Having studied this paragraph, we:

• Let's remember the scientists who made a significant contribution to space exploration;
• we will learn how to change the orbit of spacecraft;
• Let's make sure that astronautics is widely used on Earth.

The birth of astronautics

Cosmonautics studies the movement of artificial Earth satellites (AES), spacecraft and interplanetary stations in outer space. There is a difference between natural bodies and artificial spacecraft: the latter, with the help of jet engines, can change the parameters of their orbit.

Soviet scientists made a significant contribution to the creation of the scientific foundations of astronautics, manned spacecraft and automatic interplanetary stations (AMS).

Rice. 5.1. K. E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935)

K. E. Tsiolkovsky (Fig. 5.1) created the theory of jet propulsion. In 1902, he first proved that only with the help of a jet engine can one achieve the first cosmic speed.

Rice. 5.2. Yu. V. Kondratyuk (1898-1942)

Yu. V. Kondratyuk (A. G. Shargei; Fig. 5.2) in 1918 calculated the flight trajectory to the Moon, which was subsequently used in the USA in the preparation of the Apollo space expeditions. The outstanding designer of the world's first spacecraft and interplanetary stations, S. P. Korolev (1906-1966), was born and studied in Ukraine. Under his leadership, on October 4, 1957, the world's first satellite was launched in the Soviet Union, and spacecraft were created, which were the first in the history of astronautics to reach the Moon, Venus and Mars. The greatest achievement of cosmonautics at that time was the first manned flight of the Vostok spacecraft, on which on April 12, 1961, cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin made a round-the-world space trip.

Circular speed

Let's consider the orbit of a satellite that rotates in a circular orbit at a height H above the Earth's surface (Fig. 5.3).

Rice. 5.3. Circular velocity determines the motion of a body around the Earth at a constant height H above its surface

In order for the orbit to be constant and not change its parameters, two conditions must be met.

1. The velocity vector must be directed tangentially to the orbit.
2. The linear speed of the satellite must be equal to the circular speed, which is determined by the equation:

(5.1)

where - Mzem = 6×10 24 kg - mass of the Earth; G = 6.67 × 10 -11 (H m 2)/kg 2 - constant of universal gravitation; H is the height of the satellite above the Earth's surface, Rzem = 6.37 10 9 m is the radius of the Earth. From formula (5.1) it follows that the circular speed has the greatest value at height H = 0, that is, in the case when the satellite is moving near the very surface of the Earth. This speed in astronautics is called the first cosmic speed:

In real conditions, not a single satellite can revolve around the Earth in a circular orbit at escape velocity, because the dense atmosphere greatly slows down the movement of bodies that move at high speed. Even if the speed of a rocket in the atmosphere reached the value of the first cosmic speed, then the high air resistance would heat its surface to the melting point. Therefore, during launch from the Earth's surface, rockets first rise vertically up to a height of several hundred kilometers, where air resistance is negligible, and only then the corresponding speed in the horizontal direction is communicated to the satellite.

For the curious

Weightlessness during flight in a spacecraft occurs at the moment when the rocket engines stop working. In order to experience the state of weightlessness, it is not necessary to fly into space. Any jump in height or length, when the support under our feet disappears, gives us a short-term feeling of a state of weightlessness.

Movement of spacecraft in elliptical orbits

If the satellite's velocity differs from the circular velocity or the velocity vector is not parallel to the horizon plane, then the spacecraft (SV) will orbit the Earth along an elliptical trajectory. According to the first law, the center of the Earth must be at one of the foci of the ellipse, therefore the plane of the satellite’s orbit must intersect or coincide with the equatorial plane (Fig. 5.4). In this case, the satellite's height above the Earth's surface varies from perigee to apogee. the corresponding points on the orbits of the planets are perihelion and aphelion (see § 4).

Rice. 5.4. The motion of a satellite along an elliptical trajectory is similar to the rotation of planets in the gravitational zone of the Sun. The change in speed is determined by the law of conservation of energy: the sum of the kinetic and potential energy of a body when moving in orbit remains constant

If a satellite moves along an elliptical trajectory, then, according to Kepler’s second law, its speed changes: the satellite has the highest speed at perigee, and the least at apogee.

Orbital period of the spacecraft

If a spacecraft moves in an ellipse around the Earth with variable speed, its period of revolution can be determined using Kepler's third law (see § 4):

where Tc is the period of revolution of the satellite around the Earth; T m = 27.3 days - sidereal period of the Moon’s revolution around the Earth; a c is the semimajor axis of the satellite’s orbit; =380000 km semimajor axis of the Moon's orbit. From equation (5.3) we determine:

(5.4)

Rice. 5.5. A geostationary satellite orbits at an altitude of 35600 km only in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane with a period of 24 hours (N - North Pole)

In astronautics, a special role is played by satellites that “hang” above one point on the Earth - these are geostationary satellites used for space communications (Fig. 5.5).

For the curious

To ensure global communications, it is enough to place three satellites into geostationary orbit, which should “hang” at the vertices of a regular triangle. Now there are already several dozen commercial satellites from different countries in such orbits, providing retransmission of television programs, mobile telephone communications, and the Internet computer network.

Second and third escape speeds

These speeds determine the conditions for interplanetary and interstellar travel, respectively. If we compare the second escape velocity V 2 with the first V 1 (5.2), we obtain the relation:

A spacecraft launched from the surface of the Earth at the second escape velocity and moving along a parabolic trajectory could fly to the stars, because a parabola is an open curve and goes to infinity. But in real conditions, such a ship will not leave the solar system, because any body that goes beyond the limits of gravity falls into the gravitational field of the Sun. That is, the spacecraft will become a satellite of the Sun and will circulate in the solar system like planets or asteroids.

To fly beyond the solar system, the spacecraft needs to be given the third escape velocity V 3 = 16.7 km/s. Unfortunately, the power of modern jet engines is still insufficient to fly to the stars when launched directly from the surface of the Earth. But if a spacecraft flies through the gravitational field of another planet, it can receive additional energy, which allows interstellar flights in our time. The USA has already launched several such spacecraft (Pioneer 10,11 and Voyager 1,2), which in the gravitational field of the giant planets have increased their speed so much that in the future they will fly out of the solar system.

For the curious

The flight to the Moon takes place in the gravitational field of the Earth, so the spacecraft flies along an ellipse, the focus of which is the center of the Earth. The most advantageous flight trajectory with minimal fuel consumption is an ellipse, which is tangent to the orbit of the Moon.

During interplanetary flights, for example to Mars, the spacecraft flies in an ellipse with the Sun at its focus. The most advantageous trajectory with the least energy consumption passes along an ellipse, which is tangent to the orbit of the Earth and Mars. The start and arrival points lie on the same straight line on opposite sides of the Sun. Such a one-way flight lasts more than 8 months. Cosmonauts who will visit Mars in the near future must take into account that they will not be able to return to Earth immediately: the Earth moves in orbit faster than Mars, and in 8 months it will be ahead of it. Before returning, the astronauts need to stay on Mars for another 8 months until the Earth takes a favorable position. That is, the total duration of the expedition to Mars will be at least two years.

Practical application of astronautics

Nowadays, astronautics not only serves to study the Universe, but also brings great practical benefits to people on Earth. Artificial spacecraft study the weather, explore space, help solve environmental problems, search for minerals, and provide radio navigation (Fig. 5.6, 5.7). But the greatest merits of astronautics are in the development of space communications, space mobile phones, television and the Internet.

Rice. 5.6. International Space Station

Scientists are designing the construction of space solar power plants that will transmit energy to Earth. In the near future, one of the current students will fly to Mars and explore the Moon and asteroids. Mysterious alien worlds and encounters with other life forms, and possibly with extraterrestrial civilizations, await us.

Rice. 5.7. A space station in the form of a giant ring, the idea of ​​which was proposed by Tsiolkovsky. Rotating the station around its axis will create artificial gravity

Rice. 5.8. The launch of the Ukrainian Zenit rocket from the cosmodrome in the Pacific Ocean

conclusions

Cosmonautics as the science of flights into interplanetary space is rapidly developing and occupies a special place in the methods of studying celestial bodies and the space environment. In addition, in our time, astronautics is successfully used in communications (telephone, radio, television, Internet), navigation, geology, meteorology and many other areas of human activity.

Tests

1. A spacecraft revolving around the Earth in a circular orbit at the following altitude above the surface can fly at escape velocity:
   A. About km.
   B. 100 km.
   E. 200 km.
   G. 1000 km.
   D. 10000 km.
2. The rocket launches from the surface of the Earth at the second escape velocity. Where will she fly to?
   A. To the Moon.
   B. To the Sun.
   B. Will become a satellite of the Sun.
   D. Will become a satellite of Mars.
   D. Will fly to the stars.
3. The spacecraft revolves around the Earth in an elliptical orbit. What is the name of the point in the orbit where astronauts are closest to Earth?
   A. Perigee.
   B. Perihelion.
   V. Apogee.
   G. Aphelios.
   D. Parsec.
4. A rocket with a spaceship launches from the cosmodrome. When will astronauts feel weightlessness?
   A. At an altitude of 100 m.
   B. At an altitude of 100 km.
   B. When the jet engine turns off.
   D. When the rocket hits airless space.
5. Which of these physical laws do not hold true in zero gravity?
   A. Hooke's law.
   B. Coulomb's law.
   B. The law of universal gravitation.
   D. Boyle-Mariotte law.
   D. Archimedes' law.
6. Why can’t any satellite orbit the Earth in a circular orbit at escape velocity?
7. What is the difference between perigee and perihelion?
8. Why do overloads occur when launching a spacecraft?
9. Is Archimedes' law true in zero gravity?
10. The spacecraft revolves around the Earth in a circular orbit at an altitude of 200 km. Determine the linear speed of the ship.
11. Can a spaceship make 24 revolutions around the Earth in a day?

Debates on proposed topics

1. What can you suggest for future space programs?

Observation tasks

1. In the evening, look for a satellite or international space station in the sky that is illuminated by the Sun and looks like bright dots from the Earth's surface. Draw their path among the constellations for 10 minutes. How does the flight of a satellite differ from the movement of planets?

Key concepts and terms:

Apogee, geostationary satellite, second escape velocity, circular velocity, interplanetary space station, perigee, first escape velocity, artificial Earth satellite.

The history of manned astronautics began on April 12, 1961, when Soviet pilot-cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made the first space flight lasting 108 minutes and forever entered the history of the development of our civilization. This event accumulated titanic efforts and the accumulated scientific and technical potential of the rocket and space industry of the USSR.

In 1971, the first crew of the Salyut orbital station, consisting of cosmonauts G.T. Dobrovolsky, V.N. Volkov and V.I. Patsaeva died while returning after successfully completing the mission. And space continued to collect victims. In 1986, the disaster with the American reusable spacecraft Challenger claimed the lives of seven astronauts.

One of the milestones, not so tragic, but nevertheless sad, on this thorny path was our manned lunar program. Started in 1964, it initially lagged behind the American one, announced in 1961 and elevated to the rank of national. The success of this program became the responsibility of every American. The general Soviet public could only guess about the existence of our program. The key element of both the domestic and American manned lunar programs was the super-heavy carrier. For a successful flight to the Moon, landing and return to Earth, it was necessary to launch more than 100 tons of payload into low Earth orbit.

The Americans began developing a super-heavy launch vehicle under the Saturn program in 1958, and in 1961 a two-stage version of such a launch vehicle was launched. In 1963, the final decision was made on the flight option to the Moon and a three-stage Saturn launch vehicle was selected, allowing for the launch of 139 tons of payload into low Earth orbit and 65 tons into the flight path to the Moon. Testing of the domestic HI launch vehicle, chosen for our manned lunar program, began only in February 1969. The mass of the payload that was to be launched into low Earth orbit by this launch vehicle was 70 tons.

In the lunar race that lasted more than four years, the Americans were the first. In December 1968, American astronauts flew in orbit around the Moon on the Apo11o-8 spacecraft. Our attempt in February 1969 to do the same thing, but in an unmanned version, ended in failure (the launch vehicle crashed due to the engines turning off). After the landing of American astronauts on the Moon in July 1969, the Soviet leadership lost interest in the lunar program, and four consecutive emergency launches of its main “locomotive” - the super-heavy launch vehicle HI - finally buried the domestic manned lunar program.

Manned expedition to Mars in the 20th century. did not receive technical implementation. However, both in the USA and in the USSR, various projects for the implementation of such expeditions have been considered since the 1960s. Thus, one of the projects involved the use of an electric propulsion system as an engine. The mass of the entire Martian complex could reach several hundred tons. Despite the lack of demand, these projects were a step forward in human space exploration, and the scientific and technical basis created during their development will certainly be used in the preparation of future Martian expeditions. After the flight Yu.A. Gagarin, the domestic manned cosmonautics gained momentum, very quickly moving from single short-term flights to the permanent presence of cosmonaut crews in orbit.

The legendary Vostok and Voskhod were quickly replaced by the Salyut space stations of the first generation, which made it possible to ensure the life and work of orbital crews for a considerable time, limited only by the volume of those supplies that were delivered to the space station. At the same time, for the first time, the prerequisites were created for the transition from considering a question like “is it worth launching a person into space at all?” to problems of the level of “will a person be able to fly to Mars and further to the stars and what needs to be done for this?”, posed at one time by K.E. Tsiolkovsky.

A consequence of the organic development of scientific and technical thought was the creation of the second generation Salyut stations, the most significant difference of which was a proven transport service system, which makes it possible to organize long-term space flights.

The next step in the development of Soviet cosmonautics was the creation of the next generation orbital station - the manned space complex "Mir", the operational and technical management for the preparation and launch of which was carried out by the director of the Machine-Building Plant. M.V. Khrunicheva A.I. Kiselev. "Mir" was a complex block-modular design that could adapt in flight even to radically changing conditions. So, for example, when designing the Mir complex and in the first years of its flight, there was no talk of docking the complex with the Space Shuttle orbital vehicle (the main option was the docking of the complex with Buran), and already in space conditions During the flight of the complex, it was refined and retrofitted, which made it possible to solve this problem.

It should be noted that one of the results of the development of manned astronautics in the 20th century. a reasonable conclusion emerged about the impossibility of its further productive development without the widespread introduction of the principle of international cooperation. Therefore, the next stage in the development of manned space exploration, coming in the 21st century, will be marked by an organic combination of the efforts of various countries in working on a single project. Manned space programs provide for a broad, step-by-step organizational and technical integration of work carried out by Russia with the national space programs of the United States, Western European countries, Japan and Canada. The Federal Space Program provides for the gradual introduction of Russia into international manned flight programs with extensive use of the experience of creating and operating the domestic manned orbital station "Mir". The main steps towards such implementation were:

1. Flight programs of foreign cosmonauts as part of the crews of the Salyut and Mir complexes.
2. The Mir - Shuttle program (1994 - 1995), which included joint work on the Russian Mir station and the American Shuttle spacecraft, as well as flights of Russian cosmonauts on the Shuttle spacecraft and the stay of American astronauts on the Mir station.

1. The Mir program - NASA (1995 - 1997), which was aimed at continuing and expanding scientific research in the interests of Russia and the United States on board the Mir station using the Soyuz TM and Shuttle spacecraft to implement transport operations.

Despite the low level of government funding, it was still possible to complete the bulk of the planned work. Although with some delay, the Mir - Shuttle and Mir - NASA programs were completed. The next step - the International Space Station (ISS) program, currently underway - provides for the creation of an International Space Station based on the results of the implementation of national programs of Russia and the USA (Mir-2 and Freedom) with expanded scientific and technical capabilities for conducting fundamental research and applied work in space related to human life support, space technology and biotechnology, environmental management and ecology, as well as the development of elements of advanced space technology.

It should be noted that the desire for leadership of the domestic cosmonautics in the field of manned space was undoubtedly associated with the use of the Mir orbital complex. The Mir complex, the first module of which (the base unit) was launched into orbit on February 20, 1986, is the largest scientific and technical achievement in the field of manned space flights and exploration of near-Earth space. In total, according to the Mir complex flight program, 102 successful launches of ships and modules of various types were carried out (including launches of the American Shuttle spacecraft).

The Mir complex has no analogues and is an absolute world record holder for the following positions:

• duration of operation in orbit;
• the total flight hours of astronauts on board the complex;
• versatility and volume of scientific and technical programs and research carried out on board;
• the number of completed programs within the framework of international cooperation, as well as the volume of work carried out on a commercial basis.

The resource characteristics and level of international cooperation of the Mir complex are commensurate with the corresponding design characteristics of the ISS. During almost 15 years of operation of the Mir complex, a unique scientific laboratory was formed on it, which included a natural history complex consisting of a block of spectroradiometric instruments, an astrophysical laboratory of six powerful telescopes and spectrometers, technological furnaces, and medical diagnostic complexes. On the basis of the scientific complex, about 18,000 sessions (experiments) were conducted in such important areas of research as technology, biotechnology, geophysics, exploration of the Earth’s natural resources and ecology, astrophysics, medicine, biology, materials science, equipment testing and a number of others.

The implementation of the program was ensured by multi-sectoral cooperation of organizations and enterprises in Russia and the CIS countries working in the field of high technology. During the operation of the Mir complex, unique experience has been accumulated, the basis of which is long-term forecasting of the technical condition, periodic extension of the service life and a special, constantly improved technology for repair and restoration work, including work in outer space.

In no case should the projects of the Mir orbital complex and the ISS be considered in isolation, since Russia shares its accumulated experience in organizing, supporting and conducting orbital flights with its ISS partners. Recently, in connection with Russia's participation in the creation of the International Space Station, the question has arisen about the advisability of continuing to operate the Mir complex, due to the fact that limited government funding does not allow the simultaneous implementation of two large-scale programs. In addition, a significant excess of the intended resource made the further operation of the Mir station unsafe. A government decision was made and implemented in March 2001 to terminate the existence of the station, its controlled deorbit and flooding in the ocean.

The principle of international space cooperation determines the need for Russia's full-scale participation in the International Space Station program. In the 21st century There is practically no alternative to this direction, since the costs of manned space flight have largely begun to exceed the financial capabilities of one individual country.

Using the ISS, fundamental scientific problems will be solved, applied research and experiments will be conducted in the interests of the development of fundamental science, the socio-economic sphere and international cooperation. The main tasks solved using the International Space Station will be:

• conducting fundamental research in order to deepen and expand knowledge about the Universe and the world around us;
• conducting applied research in order to obtain geophysical information on board the spacecraft for practical use in agriculture, forestry and fisheries, geology, oceanography and ecology;
• obtaining pilot batches of semiconductor materials, alloys, gradient glasses for research and application in the electronics industry, nuclear energy, laser technology, projection television; obtaining biologically active substances and drugs for the medical and pharmaceutical industries, molecular electronics, livestock;
• carrying out work within the framework of international cooperation programs, including on a commercial basis;
• carrying out work on full-scale testing of elements and systems of promising rocket and space technology.

It is expected that the creation of this station will allow:

• expand fundamental scientific knowledge in the field of astrophysics, geophysics and ecology, material information, medicine and biology;
• obtain high-quality samples of new materials, biologically active substances and medications for use in the electronic and radio industries, optics, medicine and biology;
• increase the efficiency of R&D to create and test new types of scientific equipment for various space systems;
• obtain an increase in the country's national product from the use of new space technologies in industry and from the use of information about the Earth's natural resources and the environmental situation in agriculture, forestry, and geology;
• receive foreign exchange earnings from the implementation of international cooperation programs on a commercial basis;
• create a scientific and technical basis for promising programs for the exploration of the Moon and Mars in cooperation with foreign countries.

In September 1988, the governments of the United States, ESA member states, Japan and Canada signed an intergovernmental agreement to cooperate in the development, operation and use of the International Space Station. At the end of 1993, the Russian Government received an invitation to cooperate on the ISS from the countries that signed this agreement and accepted it.

The project to create the ISS has been developed since the mid-1980s. and was previously called Freedom. Until 1993, $11.2 billion was spent on work on the project. However, the lack of proven technical means and technologies (which Russia largely possesses) that would ensure long-term stay and activity of the crew in space flight conditions, emergency rescue equipment and economically feasible means of delivering fuel and cargo to the ISS made the project practically impossible to implement.

Russia's participation in the project to create and use the ISS makes the ISS program more sustainable and feasible. The key elements and technologies supplied by Russia, which can significantly speed up the assembly of the ISS, are: a service module (SM), which provides vital functions for 3 to 6 crew members; Progress-M cargo ships and their modifications, providing the station with consumable components, including fuel; manned ships of the Soyuz TM type, providing delivery and return of the crew, their emergency rescue in unforeseen situations. Other ISS partners (including the United States) currently have no analogues of these facilities. In general, the Russian segment of the International Space Station includes the following elements: the Zarya module, the Zvezda service module, docking compartments, universal docking and docking-storage modules, a scientific and energy platform, research modules, Soyuz TM spacecraft and "Progress". The Proton launch vehicle is used to deliver the main modules of the Russian segment of the ISS into orbit.

The USA, ESA member states, Canada, Japan - Russia's partners in the ISS - are interested in its participation in the project, realizing that otherwise the project will become much more expensive, and the creation of the station will be problematic. This conclusion corresponds to the opinion of American experts. On October 7, 1998, at a NASA meeting, Daniel Goldin publicly announced for the first time that NASA might ask Congress for additional funds to maintain Russia's role in the space station program while taking steps to reduce the program's dependence on Russian products. Goldin also said that a similar message was conveyed to the White House during discussions of NASA's 2000 budget request.

NASA estimates that an additional $1.2 billion will be needed to implement the plan to reduce Russia's role in the program. In the near future, NASA will be purchasing Russian services and products. In the longer term, the US space agency intends to create its own products and services - for example, modify the MTKS Space Shuttle so as not to require launches of several Russian Progress cargo ships. Russia's participation in the project to create the ISS is the cheapest solution for the near future.

The inclusion of Russia in 1998 among the partners in the ISS contributed to a certain extent to the strengthening of its position in the post-Soviet economic space. One of its main partners in space activities within the CIS, Ukraine, has also expressed a desire to participate in this project. Ukraine approached Russia with a proposal to cooperate in the creation of a Ukrainian research module and its inclusion in the Russian segment of the ISS.

The commercial use of resources of the Russian segment of the ISS is provided. The goal of commercial space activities in this direction is to compensate for part of the costs of creating the Russian segment of the ISS, to minimize operating costs, to use scientific and technical products obtained during the development of the ISS and its operation in other sectors of the economy to ensure the creation and development of advanced competitive products.

Commercial interest for business in the 21st century. may also represent:

• scientific and technical products obtained during the development of the ISS based on the latest achievements of space science and technology;
• comprehensive and timely training of ISS crew members (in addition to Russian ones) at the Cosmonaut Training Center named after. Yu.A. Gagarin;
• fulfillment of requests from ISS partners for the delivery of payloads;
• preparation of ground equipment and personnel to support planned experiments (work) on the ISS;
• execution of commercial orders for the development and production of material parts to support projects implemented on the technical base of the Russian segment of the ISS.

Russia's integration into international space activities helps strengthen its position in the world community, strengthening its authority, influence and understanding of Russian interests by other states. When analyzing relations with leading states in the field of space activities, it is necessary to always take into account that joint scientific projects, the implementation of Russian capabilities in the space services market and Russia’s fulfillment of its obligations to limit and control the spread of missile technologies are considered by foreign partners as a single whole. Violation of any component will inevitably lead to a reduction (or termination) of joint work not only in the field of space, but also in other areas of economic cooperation. Under these conditions, in order to preserve and develop Russia’s space potential, expand international cooperation and attract significant amounts of foreign funds to the country’s rocket and space industry, it is necessary to ensure the timely fulfillment of international obligations in the field of space (including the creation of the ISS).

The predicted operational life of the ISS is until 2013. Its creation requires 100 billion dollars, Russia's share in this amount is 6.5...6.8 billion dollars. Having invested its share in the creation of the station, our country receives the right to a third of its resources, including: 43% of the time spent and the number of crew, 20% of energy resources, 35% of the volume of pressurized compartments and 44% of jobs.

The creation of the ISS is being successfully implemented: three elements of the ISS are already in orbit, and the first of them is a functional cargo block developed by the State Research and Production Space Center named after. M.V. Khrunichev with the involvement of cooperation consisting of more than 240 enterprises. Its name - "Zarya" - symbolizes the beginning of a new stage of cooperation in the field of international astronautics.

The creation of the module, which can rightfully be called a “transition compartment in the 21st century,” took place in difficult conditions of configuration formation and changing requirements for the ISS. Of the initially 1,100 requirements for the ISS, more than a third underwent changes during the design, manufacturing and testing process. During the work, specialists from the State Research and Production Space Center named after. M.V. Khrunichev, complex scientific, technical and organizational problems related to the adaptation of the FGB to international standards and the performance of functions that provide the necessary conditions for the deployment and operation of the ISS were resolved:

• orbital maintenance and attitude control of the ISS during the initial stages of deployment;
• power supply to the International Space Station during the initial deployment phase;
• ensuring docking works;
• acting as a storage facility for consumables;
• maintaining life support functions.

It is expected that in the 21st century. Much attention will be paid to the development of technologies and technical means for carrying out “small” orbital flights. An example of such a program is the "Eagle" program, which provides for the creation of a small-sized orbital vehicle for small space crews (consisting of one or two people) to solve problems of rescuing astronauts, maintaining orbital facilities and a number of others.

Of all the celestial bodies, the most realistic in the near future seems to be the exploration of the Moon. This is due to its spatial proximity, the possibility of placing on its surface lunar bases for various purposes: production, repair, mining, astrophysical, asteroid protection systems, etc. In this regard, one should expect in the 21st century. resumption and development of manned flights to the Moon.

One can also assume manned flights to the planets of the solar system, primarily to Mars, whose temperature conditions are closest to those on Earth. An expedition to Mars is possible in the first quarter of the 21st century.

It should be noted that manned flights to other planets seem to be very problematic due to their high cost, complexity of implementation, and a sharp aggravation of global earthly problems predicted by the middle of the 21st century. Therefore, the exploration of the planets of the Solar System and deep space will apparently continue with the help of automatic interplanetary spacecraft and probes.

Tucked into tablets
Space maps,
And the navigator clarifies
Last time the route...

Vladimir Voinovich (1957)

At the beginning of 2016, a science journalist and moderator of the Science Journalists Club were discussing whether humanity needs manned space flight. Alexander Sergeev and astronomer, Art. scientific co-workers SAI MSU Vladimir Surdin.

Alexander Sergeev:

It often sounds opinion that manned spaceflight need not, that this “has always been a political phallometry between superpowers” ​​and all space exploration tasks can be performed by robots. Although in certain respects this judgment is not without foundation, in general it is erroneous.

Naturally, political competition was the main driver of manned space exploration. As a result, these technologies were created historically somewhat prematurely, which is why they were associated with excessive risks and costs. I think they will become really in demand in another half century. But once technologies have been created, it is advisable to preserve and improve them, and not abandon them and then recreate them from scratch. This is the meaning of leisurely activity around the ISS.

The only key problem in human space exploration remains the high cost of launching cargo into orbit. Because of this, it is too expensive to create a full-fledged technological infrastructure outside of Earth. And without it, the risks are very high, which, in turn, increases costs. It turns out to be a vicious circle. If in one way or another it is possible to significantly reduce the cost of delivery, the development of astronautics will accelerate sharply.

In principle this is possible. According to Tsiolkovsky’s formula, to accelerate 1 kg to the first escape velocity using chemical engines, you need only about 20 kg of fuel, that is, about 10 dollars. The real cost of delivering cargo to the ISS is about 30 thousand dollars per kilogram.

An increase of 3.5 orders of magnitude (!) is associated with traditional technological solutions and organizational processes, as well as with forcedly inflated safety requirements (due to the impossibility of providing technical assistance in flight). This cost can almost certainly be reduced tenfold by scaling up space activities, creating technological infrastructure in orbit, and implementing original ideas, such as launches from high-altitude platforms or electromagnetic catapults.

As for the need for manned astronautics, there are tasks in space that are not feasible for automatic machines in the foreseeable future. Several years ago I read an American report on this topic. The main one of these tasks was geological drilling on the surface of other celestial bodies. This was not about modest experiments, like on Luna-24 or on Curiosity, but about full-fledged exploration drilling of tens and hundreds of meters.

I also suggest comparing the speed of movement on the surface:

• Apollo 17 Lunar Rover - 36 km in 3 days - 12 km / day.
• "Lunokhod-2" - 42 km in 4 months - 350 m / day.
• “Opportunity” - 42 km in 11.5 years - 10 m / day.

How to make a space base profitable?

There is an opinion that even with an order of magnitude reduction in the cost of launching into orbit and an increase in orbital traffic by two orders of magnitude, manned astronautics will not find a commercial justification. I believe that this is not entirely true. There are already areas that are on the verge of profitability, and if the cost of development is reduced by an order of magnitude and a half, then working business ideas will certainly appear.

There are currently six people living on the ISS. If we assume a hundredfold increase in orbital traffic, then the space population should grow even more, since there will be significant resource savings due to scale and synergy. So, there are about a thousand people working in orbit. What can they do there?

It is more or less clear that it is not astronomical observations, since for this, even at terrestrial observatories, human presence is usually not required.

The space base's unique selling proposition includes long-term weightlessness, high vacuum, spectacular views of the Earth from space, and the ability to assemble and maintain spacecraft without deorbiting them. Perhaps I missed something, but these points are obvious.

First of all, a hotel is being created there. Even now, when a tourist ticket to the ISS costs more than $20 million, there is a queue of people waiting to get there. And for a pathetic suborbital jump for 200 thousand - too. I think that many will want to spend a couple of million on vacation in an orbital hotel on a huge space station with a population of hundreds of people, try out a bunch of attractions there (from zero-gravity sports games to spacewalks), and get acquainted with the work of various commercial, technological and scientific teams .

Next, a film studio is being built for filming in zero gravity. It is clear that even now in Hollywood they manage to create the impression of weightlessness in various space films. But there are many limitations to such effects, and the accompanying computer support is expensive. When movie budgets are in the hundreds of millions, it can be quite justifiable to send a film crew and actors into orbit for 20 million.

Let’s not forget about the advertising potential of the “city in orbit.” Companies will pay to place their logos on the station, supply their products there, film their commercials there, and send promotional lottery winners there. Surely new unexpected ideas will appear, such as the recent proposal to arrange artificial meteor showers over cities on demand, dropping special capsules from orbit.

Repair dock in space

The next natural direction is a repair dock for satellites. Nowadays, most satellites are built with full autonomy in mind. This forces all systems to be made ultra-reliable, and therefore expensive. Induction errors tend to render satellites useless. Insurance covers the cost of the devices, but not lost profits. Finally, many satellites become obsolete over the course of their operation.

The example of the Hubble Telescope shows that servicing a satellite can significantly extend its active life. A tug with an ion engine can bring satellites into non-design orbits, out of service, or in need of modernization or refueling to a dock for servicing. By the way, the work of many space observatories is limited by the supply of liquid helium on board. They could be replenished at the dock.

A development of the repair dock idea will be a construction shipyard for large satellites and spacecraft. Currently, the complexity of research satellites and interplanetary stations is limited by the carrying capacity and dimensions of launch vehicles. And also because the spacecraft must operate flawlessly immediately after the stressful conditions of a rocket launch.

With lower launch costs and the availability of an orbital assembly shipyard, many restrictions on the design of large spacecraft would be lifted. Also, the issues of manned flights to other planets would cease to be so problematic. In particular, the most difficult problem of crew radiation safety would be removed, since the mass of radiation protection would no longer be a limiting factor.

Research base in space

The next step is the creation of a space base for the systematic collection, delivery and study of samples from various bodies of the Solar System. When flying for each such sample, there is no need to first get out of the Earth’s gravitational-atmospheric well and then return to it. Probes with ion engines can launch directly from the space station and return to it. The entire cycle of research can be carried out on it, with the exception of the most exotic ones.

As for research, I believe the main emphasis should be on medicine and biology in conditions of zero or reduced gravity. It is also possible that new materials will appear that can be produced in zero gravity.

Space city

And finally, let's not forget that human settlements exist not only to supply something somewhere. People just live in them and do a variety of things. It is quite natural that as the space base grows, some people will simply become its residents. It will probably be expensive to live there at first and only very wealthy people will be able to afford it. But someone will have to serve them. And the prices for this service will take into account the “orbital markup”. So all these people will form their own market.

Finally, research will begin to optimize life on the orbital station itself. For example, it may turn out that it is more profitable to supply the station with oxygen not from the Earth, but from the Moon - as part of the regolith. And from it you can extract aluminum for your own structural needs.

In short, if the population becomes large enough, the station will not immediately, but gradually, launch its own economy, and the project will begin to look for income for itself - tourism, advertising, exclusive apartments, maintenance of space equipment, experiments, filming and entertainment in zero gravity and in outer space space. In general, a normal human life. Only for its launch it is necessary that the cost of launching into orbit decrease by an order of magnitude, or better yet, by two. But what is needed for this is not yet completely clear.

Strategy needs to change

Vladimir Surdin:

The birth of manned space flight in the 1960s was a natural step in technological progress. Everyone was interested in it - engineers, doctors, ideologists. The appearance of man in low-Earth orbit and further on the Moon greatly changed the worldview of the enlightened part of earthlings and stimulated the progress of science.

But in recent decades, manned space exploration has stagnated. Its development practically stopped in the mid-1980s. It became clear that it is dangerous for a person to remain in near-Earth orbit for more than a year, and far from Earth for more than six months. That all defense and economic tasks (Earth monitoring, communications, navigation, etc.) are more efficiently solved by unmanned vehicles. A person in space remains an element of state prestige, but over the years the effectiveness of this role has also decreased.

Currently, astronauts are present only on the ISS and are mainly engaged in maintaining the operation of the station. Hopes for the development of new technologies in zero gravity (ideal crystals, pure medicines) are obviously not justified. Scientific experiments are being carried out on the ISS. But if you do not take into account mercantile considerations (i.e., financing), then scientists are not eager to place their instruments on the ISS, preferring unmanned vehicles. When sending a scientific installation to the ISS, it still has to be made as automated as possible and equipped with additional devices that neutralize the harmful effects (vibration, etc.) of astronauts and their life support systems.

As far as I know, manned spaceflight eats up more than a third of the budget of civilian space agencies, without bringing any significant scientific and technical results, unlike unmanned orbiters and interplanetary probes.

Nevertheless, according to Parkinson's law, the staff of any department only increases over time. Officials from the manned space program declare new ambitious goals for it (flights to asteroids, to Mars), without taking real steps in this direction. Even when simulating long-term flights on Earth (for example, Mars-500), they do not create conditions as close as possible to those in space - I mean radiation.

Of course, it would be short-sighted to ban manned flights based on the above and, as a result, lose the developed technologies. But it is necessary to change the strategy. Technologies for human presence in space are already used by private companies developing space tourism, so they will not be lost. It is advisable to spend public money on solving fundamental problems.

The previous generation of people entered the history of civilization with their first steps into space. How will the current generation respond? If we reorient the priorities of big astronautics to the creation of new interplanetary probes and space telescopes, then our generation could become the first to discover life outside the Earth. In my opinion, this is a worthy task, solving which we will open up new prospects for humanity.

Alexander Sergeev:

I completely agree that, given the unchanged technologies for launching into orbit, the change in strategy outlined by Vladimir Georgievich is justified and even necessary. However, I was interested in a situation where the cost of breeding could be radically reduced. In this case, it is possible to provide protection from radiation in space (this is just a matter of the mass of screens), relieve crews from the constant effects of weightlessness (by spinning up large stations) and significantly reduce psychological costs (by increasing the number of crews and the level of flight safety). Thus, radical space expansion is hampered only by the high cost of launching into orbit. Technically feasible alternatives to rocket technology have already been invented. The one who puts them into practice will own space. Until then, yes, only robots and astronauts of prestige.

Major milestones in manned space exploration

The beginning of the era of manned space exploration

April 12, 1961 marked the beginning of the era of manned space flight. Over 50 space years, manned astronautics has come a long way from the first flight of Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin, lasting only 108 minutes, to crew flights on the International Space Station (ISS), which has been in almost continuous manned mode for more than 10 years.

During 1957-1961, space launches of automatic devices were carried out to study the Earth and near-Earth space, the Moon and deep space. In the early 60s, domestic specialists under the leadership of the Chief Designer of OKB-1 Sergei Pavlovich Korolev completed the solution to the most difficult task - the creation of the world's first manned spacecraft "Vostok".

Implementation of the Vostok program

During the Vostokov flights, the effects of overload and weightlessness on the cosmonauts’ body, and the influence of a long stay in a limited-volume cabin were studied. The first Vostok, piloted by Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin, completed only 1 revolution around the Earth. In the same year, German Stepanovich Titov spent a whole day in space and proved that a person can live and work in zero gravity. Titov was the first cosmonaut to take photographs of the Earth; he became the first space photographer.

The flight of the Vostok-5 spacecraft with cosmonaut Valery Fedorovich Bykovsky lasted for about 5 days.

On June 16, 1963, the world's first female cosmonaut, Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova, flew into space on the Vostok-6 spacecraft.

Man's first spacewalk

Voskhod is the world's first multi-seat manned spacecraft. From the Voskhod-2 spacecraft on March 18, 1965, Alexey Arkhipovich Leonov made the world's first spacewalk lasting 12 minutes 9 seconds. Now extravehicular activities of astronauts have become an integral part of almost all space flights.

First docking in space of two manned spacecraft

January 16, 1969 - the first docking in orbit (in manual mode) of two manned spacecraft. The transition of two cosmonauts - Alexei Stanislavovich Eliseev and Evgeniy Vasilyevich Khrunov through outer space from Soyuz-5 to Soyuz-4 - was completed.

First people on the moon

July 1969 - Apollo 11 flight. During the flight on July 16-24, 1969, people for the first time in history landed on the surface of another celestial body - the Moon. On July 20, 1969, at 20:17:39 UTC, crew commander Neil Armstrong and pilot Edwin Aldrin landed the spacecraft's lunar module in the southwestern region of the Sea of ​​Tranquility. They remained on the lunar surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes and 21 seconds. All this time, command module pilot Michael Collins was waiting for them in lunar orbit. The astronauts made one exit to the lunar surface, which lasted 2 hours 31 minutes 40 seconds. The first person to set foot on the moon was Neil Armstrong. This happened on July 21, at 02:56:15 UTC. Aldrin joined him 15 minutes later.

The first expedition to a long-term orbital station

A new stage of orbital flights began in June 1971 with the flight of Soyuz-11 (Georgy Timofeevich Dobrovolsky, Viktor Ivanovich Patsaev, Vladislav Nikolaevich Volkov—pictured from left to right) and the expedition to the first long-term orbital station Salyut. In orbit, for the first time for 22 days, the cosmonauts worked out a cycle of flight operations, which later became standard for long-term expeditions on space stations.

The first international experimental program "Apollo-Soyuz"

A special place in manned cosmonautics is occupied by the flight that took place from July 15 to 25, 1975 as part of the Apollo-Soyuz Experimental Program. On July 17, at 19:12, the Soyuz and Apollo docked; On July 19, the ships were undocking, after which, after two orbits of the Soyuz, the ships were re-docking, and after two more orbits the ships were finally undocked. This was the first experience of joint space activities by representatives of different countries - the USSR and the USA, which marked the beginning of international cooperation in space - the Intercosmos, Mir-NASA, Mir-Shuttle, ISS projects.

Reusable space transport systems of the Space Shuttle and Buran programs

In the early 70s, both “space powers” ​​- the USSR and the USA - began work on the creation of reusable space transport systems under the Space Shuttle and Energia-Buran programs.

Reusable TCSs had capabilities that were not available for disposable PSVs:

• delivery of large objects (in the cargo compartment) to orbital stations;
• insertion into orbit, removal from orbit of artificial Earth satellites;
• maintenance and repair of satellites in space;
• inspection of space objects in orbit;
• reuse of reusable elements of the space transport system.

Buran made its first and only space flight on November 15, 1988. The spacecraft was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome using the Energia launch vehicle. The flight duration was 205 minutes, the ship made two orbits around the Earth, after which it landed at the Yubileiny airfield in Baikonur. The flight was uncrewed and automatic using an on-board computer and on-board software, unlike the shuttle, which traditionally performs the final stage of landing using manual control (entry into the atmosphere and braking to the speed of sound in both cases are fully computerized). This fact - the flight of a spacecraft into space and its descent to Earth automatically under the control of an on-board computer - was included in the Guinness Book of Records.

Over 30 years, the five Space Shuttles completed 133 flights. By March 2011, the most flights—39—were made by the shuttle Discovery. A total of six shuttles were built from 1975 to 1991: Enterprise (did not fly into space), Columbia (burned up during landing in 2003), Challenger (exploded during launch in 1986), Discovery, Atlantis " and "Endeavour".

Orbital stations

Between 1971 and 1997, our country launched eight manned space stations into orbit. The operation of the first space stations under the Salyut program made it possible to gain experience in the development of complex orbital manned complexes that ensure long-term human life in space. A total of 34 crews worked on board the Salyuts.

The American Aerospace Agency carried out an interesting program of flights to Skylab, an American manned space station. Launched into low-Earth orbit on May 14, 1973. Three expeditions of astronauts, delivered by Apollo spacecraft, worked on Skylab. .

C. Conrad, J. Kerwin, P. Weitz from May 25 to June 22, 1973; A. Vin, O. Garriott, J. Lousma from July 28 to September 26, 1973; J. Carr, W. Pogue, E. Gibson from November 16, 1973 to February 8, 1974. The main tasks of all three expeditions were medical and biological research aimed at studying the process of human adaptation to the conditions of long-term space flight and subsequent readaptation to earth’s gravity; solar observations; study of the Earth's natural resources, technical experiments.

The Mir orbital complex (OC) became an international multi-purpose complex, on which practical testing of the target use of future manned space complexes was carried out, and an extensive scientific research program was carried out. 28 main expeditions, 9 visiting expeditions worked on board the Mir spacecraft, 79 spacewalks were performed and more than 23,000 sessions of scientific research and experiments were conducted. 71 people from 12 countries worked at Mir. 27 international scientific programs have been completed. In 1994-1995, cosmonaut Valery Polyakov completed a flight equal in duration to the flight to Mars and back. It lasted 438 days. During the 15-year flight of the complex, experience was gained in eliminating emergency situations of varying significance and deviations from the norm that arose for various reasons.

International Space Station

The International Space Station is a project involving sixteen countries. It has absorbed the experience and technologies of all previous manned space development programs. Russia's contribution to the creation and operation of the ISS is very significant. By the start of work on the ISS in 1993, Russia already had 25 years of experience in operating orbital stations and a correspondingly developed ground infrastructure. Expedition 59 is currently operating on board the ISS. 18 visiting expeditions to the ISS were prepared and carried out.

Orbital station name	Flight period, years	Number of expeditions		Flight hours, days
		Main	Visits
Salyut-1
Salyut-2
	1973 - 1979
Salyut-3	1974 - 1975
Salyut-4	1974 - 1977
Salyut-5	1976 - 1977
Salyut-6	1977 - 1982
Salyut-7	1982 - 1991
	1986 - 2001

In accordance with the “Long-term program of scientific and applied research and experiments planned on the Russian segment of the ISS,” space experiments are carried out on board the station. They are grouped into thematic sections in ten areas of scientific and technical research. The program gives an idea of ​​the goals, objectives and expected results of research and is the basis for the development of plans for its implementation, depending on the available resources and the readiness of equipment and documentation. Space research expands and deepens knowledge about our planet and the surrounding world, laying the foundations for solving fundamental scientific and socio-economic problems. The volume of research carried out on the ISS RS is steadily growing.

It is planned to retrofit the station with a Russian multi-purpose laboratory module (MLM), which will significantly increase the Russian scientific research program by delivering a whole complex of new scientific equipment to the ISS. In addition, together with MLM, it is planned to deliver the European ERA manipulator to support extravehicular activities of ISS crews. In the future, it is planned to deliver a node module and two scientific and energy modules to the ISS RS.

Space tourism

In a number of countries, an entire industry is already being developed to provide flights into space for ordinary citizens who do not have professional cosmonaut qualifications. Private space can not only bring profit to the owners of the corresponding funds, but, like traditional space, public space leads to the creation of new technologies, and, therefore, to expanding the capabilities of society.

20 space tourists were trained for the flight to the ISS RS, 10 of them made a space flight:

		Area of ​​professional activity, profession	Flights performed, period, duration
Tito Denis			1 flight 7 days 22 hours 4 minutes 8 seconds.
Shuttleworth Mark			1 flight 9 days 21 hours 25 minutes 05 seconds.
Olsen Gregory			1 flight 9 days 21 hours 14 minutes 07 seconds.
Kostenko Sergey
Pontes Marcos	Brazil	Test pilot	1 flight 9 days 21 hours 17 minutes 04 seconds.
Ansari Anush			1 flight 10 days 21 hours 04 minutes 37 seconds.
Enomoto Daisuke
Simoni Charles			2 flights 13 days 18 hours 59 minutes 50 seconds; 12 days 19 hours 25 minutes 52 seconds.
Sheikh Muzafar	Malaysia	Orthopedic doctor	1 flight 10 days 21 hours 13 minutes 21 seconds.
Faiz bin Khalid	Malaysia	Military doctor, dentist
Polonsky Sergey
Lance Bass		Musician
Garver Laurie
Yi Seo Yeon (Lee So Yeon)	The Republic of Korea	Science, biotechnology	1 flight 10 days 21 hours 13 minutes 05 seconds.
	The Republic of Korea
Richard Garriott			1 flight 11 days 20 hours 35 minutes 37 seconds.
Nick Khalik	Australia
Guy Lalibirte		Business, artist	1 flight 10 days 21 hours 16 minutes 55 seconds
Esther Dyson
Barbara Barrett

"HISTORY OF MANned SPACE"

“...but in pursuit of light and knowledge, humanity will first timidly look beyond the atmosphere, and then conquer the entire circumsolar space.”

K. E. Tsiolkovsky.

Man has always been attracted by the sky and... stars. Ever since he began to recognize himself as “Homo Sapiens” “, he always wanted to fly in the sky like a bird, and peering into the dark depths of space, where the stars twinkled mysteriously, he was haunted by questions: is he alone in the Universe? Are there any intellectual brothers and what are they like?

For the first time, man was able to see the earth from a bird's eye view only with the invention of the hot air balloon - 1783, and with the invention of the airplane, such an opportunity appeared for almost all of humanity.

With the mysterious twinkling stars, the situation was more complicated - the stars themselves were too far away. Even the light from them reaches the Earth, making its way through the depths of the Universe for decades. And the only way to get closer to them was to ride a dream. But the man not only dreamed, he also dared, created, bringing the realization of his dream closer.

With the invention of gunpowder, the principle of jet propulsion was discovered - the gunpowder rocket. But it took almost two more millennia for this little gunpowder toy, having passed through combat missiles and intercontinental carriers of nuclear warheads, to turn into a carrier of spaceships. But first things first.

The commanders of antiquity turned their attention to the powder rocket and began to use it as an incendiary weapon during siege and assault on fortresses. Later they decided to use it to deliver destructive charges to the target. In the Russian army, the first mention of the use of combat missiles dates back to the middle of the 19th century. century - the period of the Russian-Turkish war. However, due to the lack of reliable methods for stabilizing and controlling the flight of a missile along the trajectory and, as a consequence, very large dispersion, “rocket artillery” did not receive widespread use. It was precisely at this time that the idea of ​​a rifled barrel was implemented, which greatly increased the firing range and accuracy, and the new, far from perfect and capricious rocket projectile did not promise any benefits to the artillerymen.

But it was precisely at this very time - the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, that the rapidly developing aeronautics (in addition to balloons in the sky, the first airships appeared) and the newly emerging aviation gave impetus to all the dreamers in the world, reviving the wonderful dream of flights to other worlds. In their imagination, squadrons of spaceships were already rushing to neighboring planets, ready either to help their brothers in mind rise to a higher level of development, or to accumulate knowledge and technology themselves. It seemed to them that the sky had already been mastered by man, “a little more, a little more” - and here it is - Mars, the dream of all space romantics.

All kinds of sections and societies began to be organized everywhere, with the goal of flights to the Moon and Mars, lectures were given, debates were held, and a lot of pseudo-scientific and simply fantastic brochures were published. But sober-minded dreamers (and there were some among them) understood perfectly well that neither a balloon, nor an airship, nor an airplane with its low-power piston engine were suitable for reaching other planets. And therefore, the eyes of both dreamers and realistic spacefaring practitioners almost simultaneously fell on the rocket.

At the end of the 19th century (1881), Russian revolutionary revolutionary Nikolai Kibalchich, sentenced to death for the murder of Tsar Alexander II , a few days before the execution, made the first sketches and calculations (obviously for the first time in Russia) of a rocket aircraft.

Around the same time (late 19th century) century) Kaluga gymnasium teacher Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky, a passionate dreamer and self-taught scientist, for the first time theoretically substantiated the principle of jet propulsion. In 1903, his work “Research of World Spaces with Reactive Instruments” was published. Some time later, namely in 1929, his second book on the basics of rocket navigation, “Space Rocket Trains,” was published. In “Proceedings on the Space Rocket” he draws a line under his work in the field of space navigation. In them, he convincingly proved that the only possible engine for flight in emptiness (outer space) is a rocket and theoretically substantiated the possibility of reaching the celestial bodies closest to Earth using “rocket trains,” i.e., multi-stage launch vehicles discarding their spent stages. This achieved a reduction in the residual weight of the launch vehicle and thereby increasing its speed.

For this invaluable contribution to the theory of space navigation, Kaluga teacher K.E. Tsiolkovsky gained worldwide fame and is rightfully considered the founder of theoretical cosmonautics.

Around the same time (first decade of XX century) another bright star flashed in the cosmic firmament of Russia - Friedrich Arturovich Zander.

Listening to his father’s stories about the black abysses separating the stars, about the many other worlds that probably exist, albeit very far away, but still exist, Friedrich could no longer think about anything else. For some people, life overshadows all these thoughts of childhood, but for Zander these thoughts overshadowed his entire life.

He graduated from the Polytechnic Institute in Riga, studied in Germany and again in Riga. In 1915, the war moved him to Moscow. Now all he does is fly into space. No, of course, besides this he works at the Motor aircraft plant, does something, counts, draws, but all his thoughts are in space. Blinded by his dreams, he is confident that he will convince others, many, everyone, of the urgent need for interplanetary flight. He reveals to people a fantastic picture that once appeared to him, a boy:

“Who, turning his gaze to the sky on a clear autumn night, at the sight of the stars sparkling on it, did not think that there, on distant planets, perhaps there live intelligent creatures similar to us, many thousands of years ahead of us in culture. What innumerable cultural values ​​could be delivered to the globe by earthly science if a person were able to fly there, and what minimum expenditure must be made for such a great cause in comparison with what is wasted uselessly by man.”

One prominent engineer recalls: “He talked about interplanetary flights as if he had the key to the cosmodrome gate in his pocket.” Yes, you can’t help but trust him. And people believe him. While he's talking. But he falls silent and then many begin to think that he is probably crazy after all.

And he was starving when he made calculations for a winged machine that could carry a person beyond the atmosphere. This work absorbed him so much that he left the factory and spent 13 months working on his interplanetary spacecraft. There was absolutely no money, he was in great need, but continued to do his calculations. Any business or conversation not related to interplanetary travel did not interest him. He considered Tsiolkovsky a genius; he could sit at his desk for days with his half-meter slide rule and claim that he was not at all tired. In the heat of frantic work, he suddenly clenched his fingers on the back of his head and, not noticing anyone around, repeated hotly and loudly:

- To Mars! To Mars! Forward to Mars!

How easy it was to mistake him, mistaking him for a fanatic - nothing more, for an obsessed inventor of a mythical apparatus, whose inflamed brain knew no rest.

But he wasn't such an eccentric. Many years later, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences I.F. Obraztsov will say this about Friedrich Arturovich:

“A feature of Zander’s creative method was the deep mathematical development of each problem posed to himself. He did not just theoretically deeply develop the issues under consideration, but with his characteristic clarity of presentation, he tried to give his interpretation of the problem that worried him and find ways to its practical implementation.” First of all, Zander was an engineer, and not just an engineer. “The first stellar engineer, the brain and gold space explorer,” is how Tsiolkovsky described him.

And at this very time, the future graduate of Moscow Higher Technical University named after. Bauman Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, a young man passionately in love with the sky, designed and built gliders and flew them himself. No, this was not yet the same Korolev, the designer of rocket and space systems, about whom the world would learn exactly half a century later. At this point in the life of a young engineer and pilot, the manistratosphere and ways to achieve it. The choice, as one might expect, also settled on a rocket. And acquaintance with the works of Tsiolkovsky and personally with Tsander finally determined the direction of further searches for the designer Korolev - the rocket plane. Acquaintance with Tikhonravov and Pobedonostsev, as well as the gas-dynamic laboratory (GDL) in Leningrad, prompted him to create a similar center in Moscow, which took shape in the group for the study of jet propulsion (GIRD) at Osoaviakhim in 1930. Korolev was appointed head of the GIRD, and its leader, of course, was Tsander. And on August 17, 1933, the first Soviet rocket, the famous “nine”, was launched at the Nakhabino test site. Even the “Act on the flight of the GIRD R-1 rocket” was preserved - that’s what the “nine” was called, from which it followed that the rocket’s flight lasted 18 seconds and it reached an altitude 400 meters. In late autumn, when snow had already fallen, the second GIRD-X rocket was launched - completely liquid, with two tanks - alcohol and oxygen - conceived by Zander and carried out by his comrades in the first brigade. These two rockets became truly historical: the chronicle of Soviet liquid-propellant rockets begins with them.

In 1934, on the initiative of the Deputy People's Commissar of Defense M. N. Tukhachevsky, a progressive man who strongly supported rocket scientists, two related organizations involved in the study of jet propulsion, the Leningrad GDL and the Moscow GIRD, were taken under the tutelage of the People's Commissariat of Defense and merged into the RNII - a rocket research institute. The study of jet propulsion was given a new status - from an initiative-public organization it became an organization of national importance and began to work according to the plans of military customers. But the military’s plans were very specific and very far from flying into space and, especially, to Mars. They required highly effective (having great firepower) and with acceptable firing accuracy “rocket artillery”, or, by modern definition, “ground-to-ground” and “air-to-ground” rockets (for firing from aircraft on the ground).

The RNII successfully resolved the tasks assigned to it: already in the battles at Khalkhin Gol, rockets (air-to-ground missiles) were very successfully used on the I-153 “Chaika” and I-16 aircraft, and by the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, multi-barrel rockets were created installations on a vehicle platform - the famous Guards rocket mortars, affectionately called "Katyusha" by front-line soldiers, which played a big role in achieving victory over the enemy. It should be noted that the Germans' attempts to create something similar were unsuccessful.

Along with the development of combat missiles, the department of the institute, headed by designer Korolev, was engaged in the development of cruise missiles (projects 212, 216 and 217), but the wave of repression that began in 1937 reached the RNII. In 1938, almost the entire leadership of the institute and leading design engineers were repressed, including the future chief designer of rocket and space systems.

Now let’s take a moment away from Russian affairs and see how the idea of ​​space navigation developed in other countries?

In the United States of America, Robert Goddard, a man of difficult, complex character, preferred to work secretly, in a narrow circle of trusted people who blindly obeyed him. According to one of his American colleagues, “Goddard considered rockets his private reserve, and those who also worked on this issue were considered as poachers... This attitude led him to abandon the scientific tradition of reporting his results through scientific journals...” Another American, a space historian, writes about him: “It is impossible to establish a direct connection between Goddard and modern rocket technology. He’s on that branch that died off.”

From the report of the American scientist F.J. Malin: “We reviewed the published works of the first generation of the founders of space flight theory: K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857 - 1937), R. Goddard (1882 -1945), R. Esnault-Peltry (1881 - 1957) and G. Oberth. In scientific circles, these materials were classified mainly as science fiction literature, primarily because the gap between the capabilities of existing experimental rocket engines and the actual requirements for a rocket engine for space flight was fantastically large. The negative attitude extended to the rocket movement itself...”

Italy: “Air Force officials showed very little interest in the future of rocket engines... The interest of the Italian administration that looked after us in rocket technology was at the freezing point” - these are the words of L. Crocco, the son of General G. Crocco, the largest Italian rocket specialist.

France: “The famous expert on powder rockets L. Domblanc said: “I took up this matter on my own initiative and worked until the end on my own, without the help of qualified specialists...”.

Germany: “It turned out to be impossible to get reputable scientists to listen to me and think about my proposals,” recalled Hermann Oberth. “The only chance to get them to do this was to attract public interest in my ideas.”

But in Germany there was another engineer who dreamed of rockets - Wernher von Braun. Already in 1929, he managed to create a laboratory and attract specialists interested and passionate about rockets. And with the Nazis coming to power in 1933, the work of this laboratory was taken under the guardianship of the military and kept top secret. In addition, a number of other laboratories and design bureaus carried out extensive work on the combat use of rockets. Along with these, work was carried out on a wide scale at the Design Bureau of Aviation Designer Willy Messerschmitt to create an aircraft with a jet engine.

The triumph of our Katyusha, as already noted, encouraged German designers to create similar models of front-line rocket launchers. Despite the carefully guarded secret of the Soviet Guards rocket mortars (even for the loss of one board from the shell box, the culprit was threatened with execution), the Germans, as noted by rocket technology historian German Nazarov, managed to “get a shell from our Katyusha back in 1939, when it didn’t even have that name.” was. The Germans took the most decisive and urgent measures to create such a weapon and sent dozens of companies to its development. By the end of the war, there were many prototypes, none of which satisfied the military's requirements. Since 1942, the Germans used six-barreled mortars on the Eastern Front, firing Nebelwerfer and Wurfgeret rockets. It should be noted that, in comparison with the famous Katyusha, their effectiveness was low, they were not widely used at the front, and for the emitted when firing The terrible squeal of the front-line soldiers earned them the nickname “Fiddler.”

The Germans also created a multi-stage 11-meter "Reinbote" missile, with which they fired at Antwerp, and there were experimental anti-aircraft missiles: the small "Typhoon", the three-meter "Schmetterling" and "Entsian", the six-meter "Reintochter" and the almost eight-meter "Wasserfall". Of all the samples, perhaps only the “Faustpatron” turned out to be relatively perfect - a rocket-propelled grenade launcher, which was effectively used in urban battles, when the unfortunate boys from the Hitler Youth fired point-blank from them at our tanks. But to say that German rocket scientists achieved success only in creating a rocket-propelled grenade launcher means not saying the most important thing about them. The main success of the German rocket scientists was precisely that they created, tested and put into production the V-1 cruise missile with a direct-flow pulsating jet engine and the V-2 ballistic missile. The first V-1 aircraft began shelling London and other English cities in the first half of 1943. But their ramjet pulsating engine made a loud noise when flying, which is why the cruise missile was nicknamed the “ratchet.” In addition, it had a relatively low flight speed (up to 600 km/h), so it was easily identified by air defense systems and was quite successfully intercepted by fighter aircraft.

These shortcomings were no longer present in another combat missile designed by Wernher von Braun - the A-4 ballistic missile, called by the Germans "Vergeltungs Waffe" "(weapon of retaliation), abbreviated as "V-2". The launch weight of this rocket was 12.5 tons, the engine thrust was 25 tons, the flight altitude was 86 kilometers, and the range was 250 kilometers.

On September 7, 1944, the first V-2 ballistic missile was launched from the Hague area towards Paris. London began to be shelled the next day. When at 18:43 on September 8, 1944, a strong explosion was heard in the Chiswick area, they thought that a gas main had exploded: after all, there was no air raid warning. The explosions were repeated and it became clear that the gas lines had nothing to do with it. Near one of the craters, an air defense officer picked up a piece of pipe that seemed to be stuck to his hand: the metal was frozen. So it became clear that the rocket apparently uses liquid oxygen. Of the 1,402 launched V-2s, 1,054 fell on Britain, of which 517 ended up in London, causing many casualties and destruction. On February 14, 1945, the last fascist V-2 took off from the seventh site of the rocket center in Peenemünde - serial number 4299, serial production. Mittelwerke."

Yes, it should be admitted that the Germans have made a big leap forward in the creation of high-power rocket launch vehicles. The British were the first to appreciate this, since they were the first to come under fire from ballistic missiles. It is therefore not surprising that Army Intelligence and the Allied secret services were instructed by their leadership to collect everything related to missile weapons. And at the final stage of the war, they began a real hunt for rocket specialists.

Unlike the British, we had nothing except intelligence reports on launches in Poland and radio interceptions of enthusiastic speeches by Goebbels, who claimed that new weapons could change the entire course of the war. Information was also received that the Germans were going to use the V-1 to bomb Leningrad. Suspended from the Heinkel-111 bombers, the projectile planes, piloted by suicide pilots, were going to fly to Kuibyshev, Chelyabinsk, Magnitogorsk and other cities. To take revenge on the failure of Leningrad to surrender, several V-2s were delivered to Tallinn by sea, six of which were sent under a secret train under Pskov. But the train did not reach Pskov - it was derailed by the partisans. In general, the Germans were unable to use either the V-1 or the V-2 on the Eastern Front, which, however, hardly reduced the interest of the Headquarters in the enemy’s kraket weapons. Marshal Konev's troops approached the Blizna training ground area, as at NII-1 (former RNII) they began to prepare to fly to Poland. And the future chief designer of rocket and space systems, S.P. Korolev, who had just been unconvoyed from the Tupolev “sharashka”, was testing rocket boosters to facilitate the takeoff of Tu-2 and Pe-2 bombers from field airfields. He has already heard something about the German missile weapons, has analyzed the flights of bombers with a rocket booster a lot, no longer believes in a liquid-propellant rocket plane, but still does not believe in a large rocket. But the very fact of a real-life production rocket that flies to a range of 250 kilometers tells him a lot. He liked the V-2 and annoyed him... He liked it and annoyed him! Surely! The Fau was a car that was ahead of its time, and for that reason alone it could not help but please him. But she couldn’t help but irritate him, because by the fact of her existence she predetermined the choice he had to make: a rocket plane or a large rocket. Of course, over the past 15 years he has learned a lot about rocket technology, but is it really necessary to abandon the rocket plane? And for what?! For the sake of this fat German thing, capricious and not yet able to fly well? But today it is already rising to a height of 178 kilometers, to which it is unknown when the rocket plane will fly, and whether it will fly... Besides everything else, a ballistic missile is a reality, it is already flying and no one needs to be convinced that it is Can do. But there is no stratospheric aircraft. It cannot be seen. Those who decide, as a rule, do not understand drawings. This means that in rocket planes they can only believe. But to believe is to take a risk. And who wants to take risks if there is no risk?!

These thoughts made Korolev gloomy and concentrated. And there was something to become gloomy about: a fundamental restructuring of all life plans was required.

He was not included in the first set of our trophy hunters - he was finishing the test program and participated in preparing the aircraft with a booster for the holiday planned in Tushino - Aviation Day. He arrived in Berlin only in September 1945.

By this time, all the major German rocket specialists, led by Wernher von Braun himself, had already been captured by the Allies. In addition, all the main factories for the production of ballistic missile components were captured by the Americans. By the time they were transferred to the Soviet occupation zone, the Americans had removed 300 freight cars with missiles and their components. From the pitiful remains in the underground factories of the post-Americans and in the bombed Peenemünde, Korolev barely managed to collect fifteen dismantled V-2s, which were sent by special train to Podlipki near Moscow (the present city of Korolev). There, at the former artillery plant, now transferred to the rocket scientists, by July 1947, eleven V-2s were assembled from them, after the production of the missing components. From Podlipki, these missiles were transported in great secrecy by a special train to the newly created test site in the lower reaches of the Volga.

The first launch of a ballistic missile in our country took place on October 18, 1947 at 10:47 am. She “climbed” into the sky 86 kilometers and began to fall from there to the ground along a ballistic curve. The crater at the site of its fall, about 20 meters in diameter and as deep as a village hut, was located 274 kilometers from the start. From October 18 to November 13, 1947, all eleven V-2 missiles were fired. Despite the fact that only five of the eleven missiles reached the target, Korolev and other specialists considered this result very encouraging.

Less than a year has passed since the entire scarce supply of captured V-2s was shot in KapYar (a training ground in the lower reaches of the Volga), when a brand new, brand new Soviet copy of its “R-1” was already delivered there. First launch The Soviet ballistic missile took place in October 1948. As a new weapon, ready to replace cannon artillery and aviation, this missile, of course, was not suitable: short range, low warhead power and high dispersion. But many in the leadership, both military and civilian, had already begun. understand that missiles are a very promising weapon, they are the future. Moreover, drawings of even more powerful multi-stage ballistic missiles A-9 and A-10, intended for the bombing of New York, were discovered in the archives of Wernher von Braun.

Therefore, when launching the imperfect “R-1” into series, everyone understood that this was needed to train designers and designers, develop technologies in production and interact with related companies, and train a large army of engineers and highly qualified workers. All this was exactly the case and subsequently missiles for various purposes rolled off the assembly lines of Soviet industry, in the figurative expression of N.S. Khrushchev, “like sausages from a sausage shop.”

Let's take a moment to look at the chronology of the “growing up” of Soviet missiles:

1948 - R-1 - range 280 kilometers;

1949 - R-2 - range 600 kilometers;

1951 - R-3 - range 3000 kilometers (but Korolev did not launch it into production, he intuitively felt that this was not it);

1953 - R-5 - range 5000 kilometers;

1956 - R-5M - already with a nuclear warhead;

1957 - the famous R-7 - intercontinental ballistic.

Special mention must be made about the R-7 rocket. The R-7 rocket is the main result of Korolev’s earthly labors and the beginning of his space work. And the satellite, and the Gagarin spacecraft, and all the other wonderful and original designs of Sergei Pavlovich, without the R-7 rocket, turn into expensive, intricate and meaningless toys. "Seven" is one of the miracles of the 20th century - primary in the history of astronautics. She could have simply thrown a pig iron into space, and it would still have been an epoch-making event.

October 1957 - R-7 launches the first artificial Earth satellite into orbit.

September 1959 - R-7 for the first time in the history of mankind carried the message of earthlings to the Moon.