of the ratio of the time of direct contact of an erythrocyte of circulating blood with alveolar O 2 to the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the flow of circulating blood in the body at the actual number of heart beats per minute by the percentage of O 2 in the alveolar air.

where α is entropy in the human or animal body, %;

0.25 - the number corresponding to the time of complete saturation of the red blood cell in the circulating blood in the body with oxygen, s;

T is the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the current of circulating blood in the body, s;

The proposed method for determining entropy in the human or animal body is based on taking into account the fact that with increasing heart rate (HR), the total (over a certain time) duration of direct contacts of an erythrocyte in the circulating blood with oxygen in the alveolar air increases, and indirect contacts decrease, which is accompanied by an increase metabolism in the body and an increase in the irreversible dissipation of free energy into the environment. So in a person (for example, in 10 minutes), the total duration of direct contacts of an erythrocyte with O 2 of the alveolar air at a heart rate of 75 beats/min (T = 21.5 s) is 7 s (that is, 600 s/21.5 s = 27 .9 revolutions of circulating blood; 27.9·0.25 s≈7 s), at a heart rate of 100 beats/min (T=16.1 s) - 9.3 s, and at a heart rate of 180 beats/min (T =8.96 s) - 16.7 s. At the same time, during the same time, the total duration of indirect contacts of the circulating blood erythrocyte with the oxygen of the alveolar air at a heart rate of 75 beats/min is 593 s [that is, 600 s/21.5 s = 27.9 revolutions of circulating blood; 27.9·(21.5 s-0.25 s)=593 s], with a heart rate of 100 beats/min - 591 s, and with a heart rate of 180 beats/min - 583 s. Thus, in the proposed method, the openness of the body to the atmosphere, metabolism and entropy increase with increasing heart rate due to an increase in the phase of direct contact of the erythrocyte with the atmosphere (alveolar air-atmosphere) per unit time and a reduction in the opposite phase without gas exchange with the atmosphere.

The table shows examples of determining entropy (α) in 12 different species of animals, which was compared with information available in the literature on the average life expectancy (D average) of the species of these animals. Based on the above data, the following power regression equation was obtained, characterizing the relationship between α and the statistical average life expectancy (D average):

where 5.1845 is an empirical coefficient;

R 2 - the value of the reliability of the approximation between D average and α.

In order to simplify the mathematical expression 3, we have developed formula 4 with the correlation coefficient r D average / D o average = 0.996; R<0,001:

where D o average is the expected average life expectancy;

5.262 - empirical coefficient;

R 2 - the value of the reliability of the approximation between D o average and α.

The obtained dependence of the life expectancy of an animal species on entropy in the body makes it possible to explain the longevity of the rodent “Naked mole rat” (Heterocephalus glaber), which is considered paradoxical, solely by the dwelling of this mammal in difficultly ventilated underground conditions (tunnels with a diameter of 2-4 cm, a depth of up to 2 m, a length of up to 5 km ) with an extremely low content of O 2 in the inhaled air from 8 to 12% (on average 10%) and a concentration of CO 2 that is lethal for many other animals (10%). There is data on the content of high concentrations of carbon dioxide on the surface of the skin and mucous membranes of these rodents [Shinder A. An animal that does not feel pain // Weekly 2000. - 06.27-07.03.2008. No. 26 (420)], which are not observed in other animal species. The specified conditions of existence of the naked mole rat lead to extremely low concentrations of O 2 in the alveoli of the lungs (3.5%) and, according to the data presented in the table, reduce entropy by more than 8 times in comparison with other rodents of equal mass, which, apparently, leads to a significant (more than 15 times) increase in the life expectancy of individuals of this species. In the literature available to us, the indicated phenomenon of longevity of Heterocephalus glaber is explained from the standpoint of genetics by an acquired special property of its body, but this does not yet characterize the very root cause (external cause) of the formation and consolidation of this property in this species of rodent. From the results obtained it follows that (other things being equal) the lifespan of an organism is most likely a weighted average value determined by the duration of its states in the process of ontogenesis, characterized by the intensity of interaction of red blood cells in circulating blood with atmospheric oxygen.

However, based on an analysis of the literature (Gavrilov L.A., Gavrilova N.S. Biology of life expectancy M.: Nauka. 1991. - 280 pp.) it should be considered incorrect to transfer the laws of the animal world to the understanding of the problems of human longevity, which is determined primarily by socio-economic factors (level of medical care, labor safety and leisure efficiency, material security and spiritual comfort). Since the socio-economic living conditions of Homo sapiens have changed significantly during its evolution, the measurement of the life expectancy of a modern person using the pattern identified and reflected in formula 4 needs to be supplemented, taking into account the influence of these conditions on longevity.

The average life expectancy of a person in the Paleolithic (2.6 million years ago), when his living conditions differed little from animals, was equal to 31 years [Buzhilova A.P. On the question of the semantics of collective burials in the Paleolithic era. In the book: Human etiology and related disciplines. Modern research methods. Ed. Butovskoy, M.: Institute of Etiology and Anthropology, 2004. P.21-35], which corresponds to the result obtained for apes, for example, for a male gorilla:

α (for gorilla)=(0.25 s/21.5 s)·14.4%=0.167%;

D about average =5.262·0.167 -1 =31.5 years.

Taking into account the calculations of B.Ts. Urlanis [Urlanis B.Ts. Increasing life expectancy in the USSR // Social Research: Sat. - M.: Nauka, 1965. - P. 151, 153; Urlanis B.Ts. Sketch about age // Week. - 1966. - No. 40], in which he, using the example of the most advanced and prosperous countries, statistically proves that the species-specific or characteristic biological life expectancy for humans, as one of the species of living beings (designated by the author as normal) should be 90 years, we We adjusted formula 4, transforming it into formula 5, taking into account the additional 58 years that, in our opinion, men and women should live in normal socio-economic conditions of work and life. So, for example, if we consider that in an adult, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air is normally 14.4% [Babsky E.B., Zubkov A.A., Kositsky G.I., Khodorov B.I. Human physiology. - M.: Medicine, 1966. - P.117, 143], then (with an average heart rate of 72 beats per minute typical for men in a state of muscular rest and a heart weight of 1/215 of the total body weight) the period of complete circulation of circulating blood in body is equal to 21.4 s, α and Do average are:

α=(0.25 s/21.4 s)·14.4%=0.168%;

D about average =5.262·0.168 -1 =31.3 years.

As a result, the contribution of normal socio-economic conditions to life expectancy for men is: 90 years - 31.3 years = 58.7 years.

With a typical average heart rate for women in a state of muscular rest of 78 beats/min and a heart weight of 1/250 of the total body weight, the period of complete circulation of circulating blood in the body is 22.7 s, α and D o the average are:

α=(0.25 s/22.7 s)·14.4%=0.158%;

D about average =5.262·0.158 -1 =33.3 years.

As a result, the contribution of normal socio-economic conditions to life expectancy for women is: 90 years - 33.3 years = 56.7 years.

Based on these data obtained, as noted above, we accepted the average value for men and women of the contribution of normal socio-economic conditions to life expectancy, equal to 58 years.

It is known that, in contrast to normal socio-economic conditions that provide a person with a specific (normal) life expectancy, real socio-economic conditions related to the studied region and time period of residence form the average life expectancy. For example, if the average life expectancy in Russia in 2011 (according to Rosstat) was 64.3 years for men and 76.1 years for women, then the contribution of existing (in 2011) socio-economic conditions to the expected The life expectancy of a Russian was:

64.3 years - 31.3 years = 33.0 years (for men);

76.1 years - 33.3 years = 42.8 years (for women).

In the formulations of normal and average life expectancy, the semantic content of the expressions “normal and average” takes into account, first of all, the socio-economic conditions of life (normal - characterize conditions close to ideal, most conducive to the achievement of a species, biological life expectancy, average - reflect actual conditions in the region during a given period of residence). In view of the above, a person's life expectancy (L) should be calculated using the following mathematical expression:

D o = 5.262 ⋅ α − 1 + A; (5)

where A is the expected number of years of living due to socio-economic conditions (under conditions close to ideal, designated normal - 58 years; under other conditions - the number of years obtained by subtracting from known statistical data on average life expectancy in the region in this period of residence is 31.3 years for men and 33.3 years for women). The designation of the remaining symbols is given above.

Outstanding modern gerontologist academician D.F. Chebotarev points out that species life expectancy should serve as a real guideline for increasing average life expectancy. The difference between these values ​​represents a reserve that can easily be developed by improving conditions and lifestyle. He considers the tactical task of gerontology to be the fight against premature aging and at least partial development of those reserves that a person certainly has and which are determined by the unused period between the modern average and species life expectancy, the preservation of practical health throughout the entire period of the so-called third age (from 60 to 90 years old). He considers the strategic task to be the extension of active longevity beyond the species lifespan of a person [Chebotarev D.F. Physiological mechanisms of aging. L.: Nauka, 1982. - 228 p.]. The formula that defines the ultimate goals of gerontology, “To add not only years to life, but also life to years,” embodies both the tactical and strategic goals of this science, and combines both medical and social problems of aging. Therefore, the development of tools that allow assessing the development of such body reserves that work to achieve active longevity beyond normal life expectancy should be considered as one of the important primary steps towards solving the complex problem of aging. In this regard, we believe that the method we have developed for determining the openness of human and animal organisms to the atmosphere is an important means for successfully solving this problem, since it makes it possible, for example, to identify and a priori evaluate the development of the organism's longevity reserve at the stages of ontogenesis and under various functional states, to identify similarities and differences in the formation of this reserve in humans and animals.

Let us give examples of the use of the proposed method in humans and some animals in various functional states (muscular rest, physical activity, disorders of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the neonatal period and infancy of postnatal ontogenesis).

In a man, when performing moderate work, the heart rate is 100 beats/min, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air, measured by the PGA-12 gas analyzer in the last portions of exhaled air, is maintained at 14.4%. Therefore, the entropy in the human body when performing moderate work is:

α=(0.25 s/15.4 s)·14.4%=0.23%.

With this value of entropy, the normal and average life expectancy in 2011 can be:

D about normal = (5.262·0.23 -1)+58 years = 80.9 years;

D about average = (5.262·0.23 -1) + 33.0 years = 55.9 years.

In a man with a disorder of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the heart rate in a state of muscular rest is 95 beats/min, when performing moderate work - 130 beats/min, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air, measured by a PGA-12 gas analyzer in the indicated conditions, equal to 16.1%. Therefore, the entropy in the body will be:

- (in a state of muscle rest) α 1 =0.25 s/16.2 s·16.1%=0.25%;

- (in the state of performing moderate work) α 2 =0.25 s/11.9 s·16.1%=0.34%.

The normal and average life expectancy of a man with disorders of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems will be:

D o1 = (5.262·0.25 -1) + 58 years = 79.0 years (normal in a state of muscle rest);

D o2 = (5.262·0.34 -1) + 58 years = 73.5 years (normal in a state of performing moderately difficult work);

D o1 =(5.262·0.25 -1)+33.0 years=54.0 years (average in a state of muscle rest);

D o2 = (5.262·0.34 -1) + 33.0 years = 48.5 years (average in the state of performing moderately difficult work).

In a newborn boy, the heart rate is 150 beats/min, the weight of the heart in the total body weight is 0.89%, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air is 17.8%. After 1/2 and a year later, the heart rate and O 2 content in the child’s alveolar air decreased to 130 and 120 beats/min, 17.3 and 17.2%, respectively. Therefore, the entropy in the body is:

In a newborn, α=0.25 s/5.31 s·17.8%=0.84%,

1/2 year after birth α=0.25 s/6.13 s·17.3%=0.70%,

One year after birth α=0.25 s/6.64 s·17.2%=0.65%.

Normal life expectancy, measured under the specified functional states of the body, will be equal to:

For a newborn D o =(5.262·0.84 -1)+58 years=64.3 years

1/2 year after birth D o =(5.262·0.70 -1)+58 years=65.5 years

A year after birth D o =(5.262·0.65 -1)+58 years=66.1 years.

The average life expectancy will be:

In a newborn D o =(5.262·0.84 -1)+33.0 years=39.3 years

1/2 year after birth D o =(5.262·0.70 -1)+33.0 years=40.5 years

A year after birth D o =(5.262·0.65 -1)+33.0 years=41.1 years.

The identified differences in the value of entropy in the body under the indicated conditions are consistent with the risk of health problems to which newborns are more exposed, apparently due to insufficiently formed metabolic mechanisms. In particular, in terms of body weight, infants and young children drink more water, consume more food and inhale more air than adults [Dyachenko V.G., Rzyankina M.F., Solokhina L.V. Guide to social pediatrics: textbook / V.G. Dyachenko, M.F. Rzyankina, L.V. Solokhin / Ed. V.G. Dyachenko. - Khabarovsk: Dalnevostochny Publishing House. state honey. un-ta. - 2012. - 322 p.]. These results of testing the proposed method are consistent with the literature data that the biological age of the body is not a constant value, it changes under various conditions caused by age, physical activity, health, psycho-emotional stress and other factors [Pozdnyakova N.M., Proshchaev K O.I., Ilnitsky A.N., Pavlova T.V., Bashuk V.V. Modern views on the possibilities of assessing biological age in clinical practice // Fundamental Research. - 2011. - No. 2 - P.17-22].

In the house sparrow, the heart rate at muscular rest is 460 beats/min, and in flight - 950 beats/min (this species of animal has an average life expectancy of 1.2 years and a relative heart mass of 1.5%; [Zhedenov V.N. . Lungs and heart of animals and humans. 2 ed. M., 1961. - 478 pp.]), the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air is 14.4%. Consequently, the entropy in the body of a house sparrow under these conditions will be equal to:

- (in a state of muscle rest) α 1 = (0.25 s/1.03 s) · 14.4% = 3.49%;

- (during flight) α 2 = (0.25 s/0.50 s) · 14.4% = 7.20%.

The average life expectancy of this sparrow will be:

- (in a state of muscle rest) D o = (5.262·3.49 -1) = 1.5 years;

- (during flight) D o = (5.262·7.20 -1) = 0.73 years.

From examples of the use of the proposed method, it follows that with an increase in entropy in the human or animal body, the normal and average life expectancy of individuals decreases and vice versa. The obtained results of using the proposed method are consistent with the known results of physiological studies [Marshak M.E. Physiological significance of carbon dioxide. - M.: Medicine, 1969. - 145 p.; Agadzhanyan N.A., Elfimov A.I. Body functions under conditions of hypoxia and hypercapnia. M.: Medicine, 1986. - 272 pp.; Agadzhanyan N.A., Katkov A.Yu. Our body's reserves. M.: Znanie, 1990. - 240 p.], which established the effect of training the body to a lack of O 2 and excess CO 2 on improving health, increasing efficiency and increasing life expectancy. Since the studies of these authors have reliably established that training to a lack of O 2 and excess CO 2 reduces heart rate, frequency and depth of pulmonary respiration, and the content of O 2 in the alveolar air, the indicated beneficial effect of such training on the body can be explained by the achieved decrease in its openness to the atmosphere and irreversible dissipation of free energy into the environment.

Thus, during systematic training with volitional delays in pulmonary breathing and inhalation of hypoxic-hypercapnic air mixtures containing O 2 15-9% and CO 2 5-11%, the alveolar air contains O 2 8.5; 7.5%. As a result (at heart rate, for example, 50 beats/min) T=32.25 s; α=0.0659%; 0.0581%. Then the normal life expectancy will be:

D o =(5.262·0.0659 -1)+58 years=138 years;

D o1 =(5.262·0.0581 -1)+58 years=149 years.

The average life expectancy for men will be:

D o =(5.262·0.0659 -1)+33.0 years=113 years;

D o1 =(5.262·0.0581 -1)+33.0 years=124 years.

Thus, in the claimed method for determining entropy in the human or animal body, the problem of the invention is solved: entropy in the human or animal body is determined by the interaction of the contact phases of the circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar O 2 in the lungs and its concentration.

LITERATURE

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24. Stahl W.R. Organ weights in primates and other mammals, Science, 1965, 150, P.1039-1042.

25. Stahl W.R. Scaling of respiratory variables in mammals. J. Appl. Physiol., 1967, 22, P.453-460.

A method for determining entropy in a human or animal body, characterized in that the relative mass of the heart relative to body weight in % (X), the number of heartbeats (A) and the oxygen content in the alveolar air of the lungs in % (Co 2) are determined and the calculation is carried out according to the formula: α=(0.25/T)·Co 2, where α is entropy in%, T is the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the circulating blood flow in sec, while T=[(0.44·75)/( X·A)]·21.5.

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“Man cannot find the essence of the matter, what is done under the sun,
- no matter how hard a person tries to search, he will not find it;
and even if the sage says that he can, he will not find it.”
Solomon the Wise, King of the Jews, 10th century BC.

This is how this world is, and why is it like this?
Neither the smart nor the fool knows this.
D. I. Fonvizin (1745 – 1792).

A system can be called a collection of interacting parts. It is an experimental fact that some properties of the parts are dictated by the system itself, that the integrative, systemic properties of this totality are not the properties of the parts themselves. For a person with inductive thinking, this idea is sedition and one would like to anathematize it.

A cell in a living human body.

A human cell is part of an organism. The internal geometric volume of a cell is limited from the external environment by a membrane, a shell. Through this boundary, interaction between the environment and the cell occurs. We will consider the human cell with its shell as a thermodynamic system, even if the great thermodynamicists of our time consider the cell of our own body a vulgar and unworthy object of consideration for thermodynamics.

In relation to a human cell, the external environment is an intercellular fluid, an aqueous solution. Its composition is determined by the exchange of chemicals with blood vessels (capillaries) and exchange with many cells. From the intercellular fluid, “useful” substances and oxygen enter the cell through the membrane. From the cell through the same membrane, waste products exit into the intercellular fluid; these are substances necessary for the body, by-products, waste, and unreacted components. Consequently, the human cell, as a thermodynamic system, interacts with the external environment chemically. The potential of this interaction is traditionally denoted by the letter μ, and the coordinate of the state of this type of interaction is denoted by m. Then the amount of this interaction between the external world and the body’s cells is equal to

where j is the number of the route of successive and/or parallel chemical transformations, m j is the mass of the newly formed j-th substance. The index (e) at the top means that the value of the jth transformation potential for the external environment should be taken, i.e. for intercellular fluid.

At the same time, through the cell membrane of the body, thermal interaction occurs with the potential T (absolute temperature) and the thermal coordinate s (entropy). The amount of interaction is T (e) ds.

We neglect the deformation interaction (potential - pressure, state coordinate - specific volume of the system) for liquids.

Then the first law of thermodynamics for a thermochemical system is written in standard form:

du = μ j (e) dm j + T (e) ds ,

where u is the internal energy of the system.

If the potentials in the cell of the body μ j (i) and T (i) are close to the potentials outside, then equilibrium occurs. Equilibrium means that the amount of initial reactants and the amount of reaction products in reversible chemical transformations become unchanged (all chemical reactions are reversible).

A systemic property of the body is that the functional purpose of each human cell is the production of substances necessary for the body (proteins, fats, enzymes, energy carriers, etc.). The cell must issue these substances into the intercellular fluid and further into the circulatory system. Therefore, the state of the human cell there must be nonequilibrium, and exchange processes are irreversible. This means that if

Δμ j = μ j (e) – μ j (i), then Δμ j /μ j (i) ≥ 10 0.

For the situation under consideration (irreversibility), the first law of thermodynamics takes the form:

du = T (e) ds + (Δμ j + μ j (i))dm j = T (e) ds + μ j (i) dm j + Δμ j dm j .

The last term in this equation is due to the irreversibility of the chemical interaction process. And, according to the second law of thermodynamics, this irreversibility necessarily leads to an increase in entropy:

Δμ j dm j = T (i) ds (m) diss, where ds (m) diss > 0. (diss = dissipation).

Everything happens as if irreversibility during interaction any kind of “turns on” in a thermodynamic system a source of heat with activity T (i) ds (m) diss, the body cell heats up (not necessarily in the sense of a temperature increase, as in the kitchen, but in a broader sense - the supply of heat). An increase in entropy in a human cell certainly distorts the course of chemical reactions (more on this a little later). Substances, debris, and toxins that are unnecessary for the body are generated, and the solution is diluted. The body has to remove entropy from the cell, otherwise it will do this to it!

Thermodynamics indicates one of the ways to remove entropy: it is necessary to reduce the thermal potential T (e), make it less than T (i). And in order to realize heat removal, the temperature difference ΔT = T (i) – T (e) must again be a finite value, therefore, the heat exchange process will also become irreversible, another heat source with activity T (i) ds (T) diss will appear. Finally, the first law of thermodynamics for a thermo-chemical system with irreversible exchange processes will take the form:

du = T (i) ds + μ j (i) dm j + T (i) ds (m) diss + T (i) ds (T) diss.

The first two terms in du on the right are responsible for reversible interaction processes, the last two - for irreversible ones, and the last one is due to the penultimate one. Consequently, part of the internal energy of the system is irreversibly converted into heat, i.e. human cell generates entropy.

This is where we will focus on the application of the thermodynamic method of cell analysis in a living organism. The stop is determined by the meaning of the epigraphs to this article: this research method also requires quantitative information, which we do not have. But what we got is worth a lot! All that remains is to make a comment and receive consequences.

Why is entropy dangerous in an organism’s cell?

Let's try to understand why an increase in entropy ds (m) diss > 0 and ds (T) diss > 0 is dangerous for the body. Or maybe this growth is favorable?

The body “demands” from the cell its functioning, the performance of useful and necessary consumer services in the form of the production of certain substances. Moreover, it requires the implementation of these services “quickly” in some sense. The rate of transformation is determined by the finiteness of potential differences, the use of catalysts and special transport molecules. But in any situation it is necessary to arrange the reactant molecules tightly and nearby (in a geometric sense). Further, the reagent molecules, due to their energy E, must “excite” the electronic shells of some atoms, then an act of connection and synthesis can occur with the formation of new substances.

Molecules in a human cell, as a rule, have a complex spatial three-dimensional structure. And therefore such molecules have many degrees of freedom of movement of elements. This can be a rotational movement of fragments of a molecule, or it can be a vibrational movement of the same fragments and individual atoms. Probably, the rotation of large fragments of a molecule in the liquid phase is difficult, very tight. Apparently, only small fragments rotate. But the high density of the liquid phase does not interfere much with the vibrations of small fragments and individual atoms of the molecule. In any case, the number of degrees of freedom of movement in such a molecule is enormous, therefore, the total number W of options for distributing energy E over these degrees of freedom is even greater. If we follow Boltzmann and accept

then the increase in entropy in the cell of the body leads to the removal of energy from options that can excite electronic shells with the subsequent formation of the “necessary” substances. Moreover, with such an increase in entropy, by-products begin to be synthesized.

The body will have to restore order in the human cell, remove entropy from the volume of the cell in order to concentrate the energy of molecules in “useful” degrees of freedom. Poor organism, even at the cellular level it has no freebies: if you want to get something valuable, remove entropy from the cell.

Methods for intensifying entropy removal.

From the theory of heat transfer it follows that the amount of heat

dQ = kF(T (i) – T (e)) dτ = (T (i) ds (m) diss + T (i) ds (T) diss)ρV,

where k is the heat transfer coefficient, F is the heat exchange surface (body cell membrane), τ is time, ρ is the density of the system. Let's divide both sides of this equation by the volume of the cell V. Then the factor F/V ∼ d -1 will appear on the left, where d is the characteristic size of the body's cell. Consequently, the smaller the cell, the more intense the process of entropy removal at the same thermal potential difference. Moreover, with decreasing size d, this difference can be reduced at the same dQ and, therefore, the measure of thermal irreversibility ds (T) diss.

In other words, the generation of entropy occurs in the volume of the cell V ∼ d 3, and the removal of entropy from the human cell occurs through the surface F ∼ d 2 (see Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Illustration for determining the critical size of an organism cell.

But the cell increases its mass and, therefore, its volume. And while d d 0 the surface removes less entropy than it is generated, and even at the rate of the external environment. When d > d 0, the cell will “heat up” and it will begin to harm the body. What to do? On the one hand, a human cell needs to increase its mass, but, on the other hand, it cannot increase its size. The only way to “save” a cell and an organism is cell division. From a “large” cell of size d 0 (assuming for simplicity that a human cell is spherical for now), two “children” of size d p are formed:

πd 0 3 /6 = 2πd 3 r /6 > d r = 2 -1/3 d 0 = 0.794d 0 .

The size of the “children” will be 20% smaller than the size of the “mother”. In Fig. Figure 2 shows the dynamics of human cell size in the body.

Rice. 2. Dynamics of body cell size. d 00 – cell size in a newborn.

Comment. An increase in the intensity of entropy removal from a human cell is possible not only by decreasing the temperature T (e) of the intercellular fluid and, consequently, of the blood in the capillaries, but also by increasing the temperature T (i) inside the body cell. But this method will change the entire chemistry in the cell, it will cease to perform its functions in the body, and will even begin to produce all sorts of “garbage”. Remember how bad you feel due to a high temperature due to some illness. It is better not to touch the temperature in a human cell; for the body to work, the cell will have to divide regularly, and this same circumstance reduces the increase in ds (T) diss > 0.

One more note. If we consider the specific surface area of ​​bodies of various geometric shapes, it is not difficult to see that the minimum specific surface area is a sphere. Therefore, in the North and Siberia, residents build houses in the form of hemispheres, and they also try to make houses large in size (d > d 0) for 2-3 families. This allows you to significantly save your energy on preparing firewood for the winter. But in hot countries, houses are built in the form of elongated bodies with a large number of extensions. To intensify the removal of entropy from a human cell, the latter must have a shape that is far from spherical.

Entropy rules everything.

Now let’s try to imagine what would happen if human nerve cells (neurons with their dendritic processes and synapses at their ends) also divided. A neurophysiologist would immediately be horrified by such a prospect: it would simply mean the destruction of the entire innervation system of the body and the functioning of the brain. A person has just mastered some knowledge, acquired some skill, technique, and suddenly everything has disappeared, start again or disappear.

A simple analogue of the division of nerve cells are putschs, unrest, riots and revolutions, i.e. change of team of the ruling elite in some country. And then the peoples squirm for a long time, adapting to the new rulers. No, purely functional human nerve cells cannot be allowed to divide!

How is this realized, since entropy in the cells of the body grows inexorably? First of all, let us pay attention to the branching of the human nerve cell, to the large development of its heat transfer surface (the surface of a thin long thread is much larger than the surface of a ball of the same volume).

Further, it turns out that the body carefully monitors the temperature of arterial blood entering the brain. This is manifested, in particular, in the fact that warm-blooded animals have created an autonomous system (small circle) of blood circulation. The only temperature sensor is located in the carotid artery, with its help the body controls the temperature of arterial blood coming to the brain. Concern about regulating this temperature has reached the point that warm-blooded land animals have the additional ability to cool the blood entering the brain. It turns out that the carotid artery branches so that part of the blood bypass passes through the ear heat exchangers. A special sensor controls the flow of this blood. If the temperature has increased above the nominal value, then this flow rate increases, the blood cools in the ears in the breeze, then mixes with the main flow and is sent to the brain.

Remember the poor African elephant: in the heat you have to flap your ears all the time. Remember how large the ears of mammals are in hot countries, and how small they are in cold countries. In a Russian bath or steam room, you should cover your ears in order to enjoy a longer steam bath. When skiing in winter, you again need to cover your ears so as not to cool your brain. A student with a bad grade, dreaming of a shameful C, always has red ears during an exam or test, while an excellent student has ears of a normal color. You can immediately determine your grade by the color of your ears!

Well, when the human head completely stops thinking, i.e. has accumulated too much entropy in the nerve cells of the brain, then you will have to go for a walk, change the type of activity, for example, chop wood. Finally, just sleep, relieve the load on the neurons of the brain, reduce the production of entropy, and in 8 hours of sleep at night remove it from the brain with the help of venous blood. It turns out that the accumulation of entropy in a person’s nerve cells determines his entire life pattern: in the morning we go to work, then we go home from work, a little rest and then sleep.

I wish we could come up with a mechanism for removing entropy from nerve cells so that we could work 24 hours a day! What joy it would be for creative people and exploiters! The country's GDP would immediately increase by more than 30%! There is no need for transport to transport people, there is no need for housing, but only jobs. The organization of life would become simplest: the child continuously studies at school, then at an institute or vocational school, then the person is placed in a workplace and finally taken to a crematorium. Science fiction guys, grab the idea!

It is probably clear that the production of different target products for the body leads to different rates of entropy generation in different human cells. Everything is determined by “complexity”, i.e. the spatial architecture of the molecules of the target substance and the variety and number of radicals and atoms in its composition. The greater this “complexity”, the more entropy decreases during synthesis from simple radicals, but also the greater the increase in dissipative entropy.

The production of male sex hormones in warm-blooded land animals differs from the production of other substances necessary for the body. The essence of the matter is that this hormone must contain a huge amount of information that the body - dad wants to transfer to the female egg. He is concerned about passing on his properties and traits to his child, since they allowed dad to survive in the macroworld around him.

Experts in information theory argue that information does not exist without its material carriers. And such a carrier of information about the properties and traits of the father is the hormone molecule, more precisely, its architecture, set and arrangement of fragments, radicals and atoms of elements from the table of D.I. Mendeleev. And the greater the amount of information, the more detailed and detailed it is, the more complex the hormone molecule. A step to the right, a step to the left - a mutation is formed, a deviation from dad’s dreams. Consequently, the synthesis of such a molecule means a significant decrease in entropy in the system, and at the same time the production of an even greater amount of dissipative entropy in the human cell.

A simple analogy is the construction of a building. The construction of the royal Winter Palace in St. Petersburg with all its architectural excesses and luxury means a strong decrease in entropy compared to the construction of village huts of the same usable area, but the amount of waste (entropy) after completion is incommensurable.

The production of male sex hormones in warm-blooded land animals generates dissipative entropy so intensely that the intercellular fluid with blood vessels cannot remove as much of it from the cells. The poor male had to separate these organs out for cold atmospheric air. If a young guy sits on a bench in the subway or on a bus, with his knees spread wide apart to the great indignation of his old neighbors, then do not blame him for rudeness, this is entropy. And boys under the age of 15, old men and women of all ages sit with their knees modestly and culturally close together.

And in the female egg, after its formation, chemical transformations occur that maintain it in a “combat-ready” state. But entropy inexorably increases over time, there is essentially no heat removal, the body has to throw out the egg and then make a new one, creating a lot of trouble for our lovely ladies. If you don’t do this, then either there will be no conception, or all sorts of horror stories will be born. Other mammals do not have these problems with entropy in the egg; they are ready to give birth within a short period of time, and even strictly discretely: elephants - once every 5-6 years, great apes - once every 3 years, cows - once a year, cats – 3–4 times a year. But man – almost continuously. And why did nature burden him so much? Or maybe she made her happy? Secret!

According to Boltzmann's formula, entropy is defined as the logarithm of the number of microstates possible in a given macroscopic system

where A in = 1.38-10 16 erg-deg or 3.31? 10 24 entropy units (1 e.u. = 1 cal deg 1 = 4.1 J/K), or 1.38 10“ 23 J/K. - Boltzmann constant; W- the number of microstates (for example, the number of ways in which gas molecules can be placed in a vessel).

It is in this sense that entropy is a measure of disorder and chaos in a system. In real systems, there are stable and unstable degrees of freedom (for example, the solid walls of a vessel and the molecules of the gas enclosed in it).

The concept of entropy is associated precisely with the unstable degrees by which chaotization of a system is possible, and the number of possible microstates is much greater than one. In completely stable systems, only one single solution is realized, i.e., the number of ways in which this single macrostate of the system is realized is equal to one (IV = 1), and entropy is zero. In biology, the concept of entropy, as well as thermodynamic concepts, can be used only in relation to specific metabolic processes, and not to describe the overall behavior and general biological properties of organisms. The connection between entropy and information in information theory was established for statistical degrees of freedom.

Let us assume that we have received information about how this macrostate of the system is realized. Obviously, the amount of information that is obtained will be greater, the greater the initial uncertainty or entropy.

According to information theory, in this simple case the amount of information about the only real state of the system will be equal to

The unit of information quantity (bit) is taken to be the information contained in a reliable message when the number of initial possible states was equal to W= 2:

For example, the message about which side a coin landed on when thrown into the air contains an amount of information of 1 bit. By comparing formulas (7.1) and (7.2), one can find the connection between entropy (in entropy units) and information (in bits)

Now let's try to formally estimate the amount of information contained in the human body, where there are 10 13 cells. Using formula (7.2) we obtain the quantity

Such an amount of information would have to be initially obtained in order to carry out the only correct arrangement of cells in the body. This is equivalent to a very slight decrease in the entropy of the system by

If we assume that the body also has a unique arrangement of amino acid residues in proteins and nucleotide residues in DNA, then the total amount of information contained in a human gel will be

which is equivalent to a slight decrease in entropy by AS~~ 300 e.s. = 1200 J/K.

In GS metabolic processes, this decrease in entropy is easily compensated by an increase in entropy during the oxidation of 900 g of glucose. Thus, a comparison of formulas (7.1) and (7.2) shows that biological systems do not have any increased information capacity compared to other nonliving systems consisting of the same number of structural elements. At first glance, this conclusion contradicts the role and significance of information processes in biology.

However, the connection between / and S in (7.4) is valid only with respect to information about which of all W microstates are currently implemented. This microinformation associated with the location of all the atoms in the system cannot actually be remembered and stored, since any of such microstates will quickly transform into another due to thermal fluctuations. And the value of biological information is determined not by quantity, but primarily by the possibility of its memorization, storage, processing and further transmission for use in the life of the body.

The main condition for the perception and memorization of information is the ability of the receptor system, as a result of the information received, to transition into one of the stable states predetermined by virtue of its organization. Therefore, information processes in organized systems are associated only with certain degrees of freedom. The process of memorizing information itself must be accompanied by some loss of energy in the receptor system so that it can remain there for a sufficient time and not be lost due to thermal fluctuations. It is here that the transformation of microinformation, which the system could not remember, is carried out into macroinformation, which the system remembers, stores and can then transmit to other acceptor systems. As they say, entropy is a measure of the set of microstates that the system does not remember, and macroinformation is a measure of the set of their states, which the system must remember to be in.

For example, the information capacity in DNA is determined only by the number of specific nucleotides, and not by the total number of microstates, including vibrations of all atoms of the DNA chain. The process of storing information in DNA is the fixation of a specific arrangement of nucleotides, which is stable due to the chemical bonds formed in the chain. Further transfer of genetic information is carried out as a result of biochemical processes in which the dissipation of energy and the formation of corresponding stable chemical structures ensures the efficiency of biological processing of information.

In general, information processes are widespread in biology. At the molecular level, they occur not only during the memorization and processing of genetic information, but also during the mutual recognition of macromolecules, ensure the specificity and directed nature of enzymatic reactions, and are important in the interaction of cell membranes and surfaces.

Physiological receptor processes, which play an independent informational role in the life of the body, are also based on the interactions of macromolecules. In all cases, macroinformation initially appears in the form of conformational changes during the dissipation of part of the energy along certain degrees of freedom in interacting macromolecules. As a result, macroinformation turns out to be recorded in the form of a set of sufficiently energetically deep conformational substates, which make it possible to preserve this information for the time required for its further processing. The biological meaning of this macroinformation is realized in accordance with the peculiarities of the organization of the biological system and specific cellular structures on which further processes are played out, ultimately leading to the corresponding physiological and biochemical effects.

It can be argued that living systems specifically control biochemical reactions at the level of individual macromolecules.

the totality of which ultimately determines the macroscopic properties of biological systems.

Even the most modern technological devices do not have such properties, such as, for example, submicron computer processors, where control of electronic flows occurs with inevitable energy losses. It will be shown below that in biomembranes the regulation of electron flows is carried out in relation to the transfer of each individual electron along a chain of macromolecular carriers.

In addition, it will be shown that energy transformation in biological processes occurs in macromolecular energy-converting “machines” that are nanosized.

Small sizes also determine small values ​​of energy gradients. and consequently, they bring the operation of such machines closer to the conditions of thermodynamic reversibility. This is known to improve the energy efficiency (efficiency) of energy conversion. It is in such nano-sized molecular machines that the maximum energy output and low level of energy dissipation, corresponding to the low rate of entropy production in the system, are optimally combined.

Low differences in redox potential values ​​between individual carriers in the chain of photosynthesis and respiration illustrate this situation, providing conditions close to the reversibility of individual electron transport processes.

The study of the operation of individual molecular motors associated with energy transformation raises the need for the development of thermodynamics of small systems, where energy drops at elementary stages of operating cycles are comparable in magnitude to thermal fluctuations. In fact, the average value of the total energy of a macrosystem (ideal gas) consisting of N particles and distributed over them according to the Gaussian law, is 2>/2Nk b T. The size of random fluctuations of this quantity is of the order of l/V)V and is negligible in relation to the average value for a system consisting of a large number of particles. However, at small N the size of the fluctuations approaches the average energy value of such a small system, which itself can be only a few units k h T.

For example, a kinesin molecule smaller than 100 nm moves along microtubules, transporting cell organelles and taking 8 nm “steps” every 10-15 ms due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis (20 k and T). The “kinesin motor” produces work at every step 2k g,T with efficiency = 60%. In this regard, kinesin is one of many molecular machines that use the energy of hydrolysis of phosphate bonds in various processes, including replication, transcription, translation, repair, etc. The small size of such machines can help them absorb the energy of large thermal fluctuations from the surrounding space. On average, of course, when a molecular motor moves along its dynamic trajectory, work is accompanied by the release of thermal energy, however, it is possible that the randomly absorbed energy of thermal fluctuations at individual stages of the operating cycle, in combination with the “directed” energy of hydrolysis of phosphate bonds, contributes to the ratio between the change in free energy and the work done. In this case, thermal fluctuations can already lead to noticeable deviations from the average dynamic trajectories. Consequently, such small systems cannot be adequately described on the basis of classical thermodynamics. Currently, these issues are being intensively studied, including with the development of nanotechnologies associated with the creation of nano-sized molecular machines.

Let us note once again that the biochemical processes of energy transformation, in which useful chemical work is performed, themselves are only a supplier of initial elements for the self-organization of biological structures and thereby the creation of information in biological systems.

It is to biochemical reactions that the basic principles of chemical thermodynamics and, in particular, the fundamental concept of chemical potential as a measure of the dependence of the number of permissible microstates on the number of particles in the system are applicable.

A chemical reaction is considered as the result of a redistribution of the number of moles or the relative number of particles (molecules) of reagents and products during the reaction with a generally constant number of their atoms. These redistributions are associated with the breaking and formation of chemical bonds and are thereby accompanied by thermal effects. It is in the field of linear thermodynamics that their general direction obeys Prigogine’s theorem. Figuratively speaking, a biochemical reaction creates initial elements and delivers them to the site of self-assembly of stable “information” macromolecular complexes, information carriers. Direct self-assembly occurs spontaneously and, naturally, comes with a general decrease in free energy: A F= D U - TAS

In fact, when a stable ordered structure appears, the energy of the formed structural bonds (-AU) in absolute value must be greater than the decrease in the entropy term ( -TAS) in the expression for free energy |DS/| > | 7A,S|, so D F

Let us recall that during the period of prebiological evolution, stable structural “building blocks” of living things (amino acids, nucleotides, sugars) were thus formed spontaneously, abiogenically, from inorganic simple compounds, without any participation of living systems, due to external energy sources (light, electrical discharges) necessary to overcome the activation barriers of fusion reactions.

In general, the direct emergence of biological information at the macromolecular level actually leads to a corresponding decrease in structural entropy (the appearance of negative entropy). This decrease in entropy is compensated by the formation of stable connections in the information structure. At the same time, the balance of “thermodynamic” entropy in an open system is determined by the ratio of driving forces and speeds in a group of chemical processes that create conditions for the synthesis of information structures.

Obviously, calculating the overall balance of altered structural and thermodynamic entropy in a living system is purely arithmetic in nature. It is determined by two interconnected, but different in nature, groups of processes, direct compensation of entropy changes between which does not take place.

In 1945, one of the founders of quantum mechanics, Erwin Schrödinger, published the book “What is life from the point of view of a physicist?”, where he examined living objects from the point of view of thermodynamics. The main ideas were as follows.

How does a biological organism develop and exist? Usually we talk about the number of calories absorbed from food, vitamins, minerals, air and sun energy. The main idea is that the more calories we consume, the more weight we gain. The simple Western diet system is based on counting and limiting the number of calories consumed. But after a huge amount of published material and increased public interest, careful study found that in many cases the concept of calories does not work. The body works much more complexly than a stove in which food is burned, releasing a certain amount of heat. Some people can eat very little and remain energetic and active, while others need to process food all the time, not to mention the constant hunger of growing children. And what can we say about the peoples of the Far North, who eat only meat, without receiving any vitamins at all? Why are there such big differences? Why do different people, different nationalities differ so much in their eating habits?

On the other hand, do we only get energy from food? Then how can little birds fly across the Atlantic? It is easy to calculate the mechanical work they do by flapping their wings over a certain distance and convert this into calories. You can then calculate how many calories the birds can extract from a kilogram of grain. And then we will see that each bird must carry a hefty bag of supplies with it, just as an airplane carries a tank of fuel. So from a classical point of view, bird flight across the Atlantic is impossible! They should fall halfway and drown! But they have been flying for thousands of years!

Is there some special physics at work in this case? Physics of biological objects?

We believe that there is only one physics: the physics of the Material World, which is valid for both inorganic and biological objects. The only difference is the complexity of the organization and the characteristic time of the processes. At the same time, along with the Material World, we are talking about the Information, Spiritual World, or the World of Consciousness. These Worlds exist along with the Material and influence it through the Conscious activity of Humanity.

The first principle, noted by E. Schrödinger and later developed by I. Prigogine and A. Haken, was the principle OPEN SYSTEMS. This means that biological systems continuously exchange material substances, energy and information with the surrounding space. When a stone lies in the sun, its temperature rises - the more sun, the higher the temperature. By and large, stone can be considered a passive closed system. When a healthy person remains in the sun, his temperature remains constant - 36.6 C°. We can say that a person maintains a state of homeostasis - balance, active equilibrium with the environment. This balance is only possible through a two-way exchange process. The body absorbs energy from food, sun, air, and at the same time produces energy and dissipates it in space. To more accurately express further ideas, it is necessary to write several equations.

Entropy is expressed as: S = k ln p(E), Where To- Boltzmann constant, R- probability, E- possible energy states of the system.

As shown above, the concept of entropy is widely used in physics and is increasingly being introduced into biological and social sciences. Entropy is a measure of diversity. For example, the most organized society is an army regiment, where everyone wears the same clothes and strictly obeys orders. In civil society, people's clothing and behavior are very diverse. Therefore, the entropy of an army unit is much lower than the entropy of civil society. But entropy is also a measure of chaos.

For living systems, the change in entropy can be determined. It is equal to the sum of the “external” entropy coming from food and water dS (food), air dS (air), light dS (light) and the “internal” entropy given by the body into space dS (inter).

dS = dS (food) + dS (air) + dS (light) + dS (inter) = dS (ext) + dS (inter) (1)

This equation can lead to three different situations:

dS=dS (ext) +dS (inter) =0

dS=dS (ext) +dS (inte g)<0

dS=dS (ext) +dS (inter) >0

The first equation dS = 0 characterizes the state of homeostasis, or equilibrium with the environment, when the absorbed flow of entropy or energy is completely balanced due to the internal processes of the body.

dS=dS (ext) +dS (inter) =0 . This condition is typical for an adult, practically healthy person in a calm state. In other words, all body parameters are maintained constant. This equation can be represented in another form:

dS (ext) = - dS (inter)

As this equation implies, dS (inter) must be negative! In accordance with the terminology of E. Schrödinger, the body “produces” negative entropy. There is no contradiction with the laws of physics or thermodynamics, because it is not entropy that is negative, but the rate of its production. This means that a biological organism structures, orders, organizes energy and information, and thereby reduces chaos in the Universe. It is this property, according to E. Schrödinger, that separates living systems from non-biological nature. Throughout their lives, biological systems organize Space, create Order and Structure in a Disordered World.

But this entropy balance only applies to an adult organism in normal health. A disease is the body’s reaction to an external influence that shifts the body from a state of equilibrium. This means that dS(inter) increases sharply. The body responds to external influences by increasing the production of internal energy and internal activity. As the temperature increases, dS (inter) increases in an attempt to compensate for dS (ext). This immediately affects behavior: during illness, the body needs less food - this is one way to reduce dS (inter) consumption. At this stage, the rate of entropy production by the entire organism becomes negative:

dS(ext)< dS (inter) , =>dS< 0 . При этом энтропия всего организма может быть вычислена как:

This means that equation (1) does not determine the value of entropy, but the angle of inclination of the entropy curve: it becomes flat at dS = 0, increases at dS > 0, and decreases at dS< 0. Конкретное значение энтропии в данный момент времени зависит от "истории" развития организма, от всех его предшествующих трансформаций и изменений.

In case of disease, the entropy curve first increases from the equilibrium line, and then, thanks to the body’s fight against inflammation, it decreases to lower values, to a greater order. Thus, the body fights against external influences, against diseases, by reducing overall entropy due to increased production of internal “negative” entropy!

A similar process occurs in childhood: the child’s body produces a large amount of “negative” entropy due to more active physiological processes compared to the adult state. This is expressed in physical activity and increased consumption of information. Try to jump along with a healthy five-year-old child - in an hour you will fall on the bed exhausted, and the child will continue to jump. The same with information: a child perceives and processes a huge amount of information, and the speed of processing, as a rule, is incomparable with the capabilities of an adult.

What is the difference between a child’s condition and a disease state? The difference is that to compensate for the production of “negative” entropy, the child’s body consumes a large amount of energy from the surrounding space. Children consume several times more food per unit of weight compared to adults; the children's body actively processes this energy, and only a small part of it goes to increase body weight.

It can be assumed that a special compensation process dS (inter) occurs during sleep. Apparently, this is compensation for the information component of the entropy flow. During sleep, the halves of the brain actively exchange information received during the day, evaluate its significance and make decisions on its implementation. This is the time when the right half of the brain, usually suppressed by the left, acquires the “right to vote” and can bring unconfirmed, unstable information to the surface: sensations, intuitive suspicions, anxieties, fears, desires, emerging processes. And this information is visualized in the form of dreams, transforming information flows into fantastic, but so real images!

This is why children and patients need much more time to sleep - this is the time for processing information, processing entropy. The body disconnects from the outside world and tunes in to internal work, during which an active process of forming connections and creating information structures occurs. Watch your child: his active sleep phase is significantly longer than that of an adult, and in these dreams the child processes impressions of the Vast Incomprehensible World.

For older people, the rate of entropy production dS (inter) decreases: all processes slow down. Accordingly, the need for food, sleep, and new information decreases, but over time, the rate of entropy input from the outside ceases to be compensated by internal processes dS (ext) > - dS (inter) and the balance becomes positive. This corresponds to the fact that the total entropy curve begins to bend upward - it becomes increasingly difficult for the body to restore order in the system and maintain its structural organization. At some point, the body can no longer maintain this state and jumps into another organized state with low entropy - the state of Death.

That. we can relate the equations noted above to different ages:

dS = dS (ext) + dS (inter) = 0 adult health status,

dS = dS (ext) + dS (inter)< 0 датско-юношеский возраст или заболевание,

dS = dS (ext) + dS (inter) > 0 old age.

A similar energy analysis can be applied in an evolutionary aspect. When comparing the lower and higher forms of organic life, we see that the protozoa have a primitive system for the energy transformation of incoming substances (the main conversion process is fermentation) and a large area of ​​contact with the environment compared to the volume of the organism, which increases energy losses and complicates the control of metabolic processes . Therefore, the life cycle of such organisms is very short, and they survive as a species due to intensive reproduction. For such organisms, the rate of production of negative entropy is low.

As the organism develops, it increasingly isolates itself from the environment, creating an Internal Environment with a special system of control and regulation of internal parameters. At the level of certain organismal systems, the principle of minimum energy losses operates. In the process of development, the parameters of various functional systems developed in the direction of minimizing the energy consumption necessary to perform certain functions: breathing, blood circulation, muscle contractions, etc.

From this point of view, the more varied the food consumed by the body, the simpler the process of entropy exchange occurs. Plant foods are rich in minerals and trace elements, meat is a source of protein and energy directly to muscles, bones and developing tissues. Therefore, in childhood and adolescence, meat is an integral component of entropy-energy metabolism: it preserves the body’s strength for creative activity. In old age there is no need for active physical work or the creation of new structures, so eating meat creates excess protein in the body that must be utilized. And this leads to excessive production of negative entropy, using the already small resources of the body. At the same time, meat contains negative information from killed animals. This information also requires processing, the body must be active and “selfish”, which is also mainly characteristic of the youthful state, but often manifests itself in old age as a by-product of a certain type of nutrition.

And again we must pay attention to the information aspect of our existence. An important point in biological development was the separation ENERGY AND INFORMATION EXCHANGE organism with the environment. The body consumes not only the energy necessary for existence, but also information that determines complex forms of behavior. For the simplest organisms, interaction with the environment proceeds as a clearly defined process of irritation - reaction. The more complex the organism, the more complex the nature of its reaction to environmental irritations - it depends on the current state, age, level of development, interaction with other organisms. The body constantly consumes, processes, analyzes, stores and uses information. This is a necessary condition for existence. But in modern physics, information can be expressed in terms of entropy, so we can say that information exchange is part of entropy exchange and all the properties of entropy processes we have considered are fully applicable to information processes. That's why we're talking about ENERGY-INFORMATION EXCHANGE organism with the environment. Energy exchange belongs to material processes and is governed by material physical laws, information exchange belongs to non-material phenomena, this is not a physical process and the rules of information theory work here. (At the same time, we must remember that information carriers are always material processes or particles). In this sense, Spiritual processes are the highest form of information processes.

The body consumes material substances, energy and information from the environment. The perception of information occurs through sensory systems (vision, hearing, touch) and internal receptors (chemical, baro-, gluco-, etc.). Information flows are analyzed by the Central and Peripheral Nervous System and the Brain, the results of processing and analysis affect Psychological, Physiological and Spiritual behavior. This leads to the formation of Decisions and Behavior Programs, on the one hand, and new Information, on the other.

One of the universal tools for describing the systemic functioning of biological objects and, in particular, the human body is the use of a synergetic-probabilistic approach using the generalized concept of entropy. This concept is widely used in thermodynamics to determine the measure of the required energy dissipation of a nonuniform thermodynamic system and in statistical physics as a measure of the probability of the system being in a given state. In 1949, entropy was introduced by Shannon into information theory as a measure of the uncertainty of the outcome of an experiment. It turned out that the concept of entropy is one of the fundamental properties of any systems with probabilistic behavior, providing new levels of understanding in the theory of information coding, linguistics, image processing, statistics, and biology.

Entropy is directly related to the concept of information, which mathematically characterizes the relationship of various events and is becoming increasingly important in the study of the functioning of biological objects. It is recognized that when describing the functioning of a biological organism, which is an open dissipative system, it is necessary to take into account exchange processes of both energy and information. The influence of external information on the organism can be assessed through a change in the entropy of the state.

Rice. 1. Energy states of a biological system.

In accordance with the concepts of Nobel Laureate I. Prigogine, in the process of growth and development of the organism, the rate of entropy production per unit mass of the object decreases. When a stationary state is reached, the total change in entropy can be considered equal to zero, which corresponds to the mutual compensation of all processes associated with the intake, removal and transformation of matter, energy and information. I. Prigogine formulated the main property of the stationary state of open systems: at fixed external parameters, the rate of entropy production, due to the occurrence of irreversible processes, is constant in time and minimal in value dS / dt -> min.

Thus, according to Prigogine’s theorem, the stationary state is characterized by minimal entropy dissipation, which for living systems can be formulated as follows: maintaining homeostasis requires minimal energy consumption, i.e. The body strives to work in the most economical energy mode. Deviation from the stationary state - disease - is associated with additional energy losses, compensation for congenital or acquired biological defects, and an economical increase in entropy.

In a dynamic system there can be several stationary states that differ in the level of entropy production dS k / dt. The state of an organism can be described as a set of energy levels ( Fig.1), some of which are stable (levels 1 and 4), others are unstable (levels 2, 3, 5). In the presence of a constantly operating external or internal disturbance, an abrupt transition from one state to another can occur. Any inflammation is characterized by increased energy consumption: body temperature rises, the rate of metabolic processes increases.

Deviation from the stationary state with minimal energy consumption causes the development of internal processes that strive to return the system back to level 1. With prolonged action of factors, the system can move to level 3, to the so-called bifurcation point, from which several outcomes are possible: return to stable level 1, transition to another stable equilibrium state 2, characterized by a new energy-information level, or a “leap” to a higher, but unstable level 5.

For an organism, this corresponds to several adaptive levels of relative health or chronic disease with different levels of system functioning. An acute disease corresponds to a non-stationary state with increased entropy production, i.e. uneconomical type of functioning of the body. According to the theory of catastrophes by V. I. Arnold, in case of acute diseases or acutely developing pathological syndromes (acute onset of severe pneumonia, status asthmaticus, anaphylactic shock, etc.), it is necessary to abruptly transfer the body from a “bad” stable state to a “good” one. In this case, it is advisable to use large doses of drugs. In the phase of subsiding exacerbation and in remission of chronic diseases, the role of small influences, for example, acupuncture and homeopathic remedies, which have a positive energy-informational effect, increases.

The multistability of complex nonlinear systems, such as the human body, the probabilistic nature of its constant development, and self-organization lead to the need to search for “system-forming factors,” which can include entropy.

The Curie principle as a regulating mechanism of evolution in bifurcation processes.

The point of view is expressed that evolution in geological systems occurs due to the formation of dissipative structures in nonequilibrium processes in accordance with the provisions of nonlinear thermodynamics of I. Prigogine. The applicability and leading role of the universal principle of symmetry - dissymmetry of P. Curie is substantiated, which determines the degree of complexity or degree of degradation of systems when they reach a critical point of nonequilibrium, as well as the mechanism of inheritance of the main features of systems in the process of their evolution. The combination of Prigogine's theory and the Curie principle makes it possible in principle to predict the path of evolution of complex systems.

By evolution, many researchers understand the sequence of transitions in a hierarchy of structures of increasing complexity. This definition obviously captures:

1) gradual evolutionary processes;

2) the sequence of increasing complexity during the formation of new structures. By definition, evolution is not a property of some selected systems or groups of systems.

Ideas about evolution originated and developed in the depths of biology. The anti-entropic nature of evolution and its obvious contradiction to the second law of thermodynamics made us think that for a thermodynamic description of biological evolution we still need to discover our laws, that the second law of thermodynamics is applicable only to objects of inanimate nature. At the same time, it was supposed that in inanimate nature evolution is either absent, or its manifestation does not lead to a violation of the second principle.

The evolution of objects of inanimate nature is a scientifically established fact, and this fact requires comprehension from the point of view of general laws and mechanisms of natural spontaneous implementation.

The German researcher W. Ebeling states that “issues of the formation of structures belong to the fundamental problems of the natural sciences, and the study of the emergence of structures is one of the most important goals of scientific knowledge.” The necessary prerequisites for solving the problem of the emergence of structures were created within the framework of I. Prigogine’s nonlinear thermodynamics and the resulting theory of the emergence of dissipative structures. Unfortunately, these ideas are slowly penetrating into geology. The provisions of nonlinear thermodynamics (or thermodynamics of nonequilibrium, irreversible processes) are equally applicable to both biological objects and inanimate objects. Let us briefly recall some conclusions from this theory.

· I. Prigogine and his students showed that open systems far from equilibrium can evolve to some new state due to the fact that microfluctuations in them acquire a cooperative, coherent character. The new state of the system can exist for an indefinitely long time, while new structures arise in the system, which are called dissipative. These include the well-known hydrodynamic instabilities of Benard, periodic reactions of Belousov-Zhabotinsky, Briggs - Rauscher, etc. Their occurrence is “anti-entropic” in the sense that it is accompanied by a general decrease in the entropy of the system (due to the exchange of matter and/or energy with the external environment).

· Increasing fluctuations with distance from the equilibrium state leads to a spontaneous loss of stability of the system. At a critical point, called the bifurcation point, the system either collapses (turns into chaos), or due to the predominance of the coherent behavior of particles, the formation of dissipative structures occurs in it. The system chooses the path of its further development under the influence of random factors, so it is impossible to predict its specific state after the bifurcation point and the nature of the emerging dissipative structures.

· The most important property of dissipative structures is the reduction of their spatial symmetry at the bifurcation point. Reduced symmetry generates higher order and, therefore, reduces the entropy of the system.

· Evolution is the sequential formation of dissipative structures in states far from thermodynamic equilibrium. (Non-equilibrium is what generates order from chaos.) At the same time, despite the increase in the level of organization and complexity of systems in the process of self-development, evolution accelerates over time.

As follows from the above, the theory of dissipative structures proceeds from the random behavior of the system at bifurcation points, i.e. postulates the randomness of the morphological characteristics of newly emerging dissipative structures. There is only one limitation - a general decrease in symmetry, but this is also unpredictable. In other words, this theory, for all its revolutionary nature and ability to answer the most pressing question of natural science: what makes systems evolve, in general does not contain conditions for limiting the diversity of emerging structures and allows, in principle, the emergence of a structure of any complexity in a single nonequilibrium process. This contradicts the paradigm of evolution, the main element of which is the constantly confirmed principle: from simple to complex.

The morphology of the resulting heterogeneities in a primarily homogeneous medium cannot be regarded as random. It can be assumed that the nature of events that lead to the emergence of stable spatially periodic structures is governed by some general law.

The author of the theory of dissipative structures felt an urgent need for such a law and took certain steps towards identifying it. Obviously, for this reason, Prigogine needed to analyze the change in symmetry characteristics at the bifurcation point, since he needed to find out the applicability of the principle of symmetry - Curie dissymmetry to the range of phenomena under study. This principle contains very specific restrictions on the symmetry of emerging structures and, consequently, on the growth of their order. I. Prigogine read it as the principle of additivity of symmetry, according to which “external influences causing various phenomena cannot have a higher symmetry than the effect they generate,” i.e. a new phenomenon has a symmetry no lower than the symmetry of the causes that gave rise to it. Since a decrease in symmetry is observed at the bifurcation point, the conclusion followed that the Curie principle is not applicable to equilibrium, irreversible processes.

According to I.I. Shafranovsky, the Curie principle is divided into four points, inextricably linked, but revealing it from different sides:

1) symmetry conditions for the coexistence of the environment and the phenomena occurring in it (a phenomenon can exist in the environment with its characteristic symmetry or the symmetry of one of the supergroups or subgroups of the latter);

2) the need for dissymmetry (“dissymmetry creates the phenomenon”);

3) the rule of superposition (superposition) of elements of symmetry and dissymmetry of the environment and phenomenon (as a result, only elements common to the environment and phenomenon are preserved - the principle of dissymmetrization);

4) the persistence of elements of symmetry and dissymmetry of causes in the effects they generate (elements of symmetry of causes are found in the effects produced, the dissymmetry of the effect should be found in the causes that gave rise to it - the principle of symmetrization).

An analysis of P. Curie’s text, supported by specific examples of real mineral formation, led I.I. Shafranovsky to the conclusion that the core of the principle is point 3 - about the conservation of a phenomenon only of the general symmetry elements of the causes that gave rise to it (the principle of dissymmetrization). On the contrary, the presence in a phenomenon of any elements of symmetry that are not characteristic of one of the generating causes (the principle of symmetrization - point 4) is associated with the existence of special conditions. According to I.I. Shafranovsky, the principles of symmetrization and dissymmetrization in their natural implementation differ sharply in terms of prevalence. The first is realized only in special, specific conditions, the second manifests itself literally everywhere. Thus, in the work of I.I. Shafranovsky and co-authors it is stated: “The principle of “symmetrization” is not universal, but manifests itself in nature only under strictly defined and limited conditions. In contrast, the principle of “dissymmetrization” is, with some reservations, truly universal. We see its manifestation on any natural object.”

Symmetrization phenomena in real mineral formation are associated with the appearance of intergrowths (twins, tees, quadruples, etc.) or with the appearance of false simple forms. Such “superforms” and false simple forms consist of sets of faces belonging to several simple forms, connected by elements of apparent high symmetry.

Examples of the operation of the dissymmetrization principle are extremely numerous and are associated with the disappearance of certain elements of the characteristic symmetry of crystals in cases where they are absent in the mineral formation environment. Under such conditions, the external symmetry of the crystal is a subgroup of its characteristic symmetry and at the same time is a subgroup of the symmetry of the medium.

I. Prigogine and his colleagues absolutized the principle of symmetrization (“external influences... cannot have a higher symmetry than the effect they generate”), replacing them with the full content of P. Curie’s ideas. As follows from the above, such a reading of the Curie principle is generally incorrect and reflects only one of the possible conditions for the occurrence of processes (according to Shafranovsky - special, specific), which, in our opinion, is realized in its pure form at the bifurcation point if the system chooses a catastrophic path development. Consequently, the conclusion about the inapplicability of the Curie principle to the theory of self-organization through the emergence of dissipative structures in nonequilibrium conditions cannot be considered justified.

This conclusion radically changes the understanding of the essence of the phenomena occurring at bifurcation points. The idea of ​​the random nature of new structures emerging at these points, formulated in Prigogine’s theory, is subject to strict restrictions, which make it possible to judge the degree of complexity of the system during the formation of dissipative structures.

Summarizing the above, we can draw the following conclusions:

1. In application to dissipative structures, when chaos under certain conditions far from equilibrium gives rise to spatial and/or temporal periodic inhomogeneities that generally reduce the symmetry of the medium, the formulation of the Curie principle, stated above as the principle of dissymmetrization, is of leading importance.

2. According to the Curie principle, it should be assumed that the symmetry of dissipative structures arising in a nonequilibrium process is not accidental: it cannot be lower than that which is determined by the common symmetry elements of the medium and the process as the causes that give rise to the phenomenon in the form of new structural elements. This conclusion seems important from the point of view that it limits “from below” the degree of ordering of emerging dissipative structures and thus fills with real content the idea of ​​evolution as a sequence of transitions in a hierarchy of structures of increasing complexity, and in each specific act of evolution there is a decrease in symmetry (increasing order). Taking into account the above, it can be argued that in a nonequilibrium process structures of any great complexity cannot arise (which is fundamentally allowed by Prigogine’s idea of ​​​​the unpredictability of the behavior of the system at bifurcation points). The level of complexity of the structure is clearly limited “from below” by the Curie principle.

3. If the system chooses a catastrophic path at the bifurcation point, the structure of the newly emerging chaos is characterized not by an arbitrarily large, but by a strictly defined increase in symmetry (a decrease in order, an increase in entropy). This increase is determined by the principle of symmetrization as one of the sides of the universal principle of Curie symmetry-dissymmetry. Involution in this case is not absolute; the degree of structural degradation of the system is completely determined by the sum of the symmetry elements of the environment and the process that gave rise to the phenomenon. Here the Curie principle limits “from above” the measure of structural simplification of the system.

Thus, we come to the conclusion that in nature there is a mechanism that controls the morphology of dissipative structures that arise under nonequilibrium conditions, i.e. the degree of ordering of evolutionary objects. The role of such a mechanism is played by the universal principle of symmetry - Curie dissymmetry . This principle makes it possible to predict, in the general case, the morphological characteristics of the products of evolution in inanimate nature, as well as in biological and social systems, based on a complete description of the symmetry characteristics of the environment and the processes occurring in it. This means nothing less than the ability to predict evolutionary paths. It is also necessary to emphasize that the Curie symmetry principle makes it possible to understand the mechanism of inheritance by a system after it has passed the bifurcation point of the main elements of its previous state. Inheritance, the continuity of the main features in a series of evolutionary changes in a system, is one of the constantly observed patterns and is not questioned by anyone. Evolution according to I. Prigogine , interpreted as the emergence of ever new dissipative structures in sharply nonequilibrium conditions, in the general case, excludes not only the forecast of the future state, but also the possibility of judging the state preceding the bifurcation.

This stated point of view removes all the problems associated with the study of evolution. At the same time, there is reason to believe that this path of research can be productive both in developing the theoretical foundations of evolution and in solving particular problems related to elucidating the mechanism of formation of new structures.

1. Lecture notes.

2. Gubanov N.I. Medical biophysics. M.: Medicine, 1978, pp. 39 – 66.

3. Vladimirov Yu.A. Biophysics. M.: Medicine, 1983, pp. 8 – 29.

4. Remizov A.N. Physics course. M.: Bustard, 2004, pp. 201 – 222.

5. Remizov A.N. Medical and biological physics. M.: Higher School, 1987, pp. 216 – 238.

The generally accepted formulation of the second law of thermodynamics in physics states that in closed systems energy tends to be distributed evenly, i.e. the system tends to a state of maximum entropy.

A distinctive feature of living bodies, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole is the ability to create and maintain a high degree of internal order, i.e. states with low entropy. Concept entropy characterizes that part of the total energy of the system that cannot be used to produce work. Unlike free energy, it is degraded, waste energy. If we denote free energy by F and entropy via S, then the total energy of the system E will be equal to:

E=F+ST;

where T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin.

According to the definition of physicist E. Schrödinger: “life is the ordered and regular behavior of matter, based not only on one tendency to move from orderliness to disorder, but also partially on the existence of orderliness, which is maintained all the time... - ... means, with the help which the organism constantly maintains itself at a sufficiently high level of order (and at a sufficiently low level of entropy), in reality consists in the continuous extraction of order from the environment.”

In higher animals we are well aware of the type of orderliness on which they feed, namely: an extremely ordered state of matter in more or less complex organic compounds serves as their food. After use, animals return these substances in a very degraded form, however, not completely degraded, since they can still be absorbed by plants.

For plants, a powerful source of “negative entropy” is negentropy - is sunlight.

The ability of living systems to extract order from their environment has given some scientists reason to conclude that for these systems the second law of thermodynamics is not satisfied. However, the second law also has another, more general formulation, valid for open systems, including living ones. She says that the efficiency of spontaneous energy conversion is always less 100%. According to the second law of thermodynamics, maintaining life on Earth without an influx of solar energy is impossible.

Let us turn again to E. Schrödinger: “Everything that happens in nature means an increase in entropy in the part of the Universe where this takes place. Likewise, a living organism continuously increases its entropy, or produces positive entropy, and thus approaches a dangerous state - maximum entropy, which represents death. He can avoid this state, i.e. stay alive only by constantly extracting negative entropy from the environment.”

Energy transfer in ecosystems and its losses

As is known, the transfer of food energy from its source - plants - through a number of organisms, which occurs by eating some organisms by others, passes through the food chain. With each successive transfer, most (80-90%) of the potential energy is lost, turning into heat. The transition to each next link reduces the available energy by about 10 times. The ecological energy pyramid always narrows at the top, since energy is lost at each subsequent level (Fig. 1).

The efficiency of natural systems is much lower than the efficiency of electric motors and other engines. In living systems, a lot of “fuel” is spent on “repairs”, which is not taken into account when calculating the efficiency of engines. Any increase in the efficiency of a biological system results in an increase in the costs of maintaining them in a stable state. An ecological system can be compared to a machine, from which you cannot “squeeze” more than it is capable of delivering. There always comes a limit, after which the gains from increased efficiency are negated by increased costs and the risk of system destruction. Direct removal by humans or animals of more than 30-50% of annual vegetation growth can reduce the ability of an ecosystem to resist stress.

One of the limits of the biosphere is the gross production of photosynthesis, and a person will have to adjust his needs to it until it can be proven that the absorption of energy through photosynthesis can be greatly increased without endangering the balance of other, more important resources in the life cycle. Now only about half of all radiant energy is absorbed (mainly in the visible part of the spectrum) and, at most, about 5% - under the most favorable conditions it is converted into a product of photosynthesis.

Rice. 1. Pyramid of energies. E - energy released with metabolites; D = natural deaths; W—feces; R - breathing

In artificial ecosystems, in order to obtain a larger harvest, people are forced to expend additional energy. It is necessary for industrialized agriculture, since it is required by crops specially created for it. “Industrialized (fossil-fuel-powered) agriculture (as practiced in Japan) can produce 4 times higher yields per hectare than agriculture in which all the work is done by people and domestic animals (as in India), but it requires 10 times more expenditure of various types of resources and energy.”

The closure of production cycles according to the energy-entropy parameter is theoretically impossible, since the flow of energy processes (in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics) is accompanied by energy degradation and an increase in the entropy of the natural environment. The action of the second law of thermodynamics is expressed in the fact that energy transformations proceed in one direction, in contrast to the cyclical movement of substances.

Currently, we are witnessing that increasing the level of organization and diversity of a cultural system reduces its entropy, but increases the entropy of the natural environment, causing its degradation. To what extent can these consequences of the second law of thermodynamics be eliminated? There are two ways.

First way is to reduce the loss of energy used by humans during its various transformations. This path is effective to the extent that it does not lead to a decrease in the stability of the system through which the energy flows (as is known, in ecological systems, an increase in the number of trophic levels helps to increase their stability, but at the same time contributes to an increase in energy losses passing through the system ).

Second way consists in the transition from increasing the orderliness of the cultural system to increasing the orderliness of the entire biosphere. Society in this case increases the organization of the natural environment by reducing the organization of the part of nature that is located outside the Earth's biosphere.

Transformation of matter and energy in the biosphere as an open system

The theory and methods of open systems, which are one of the most important achievements of the 20th century, are of fundamental importance for understanding the dynamics of biosphere processes and constructive solutions to specific environmental problems.

According to the classical theory of thermodynamics, physical and other systems of inanimate nature evolve in the direction of increasing their disorder, destruction and disorganization. At the same time, the energy measure of disorganization, expressed by entropy, tends to continuously increase. The question arises: how could living nature, whose systems in their evolution tend to improve and complicate their organization, emerge from inanimate nature, whose systems tend to disorganize? Moreover, in society as a whole, progress is obvious. Consequently, the original concept of classical physics - the concept of a closed or isolated system does not reflect reality and is in clear contradiction with the results of research in biology and social sciences (for example, gloomy forecasts of the “heat death” of the Universe). And it is quite natural that in the 1960s a new (nonlinear) thermodynamics appeared, based on the concept of irreversible processes. The place of a closed, isolated system in it is occupied by a fundamentally different fundamental concept of an open system, which is capable of exchanging matter, energy and information with the environment. The means by which an organism maintains itself at a sufficiently high level of order (and at a sufficiently low level of entropy) actually consists in continuously extracting order from the environment.

Open system, thus, borrows from the outside either new substance or fresh energy and at the same time releases used substance and waste energy into the external environment, i.e. she cannot remain closed. During the process of evolution, the system constantly exchanges energy with the environment and produces entropy. In this case, entropy, which characterizes the degree of disorder in a system, does not accumulate, but is transported into the environment, unlike closed systems. The logical conclusion is that an open system cannot be in equilibrium, since it requires a continuous supply of energy or a substance rich in it from the external environment. According to E. Schrödinger, due to such interaction the system draws order from the environment and thereby introduces disorder into it.

Interactions between ecosystems

If there is a connection between two systems, a transition of entropy from one system to another is possible, the vector of which is determined by the values ​​of the thermodynamic potentials. This is where the qualitative difference between isolated and open systems comes into play. In an isolated system the situation remains nonequilibrium. The processes continue until entropy reaches a maximum.

In open systems, the outflow of entropy outward can balance its growth in the system itself. These kinds of conditions contribute to the emergence and maintenance of a stationary state (a type of dynamic equilibrium), called current equilibrium. In a steady state, the entropy of an open system remains constant, although it is not maximum. Constancy is maintained due to the fact that the system continuously extracts free energy from the environment.

The dynamics of entropy in an open system is described by the equation I.R. Prigogine (Belgian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate 1977):

ds/dt = ds 1 /dt + ds e /dt,

Where ds 1/dt- characterization of the entropy of irreversible processes within the system itself; ds e /dt- characteristic of the exchange of entropy between a biological system and the environment.

Self-regulation of fluctuating ecosystems

The total decrease in entropy as a result of exchange with the external environment, under certain conditions, can exceed its internal production. Instability of the previous disordered state appears. Large-scale fluctuations arise and increase to the macroscopic level. In this case it is possible self-regulation, i.e. the emergence of certain structures from chaotic formations. Such structures can successively transform into an increasingly more ordered state (dissipative structures). Entropy decreases in them.

Dissipative structures are formed as a result of the development of their own internal instabilities in the system (as a result of self-organization), which distinguishes them from the organization of ordered structures formed under the influence of external causes.

Ordered (dissipative) structures that spontaneously arise from disorder and chaos as a result of the process of self-organization are also realized in ecological systems. An example is the spatially ordered arrangement of bacteria in nutrient media, observed under certain conditions, as well as temporary structures in the “predator-prey” system, characterized by a stable regime of fluctuations with a certain periodicity in the number of animal populations.

Self-organization processes are based on the exchange of energy and mass with the environment. This makes it possible to maintain an artificially created state of current equilibrium, when losses due to dissipation are compensated from the outside. With the arrival of new energy or matter in the system, disequilibrium increases. Ultimately, the previous relationships between the elements of the system that determine its structure are destroyed. New connections are established between the elements of the system, leading to cooperative processes, i.e. to the collective behavior of its elements. This is the general scheme of self-organization processes in open systems, called science synergetics.

The concept of self-organization, shedding new light on the relationship between inanimate and living nature, allows us to better understand that the entire world around us and the Universe are a set of self-organizing processes that underlie any evolutionary development.

It is advisable to pay attention to the following circumstance. Based on the random nature of the fluctuations, it follows that The emergence of something new in the world is always due to the action of random factors.

The emergence of self-organization is based on the principle of positive feedback, according to which changes that arise in the system are not eliminated, but accumulate. Ultimately, this is what leads to the emergence of a new order and a new structure.

The bifurcation point is the impulse for the development of the biosphere along a new path

The open systems of the physical Universe (which includes our biosphere) continuously fluctuate and at a certain stage can reach bifurcation points. The essence of bifurcation is most clearly illustrated by a fairy-tale knight standing at a crossroads. At some point along the path there is a fork in the road where a decision needs to be made. When the bifurcation point is reached, it is fundamentally impossible to predict in which direction the system will further develop: whether it will go into a chaotic state or acquire a new, higher level of organization.

For a bifurcation point, it is an impulse for its development along a new, unknown path. It is difficult to predict what place human society will take in it, but the biosphere will most likely continue its development.