People understood long ago that without the Sun life on Earth would not exist, because he was exalted, he was worshiped, and when celebrating the day of the Sun, they often made human sacrifices. They watched it and, creating observatories, solved such simple at first glance questions about why the Sun shines during the day, what is the inherent nature of the luminary, when the Sun sets, where it rises, what objects are around the Sun, and planned their activities on based on the data obtained.
Scientists had no idea that on the only star in the solar system there are seasons very similar to the “rainy season” and the “dry season.” The activity of the Sun alternately increases in the northern and southern hemispheres, lasts eleven months, and decreases for the same amount of time. Along with the eleven-year cycle of its activity, the life of earthlings directly depends, since at this time powerful magnetic fields are emitted from the bowels of the star, causing solar disturbances that are dangerous for the planet.
Some may be surprised to learn that the Sun is not a planet. The sun is a huge, luminous ball of gases, inside of which thermonuclear reactions constantly occur, releasing energy that gives light and heat. It is interesting that such a star does not exist in the solar system, and therefore it attracts to itself all smaller objects that are in the zone of its gravity, as a result of which they begin to rotate around the Sun along a trajectory.
Naturally, in space the Solar System is not located on its own, but is part of the Milky Way, a galaxy that is a huge star system. The Sun is separated from the center of the Milky Way by 26 thousand light years, so the movement of the Sun around it is one revolution every 200 million years. But the star rotates around its axis in a month - and even then, these data are approximate: it is a plasma ball, the components of which rotate at different speeds, and therefore it is difficult to say exactly how much time it takes for a full rotation. So, for example, in the equator region this happens in 25 days, at the poles - 11 days more.
Of all the stars known today, our Sun is in fourth place in terms of brightness (when a star exhibits solar activity, it shines brighter than when it subsides). By itself, this huge gaseous ball is white, but due to the fact that our atmosphere absorbs short-spectrum waves and the Sun’s ray at the Earth’s surface is scattered, the light of the Sun becomes yellowish, and the white color can only be seen on a clear, fine day against the background blue sky
Being the only star in the Solar System, the Sun is also the only source of its light (not counting very distant stars). Despite the fact that the Sun and Moon are the largest and brightest objects in the sky of our planet, the difference between them is huge. While the Sun itself emits light, the Earth's satellite, being a completely dark object, simply reflects it (we can say that we also see the Sun at night when the Moon illuminated by it is in the sky).
The Sun was shining - a young star, its age, according to scientists, is more than four and a half billion years. Therefore, it refers to a third generation star, which was formed from the remains of previously existing stars. It is rightfully considered the largest object in the solar system, since its weight is 743 times greater than the mass of all the planets revolving around the Sun (our planet is 333 thousand times lighter than the Sun and 109 times smaller than it).
Atmosphere of the Sun
Since the temperature of the upper layers of the Sun exceeds 6 thousand degrees Celsius, it is not a solid body: at such a high temperature, any stone or metal is transformed into gas. Scientists came to such conclusions recently, since previously astronomers had suggested that the light and heat emitted by a star are the result of combustion.
The more astronomers observed the Sun, the clearer it became: its surface has been heated to the limit for several billion years, and nothing can burn for that long. According to one of the modern hypotheses, the same processes occur inside the Sun as in an atomic bomb - matter is converted into energy, and as a result of thermonuclear reactions, hydrogen (its share in the composition of the star is about 73.5%) is transformed into helium (almost 25%) .
Rumors that the Sun on Earth will sooner or later go out are not without foundation: the amount of hydrogen in the core is not unlimited. As it burns, the outer layer of the star will expand, while the core, on the contrary, will shrink, as a result of which the life of the Sun will end and it will transform into a nebula. This process will not begin soon. According to scientists, this will happen no earlier than in five to six billion years.
As for the internal structure, since a star is a gaseous ball, the only thing it has in common with a planet is the presence of a core.
Core
It is here that all thermonuclear reactions occur, generating heat and energy, which, bypassing all subsequent layers of the Sun, leave it in the form of sunlight and kinetic energy. The solar core extends from the center of the Sun to a distance of 173,000 km (approximately 0.2 solar radii). Interestingly, in the core the star rotates around its axis much faster than in the upper layers.
Radiative transfer zone
Photons leaving the nucleus in the radiative transfer zone collide with plasma particles (ionized gas formed from neutral atoms and charged particles, ions and electrons) and exchange energy with them. There are so many collisions that it sometimes takes about a million years for a photon to pass through this layer, and this despite the fact that the plasma density and its temperature at the outer boundary decrease.
Tachocline
Between the radiative transfer zone and the convective zone there is a very thin layer where the formation of a magnetic field occurs - the electromagnetic field lines are stretched by plasma flows, increasing its intensity. There is every reason to believe that here the plasma significantly changes its structure.
Convective zone
Near the solar surface, the temperature and density of matter becomes insufficient for the solar energy to be transferred only through re-radiation. Therefore, here the plasma begins to rotate, forming vortices, transferring energy to the surface, while the closer to the outer edge of the zone, the more it cools, and the gas density decreases. At the same time, the particles of the photosphere located above it, cooled on the surface, go into the convective zone.
Photosphere
The photosphere is the brightest part of the Sun that can be seen from Earth in the form of the solar surface (it is called so conventionally, since a body consisting of gas does not have a surface, so it is classified as part of the atmosphere).
Compared to the radius of the star (700 thousand km), the photosphere is a very thin layer with a thickness of 100 to 400 km.
It is here that, during solar activity, light, kinetic and thermal energy is released. Since the temperature of the plasma in the photosphere is lower than in other places, and there is strong magnetic radiation, sunspots form in it, giving rise to the well-known phenomenon of solar flares.
Although solar flares do not last long, an extremely large amount of energy is released during this period. And it manifests itself in the form of charged particles, ultraviolet, optical, x-ray or gamma radiation, as well as plasma currents (on our planet they cause magnetic storms that negatively affect human health).
The gas in this part of the star is relatively thin and rotates very unevenly: its rotation in the equator region is 24 days, at the poles - thirty. In the upper layers of the photosphere, minimum temperatures are recorded, due to which out of 10 thousand hydrogen atoms only one has a charged ion (despite this, even in this region the plasma is quite ionized).
Chromosphere
The chromosphere is the upper shell of the Sun, 2 thousand km thick. In this layer, the temperature rises sharply, and hydrogen and other substances begin to actively ionize. The density of this part of the Sun is usually low, and therefore is difficult to distinguish from the Earth, and it can only be seen in the event of a solar eclipse, when the Moon covers the brighter layer of the photosphere (the chromosphere glows red at this time).
Crown
The corona is the last outer, very hot shell of the Sun, which is visible from our planet during a total solar eclipse: it resembles a radiant halo. At other times it is impossible to see it due to its very low density and brightness.
It consists of prominences, fountains of hot gas up to 40 thousand km high, and energetic eruptions that go into space at great speed, forming the solar wind, consisting of a stream of charged particles. It is interesting that many natural phenomena of our planet, for example, the northern lights, are associated with the solar wind. It should be noted that the solar wind itself is extremely dangerous, and if our planet was not protected by the atmosphere, it would destroy all living things.
Earth year
Our planet moves around the Sun at a speed of about 30 km/s and the period of its complete revolution is equal to one year (the length of the orbit is more than 930 million km). At the point where the solar disk is closest to the Earth, our planet is separated from the star by 147 million km, and at the most distant point - 152 million km.
The “movement of the Sun” visible from the Earth changes throughout the whole year, and its trajectory resembles a figure eight, stretched along the Earth’s axis from north to south with a slope of forty-seven degrees.
This happens due to the fact that the angle of deviation of the Earth’s axis from the perpendicular to the orbital plane is about 23.5 degrees, and since our planet revolves around the Sun, the Sun’s rays change their angle every day and hourly (not counting the equator, where day is equal to night). falls at the same point.
In the summer in the northern hemisphere, our planet is tilted towards the Sun, and therefore the rays of the Sun illuminate the earth's surface as intensely as possible. But in winter, since the path of the solar disk across the sky is very low, the sun's ray falls on our planet at a steeper angle, and therefore the earth warms up weakly.
The average temperature is established when autumn or spring arrives and the Sun is located at the same distance in relation to the poles. At this time, nights and days are approximately the same length - and climatic conditions are created on Earth, which represent a transitional stage between winter and summer.
Such changes begin to take place in winter, after the winter solstice, when the trajectory of the Sun across the sky changes and it begins to rise.
Therefore, when spring comes, the Sun approaches the vernal equinox, the length of day and night becomes the same. In the summer, June 21, the day of the summer solstice, the solar disk reaches its highest point above the horizon.
Earth day
If you look at the sky from the point of view of an earthling in search of an answer to the question of why the Sun shines during the day and where it rises, then you can soon be convinced that the Sun rises in the east, and its setting can be seen in the west.
This happens due to the fact that our planet not only moves around the Sun, but also rotates around its axis, making a full revolution in 24 hours. If you look at the Earth from space, you can see that it, like most of the planets of the Sun, turns counterclockwise, from west to east. Standing on Earth and observing where the Sun appears in the morning, everything is seen in a mirror image, and therefore the Sun rises in the east.
At the same time, an interesting picture is observed: a person, observing where the Sun is, standing on one point, moves together with the Earth in an easterly direction. At the same time, parts of the planet that are located on the western side, one after another, gradually begin to be illuminated by the light of the Sun. So. for example, the sunrise on the east coast of the United States can be seen three hours earlier before the sun rises on the west coast.
The Sun in the Life of the Earth
The Sun and Earth are so connected with each other that the role of the largest star in the sky can hardly be overestimated. First of all, our planet formed around the Sun and life appeared. Also, the energy of the Sun warms the Earth, the Sun's ray illuminates it, forming a climate, cooling it at night, and after the Sun rises, warms it again. What can I say, even the air with its help acquired the properties necessary for life (if not a ray of the Sun, it would have been a liquid ocean of nitrogen surrounding blocks of ice and frozen land).
The Sun and Moon, being the largest objects in the sky, actively interacting with each other, not only illuminate the Earth, but also directly influence the movement of our planet - a striking example of this action is the ebb and flow of the tides. They are influenced by the Moon, the Sun plays a secondary role in this process, but they cannot do without its influence either.
The Sun and the Moon, the Earth and the Sun, air and water flows, the biomass surrounding us are accessible, constantly renewable energy raw materials that can be easily used (it lies on the surface, it does not need to be extracted from the bowels of the planet, it does not generate radioactive and toxic waste ).
To draw public attention to the possibility of using renewable energy sources, since the mid-90s. last century, it was decided to celebrate International Sun Day. Thus, every year, on May 3, on the day of the Sun, seminars, exhibitions, and conferences are held throughout Europe aimed at showing people how to use the ray of the luminary for good, how to determine the time when sunset or dawn of the Sun occurs.
For example, on the day of the Sun you can attend special multimedia programs, see huge areas of magnetic disturbances and various manifestations of solar activity through a telescope. On the day of the Sun, you can look at various physical experiments and demonstrations that clearly demonstrate how powerful a source of energy our Sun is. Often on the Day of the Sun, visitors have the opportunity to create a sundial and test it in action.
When was the last time you looked up and were amazed at the mysterious, life-giving power that the Sun gives?
The sun warms our planet every day, provides light, thanks to which we see and is necessary for life on Earth. It can fit one million three hundred thousand Earth globes within its sphere. It produces sunsets worthy of poetry and the energy equivalent to the explosion of one trillion megaton nuclear bombs every second.
Our Sun is just a regular old average star, by everyone's standards. It has a special influence on the Earth because it is located quite close to it.
So how close is our Sun?
How much space does it take to fit 1,300,000 Earths?
If the sun is in the vacuum of space, how does it burn?
Why do solar flares occur on the Sun?
Will the Sun ever go out? And then what will happen to the Earth and its inhabitants?
In this article we will look at the fascinating world of our closest star. We will look at the Sun, learn how it creates light and heat, and explore its main features.
The sun began to burn more than 4.5 billion years ago. It is a massive accumulation of gas, mainly hydrogen and helium. Because the Sun is so massive, it has enormous gravity and enough gravitational force to not only hold all that hydrogen and helium together, but also keep all the planets in the solar system in their orbits around the Sun.
The sun is a giant nuclear reactor.
Facts about the Sun
Average distance from Earth: 150 million kilometers
Radius: 696000 km
Weight: 1.99 x 10 30 kg (330,000 Earth masses)
Composition (by weight): 74% hydrogen, 25% helium, 1% other elements
average temperature: 5800 Kelvin (surface), 15500000 Kelvin (core)
Average density: 1.41 grams per cm 3
Volume: 1.4 x 10 27 cubic meters
Rotation period: 25 days (center) to 35 days (poles)
Distance from the center of the Milky Way: 25,000 light years
Orbital speed/period: 230 kilometers per second / 200 million years
Parts of the Sun
The sun is a star just like the other stars we see at night. The difference is the distance. The other stars we see are many light years away from Earth, but our Sun is just 8 minutes away - many thousands of times closer.
Officially, the sun is classified as a G2V star yellow dwarf, based spectrum the light it emits. The Sun is just one of the billions of stars that revolve around the center of our Galaxy, composed of the same matter and components.
Diagram of the structure of the Sun
The sun is made of gas that has no solid surface. However, it has a certain structure. The three main structural regions of the Sun are:
Core - the center of the Sun, containing 25 percent of its radius.
Radiative transfer zone- the area immediately surrounding the core, containing 45 percent of its radius.
Convective zone - the outer layer of the Sun, containing 30 percent of its radius.
Above the surface of the Sun is located its atmosphere, which consists of three parts:
Photosphere- the inner part of the Sun's atmosphere
Chromosphere- the region between the photosphere and the corona
Crown- the uppermost layer of the solar atmosphere, consisting of solar vortices - prominences and energetic eruptions that create the solar wind.
All the main features of the Sun can be explained by nuclear reactions that produce energy, magnetic fields resulting from the movement of gas and its enormous mass.
solar core
The core is located in the center and occupies 25 percent of the Sun's radius. Its temperature exceeds 15 million degrees Kelvin. The force of gravity creates a lot of pressure. The pressure is high enough to force hydrogen atoms to fuse together in a nuclear fusion reaction - something we are trying to replicate here on Earth. Two hydrogen atoms combine to create helium-4 and energy in several steps:
- Two protons combine to form a deuterium atom (a hydrogen atom with one neutron and one proton), a positron (similar to an electron, but with a positive charge), and a neutrino.
- A proton and a deuterium atom combine to form a helium-3 atom (two protons and one neutron) and gamma rays.
- Two helium-3 atoms combine to form a helium-4 atom (two protons and two neutrons) and two protons.
These reactions account for 85 percent of the sun's energy. The remaining 15 percent comes from the following reactions:
- Helium-3 and helium-4 atoms combine to form beryllium-7 (four protons and three neutrons) and gamma rays.
- A beryllium-7 atom captures an electron to become a lithium-7 atom (three protons and four neutrons) and a neutrino.
- Lithium-7 combines with a proton to form two helium-4 atoms.
Helium-4 atoms are less massive than the two hydrogen atoms that start the process, so the difference in mass is converted into energy, as described in Einstein's theory of relativity (E=MC²). Energy is emitted in various forms of light: ultraviolet, x-rays, visible light, infrared, microwaves and radio waves.
The sun also emits charged particles (neutrinos, protons) that make up solar wind. This energy reaches the Earth, warming the planet, controlling our weather, and providing energy for life. We will not be harmed by solar radiation as long as the Earth's atmosphere protects us.
Radiative transfer zone and convective zone
Radiative transfer zone located outside the core and makes up 45 percent of the Sun's radius. In this zone, energy from the core is transferred outward by photons (particles of light). A photon, once produced, travels about 1 micron (1 millionth of a meter) and is then absorbed by a gas molecule. After this absorption, the gas molecule heats up and re-emits another photon of the same wavelength. The re-emitted photon travels the next micron before being absorbed by the next gas molecule and the cycle repeats. Each interaction of photons and gas molecules for a photon to pass through the radiative transfer zone takes a long time, up to millions of years, but on average 170,000 years. Approximately 10 25 absorptions and re-emissions are required for this journey.
Convective zone is the outer layer and makes up 30 percent of the radius of the Sun. It is dominated by convection currents that carry energy outward. These convection currents lift hot gas to the surface, while the cooler substance of the photosphere sinks deeper into the convective zone. In convection currents, photons reach the surface faster than the radiative transfer process that occurs in the radiative transfer zone.
The entire process of travel takes a photon approximately 200,000 years to reach the surface of the Sun.
Atmosphere of the Sun
We have finally reached the surface of the Sun. Just like the Earth, the Sun has an atmosphere. However, this atmosphere consists of photosphere, chromosphere And crowns .
The sun as seen through a telescope
Photosphere is the lowest region of the Sun's atmosphere and is the region that we can see. The expression "Surface of the Sun" usually refers to the photosphere. The photosphere has a thickness of 100 to 400 kilometers and an average temperature of 5800 degrees Kelvin.
Chromosphere The outer shell of the Sun is about 2000 kilometers thick. The temperature of the chromosphere rises from 4,500 degrees to 10,000 degrees Kelvin. The chromosphere is believed to be heated by convection in the underlying photosphere. In this case, thin and long hot emissions arise, the so-called spicules. The length of a spicule can reach 5,000 kilometers, and its “life” can be several minutes. Up to 70,000 spicules can be seen on the surface of the Sun at the same time. This creates a visual effect similar to a burning prairie.
Coronary loops in the Sun
Crown is the last layer of the Sun and extends several million kilometers into space. It is best seen during a solar eclipse and in X-ray images of the Sun. The temperature of the corona is, on average, 2,000,000 degrees Kelvin. Although no one knows why the corona is so hot, it is believed to be caused by the sun's magnetism. The corona has bright areas (hot) and dark areas called coronal holes. Coronal holes are relatively cool and produce solar wind.
Through the telescope we see several interesting features on the Sun that could have consequences on Earth. Let's look at three of them: sunspots, prominences and solar flares.
Sunspots, prominences and solar flares
Dark, cool areas called sun spots appear on the photosphere. Sunspots always appear in pairs and are intense magnetic fields (about 5,000 times more powerful than Earth's magnetic field) that break through the surface. Field lines exit through one sunspot and re-enter through another.
Solar activity occurs as part of an 11-year cycle and is called the solar cycle, where there are periods of maximum and minimum activity.
It is not known what causes this 11-year cycle, but two hypotheses have been proposed:
1. The uneven rotation of the Sun also distorts the bends of the magnetic field lines. They break through the surface, forming pairs of sunspots. Eventually, the field lines break apart and solar activity decreases. The cycle begins again.
2. Huge, tubular-shaped circles of gas from inside the Sun appear at high latitudes and begin to move towards its equator. When they roll one after another, they form spots. When they reach the equator, they disintegrate and the spots disappear.
Sometimes clouds of gases from the chromosphere begin to grow and orient themselves along magnetic field lines from pairs of sunspots. These gas arches are called solar prominences .
Prominences can last two to three months and can reach 50,000 kilometers or more above the Sun's surface. Once they reach this altitude, they can flare up within minutes to hours and transmit large volumes of material through the corona and out into space at speeds of up to 1,000 kilometers per second. These eruptions are called coronal mass ejection.
Sometimes in complex groups of spots, sharp, strong explosions occur. They're called solar flares .
Solar flares are thought to be caused by sudden changes in the magnetic field in an area where the Sun's magnetic field is concentrated. They are accompanied by the release of gas, electrons, visible light, ultraviolet light and x-rays. When this radiation and these particles reach the Earth's magnetic field, they interact with it at its magnetic poles receiving lights (Northern and Southern).
Northern lights
Solar flares can also disrupt communications, navigation systems and even power grids. Radiations and particles ionize the atmosphere and prevent radio waves from traveling between satellites and the ground or between the ground and the ground. Ionized particles in the atmosphere can cause electrical currents in power lines and cause power surges. These power surges can overload the power grid and cause outages.
All this vigorous activity requires energy, which is available in insufficient quantities. Eventually the Sun will run out of fuel.
Fate of the Sun
The sun has been shining for approximately 4.5 billion years. The size of the Sun is a balance between the outward pressure created by the release of nuclear fusion energy and the inward pull of gravity. Over its 450,000,000 years of life, the radius of the Sun has become 6 percent larger. It has enough hydrogen fuel to burn in about 10 billion years, meaning it still has a little over 5 billion years left during which time the Sun will continue to expand at the same rate.
As hydrogen fuel runs out, the Sun's brightness and temperature will increase. In about 1 billion years, the Sun will become so bright and hot that life on Earth will remain only in the oceans and at the poles. In 3.5 billion years, the temperature on the Earth's surface will be the same as it is now on Venus. The water will evaporate and life on the surface of the Earth will cease. When the Sun's core runs out of hydrogen fuel, it will begin to collapse under the weight of gravity. As the core contracts, it heats up and this will heat the upper layers, causing them to expand and triggering the hydrogen burning reaction in the upper layers of the Sun. As the outer layers expand, the Sun's radius will increase and it will become red giant, an elderly star.
The Sun in 3.5 billion years
The radius of the red Sun will increase 100 times when it reaches Earth's orbit, so that the Earth will plunge into the red giant's core and evaporate. Some time after this, the core will become hot enough to cause the fusion of carbon and oxygen from helium. The radius of the Sun will decrease.
When the helium fuel is exhausted, the core will again begin to expand and contract. The upper shell of the Sun will be torn off and turn into a planetary nebula, and the Sun itself will become white dwarf the size of the Earth.
Eventually, the Sun will gradually cool to the point of being almost invisible black dwarf. This entire process will take several billion years.
So, for the next billion years, the Sun is safe for humanity. One can only guess about other dangers, for example, asteroids.
Topic 21: General cosmogony
1.According to modern ideas, in about 5 billion years the Sun will exhaust the main reserves of its thermonuclear fuel and...
will turn into a white dwarf
will become a blue giant
will explode like a supernova
will fall inside itself, leaving a black hole
Solution:
Single solar-mass stars end their evolutionary path quietly - first by inflating and cooling, and then, after shedding their outer layers, turning into white dwarfs.
2. Cosmogony studies the origin...
celestial bodies and their systems
life on Earth and other planets
the universe as a whole
man in the process of anthropogenesis
Solution:
By definition, cosmogony is a scientific discipline that studies the origin and evolution of celestial bodies and their systems. Her subjects of interest are asteroids, comets, planets with their satellites, stars with their planetary systems, galaxies, clusters of galaxies and large-scale cosmic structures. But the origin of the Universe is no longer a cosmogonic, but a cosmological problem.
3. A mandatory attribute of a star is…
thermonuclear reactions in its depths in the present, past or future
gigantic size of the star, measured in millions of kilometers
the presence of star matter in a gaseous state
chemical composition containing only hydrogen and helium
Solution:
Stars are not only gigantic, but also small in size - for example, white dwarfs (the size of a planet) or neutron stars, from 15 to 300 km in diameter.
The substance of most stars is mainly plasma, whose properties are quite different from those of gas. But neutron stars are supposed to have a solid core surrounded by neutron liquid, which in turn is covered with a crystalline iron crust.
Hydrogen and helium are the most common elements in stars. But the chemical composition of the star is not limited to them: the content of other elements can reach several percent or even more. Neutron stars again stand apart: since all their atomic nuclei are destroyed by monstrous pressure, the concept of a chemical element for them loses its meaning.
And only the occurrence of thermonuclear reactions of fusion of light nuclei into heavier ones takes place in the present, past and future of any star, no matter how exotic it may be.
4. The Sun will exist in its familiar form...
approximately the same as it already exists, that is, several billion years
not for long, since it has already almost completely exhausted its hydrogen reserves
as long as the Universe exists, since the Sun is a very young star
unknown time, since its transformation into a Supernova is a fundamentally random process
Solution:
The Sun is currently a normal, not very massive and not very hot star (“yellow dwarf”). The stage of quiet thermonuclear “burning” of hydrogen in such stars lasts about 10 billion years. The Sun was formed about 5 billion years ago, that is, it will have enough hydrogen fuel reserves for several more billion years. But the Sun will never turn into a Supernova - there won’t be enough mass. In any case, a Supernova explosion is a natural and predictable phenomenon.
5. The evolutionary path of a star cannot end with its transformation into...
normal main sequence star
white dwarf
neutron star
black hole
Solution:
Main sequence stars (on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram), according to modern concepts, are in the middle of their evolutionary path.
Topic 22: Origin of the Solar System
1.Planets of the Solar System...
formed from the same gas and dust cloud as the Sun
were captured by the lonely Sun from the interstellar medium
formed from the material of prominences erupted by the Sun
were torn out of the Sun by a huge comet flying close to it
Solution:
The assumption that the planets were formed from the matter of the Sun is not consistent with the different chemical and isotopic composition of the Sun and the planets. The hypothesis of the capture of planets from the interstellar medium was defended by O. Yu. Schmidt in the middle of the 20th century, but could not withstand the onslaught of contradictory facts. The modern theory of the origin of the Solar System assumes that the formation of the Sun and planets occurred from the same primordial cloud of gas and dust, partly in parallel, although the Sun formed a little faster.
2. The image taken by the interplanetary lander shows the surface of one of the planets of the Solar system, which is ...
Mercury
Solution:
Titan is not a planet, but a satellite (of Saturn). Jupiter is eliminated, since it, like other giant planets, most likely does not have a solid surface at all. The image clearly shows atmospheric haze and a fragment of the bright daytime sky. There is no atmosphere on Mercury and therefore there can be no haze, and the sky is always black, like on the Moon. Venus remains.
3. The mass of the Sun is _____________ the total mass of the other bodies in the Solar System.
many times more
approximately equal
several times less
many times less
Solution:
The Sun accounts for the lion's share (about 99%) of the total mass of the Solar System. Otherwise, it could not be considered as the central body of the Solar System.
4. Comets, sometimes appearing in the earth’s sky, ...
revolve around the Sun in highly elongated orbits
are natural satellites of the Earth
have sizes and masses comparable to the sizes and masses of large planets
do not belong to the solar system, but come from other stars
Solution:
Comets are cosmic dwarfs. Their cores are a maximum of several kilometers in size. According to modern ideas, the natural reservoir of comets is the outskirts of the Solar System, from where these blocks of frozen gases are pulled out from time to time by the gravity of Jupiter or other disturbances and rush along highly elongated elliptical orbits into the inner regions of the Solar System.
5. This photo shows a planet in the solar system called...
Jupiter
Saturn
Mercury
Solution:
The image shows a planet with a thick atmosphere completely covering its surface (if it has one at all). Therefore, Mercury, devoid of an atmosphere, and the Earth, whose cloudiness still does not completely cover the surface of the planet, immediately disappear. Saturn should have seen its powerful rings, which are missing in the image. Therefore, we have Jupiter in front of us. A person who is a little more familiar with the solar system will also immediately recognize such a landmark of Jupiter as the Great Red Spot (lower right corner of the image) - a giant cyclone that has existed for about three hundred years.
6. All the large planets of the Solar System are divided into a group of terrestrial planets and a group of giant planets. Pluto, discovered in 1930, according to modern classification belongs to the group ...
dwarf planets
terrestrial planets
giant planets
not planets, but asteroids
Solution:
Until 2006, Pluto was considered the ninth planet in the solar system. However, it is completely different from either a gas giant planet (since it is small and solid) or an terrestrial planet (since it has a completely different composition, similar to the composition of cometary nuclei). It is, of course, not a comet or an asteroid, since it is quite large in size, spherical in shape and has a large satellite, Charon.
In the last decade, several objects similar to Pluto have been discovered on the outskirts of the solar system, and in 2006 the International Astronomical Union decided to include them, along with Pluto, in a new group of celestial bodies - dwarf planets.
Topic 23: Geological evolution
1. In terms of its size, the Earth occupies __________ place among the 8 planets of the solar system.
Solution:
Of the eight planets in the solar system, four are giants, each of which is larger than the Earth. The remaining 4 planets form the so-called terrestrial group, in which the Earth is the largest. Thus, the Earth’s place in the hierarchy of planets in size is fifth, immediately after the four giants.
2. Both the Sun and the Earth have...
atmosphere
lithosphere
photosphere
central zone of thermonuclear reactions
Solution:
The Earth is not a star; thermonuclear reactions do not occur in it, have not occurred and will not occur.
Lithosphere – “sphere of stone”, hard rock. The sun is too hot for solid rock to exist there.
The photosphere is the “sphere of light”, the layer of the Sun in which its visible radiation is mainly formed. The visible radiation of the Earth is formed by its surface and clouds, for which there is no need to introduce a special term.
But both the Sun and the Earth have an atmosphere, that is, a relatively rarefied and transparent gas shell.
3. Among the three main gases of the modern earth’s atmosphere is not...
carbon dioxide
oxygen
Solution:
The planet's current atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon. The content of other permanent components is measured in hundredths of a percent.
4. The latest of the listed stages of the evolution of our planet is ...
formation of a nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere
formation of oceans
formation of the earth's crust
gravitational compression and heating of a protoplanet
Solution:
The protoplanet Earth, contracting under the influence of its own gravity and heating up due to this process, as well as due to the decay of radioactive isotopes in which its interior was rich, apparently spent some time in a completely molten state. Only then did cooling begin, which led to the appearance of a solid outer shell of the planet - the earth's crust. Oceans obviously could not form until the Earth had a crust to serve as the ocean floor. The oceans, in turn, became the cradle of life, which subsequently completely changed the composition of the atmosphere, bringing it to modern proportions: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and only 1% abiogenic argon.
Topic 24: Origin of life (evolution and development of living systems)
1. Establish a correspondence between the concept and its definition:
1) autotrophs
3) anaerobes
organisms that produce organic food from inorganic
organisms that can live only in the presence of oxygen
organisms that live in the absence of oxygen
organisms that feed on prepared organic matter
Solution:
Autotrophs are organisms that produce organic food substances from inorganic ones. Aerobes are organisms that can live only in the presence of oxygen. Anaerobes are organisms that live in the absence of oxygen.
2. Establish a correspondence between the concept of the origin of life and its content:
1) theory of biochemical evolution
2) constant spontaneous generation
3) panspermia
the emergence of life is the result of long-term processes of self-organization of inanimate matter
life has repeatedly spontaneously arisen from non-living matter, which contains an active non-material factor
life was brought to Earth from space
the problem of the origin of life does not exist, life has always existed
Solution:
According to the concept of biochemical evolution, life arose as a result of long-term processes of self-organization of inanimate matter under the conditions of the early Earth. Proponents of the concept of constant spontaneous generation argue that life has repeatedly spontaneously arisen from non-living matter, which contains an active non-material factor. According to the panspermia hypothesis, life was brought to Earth from space with meteorites and interplanetary dust.
3. Establish a correspondence between the name of the stage in the concept of biochemical evolution and an example of the changes occurring at this stage:
1) abiogenesis
2) coacervation
3) bioevolution
synthesis of organic molecules from inorganic gases
concentration of organic molecules and formation of multimolecular complexes
emergence of autotrophs
formation of the reducing atmosphere of the young Earth
Solution:
The stage of abiogenesis corresponds to the synthesis of organic molecules characteristic of life from inorganic gases of the Earth's primary atmosphere. During the coacervation process, the concentration of organic molecules and the formation of multimolecular complexes occurred.
The emergence of autotrophs is one of the stages of the biological evolution of living things. The formation of the reducing atmosphere of the young Earth is a stage of geological evolution that precedes the emergence of life.
4. Establish a correspondence between the concept and its definition:
1) coacervation
2) prebiological selection
3) abiogenic synthesis
formation of multimolecular complexes of biopolymers with a compacted surface layer
evolution of organic polymers towards improving catalytic activity and acquiring the ability to reproduce themselves
formation of organic substances characteristic of living things outside a living organism from inorganic
the emergence of organisms with a formed cell nucleus
Solution:
The process of formation of multimolecular complexes of biopolymers with a compacted surface layer in the concept of biochemical evolution is called coacervation. Prebiological selection includes the evolution of organic polymers towards improving catalytic activity and acquiring the ability to reproduce themselves. Abiogenic synthesis– is the formation of organic substances characteristic of living things outside a living organism from inorganic ones.
5. Establish a correspondence between the experiment conducted to verify the concept of biochemical evolution, which explains the origin of life, and the hypothesis that the experiment tested:
1) in the spring of 2009, a group of British scientists led by J. Sutherland synthesized a nucleotide fragment from low molecular weight substances (cyanides, acetylene, formaldehyde and phosphates)
2) in the experiments of the American scientist L. Orgel, nucleic acids were obtained by passing a spark electric discharge through a mixture of nucleotides
3) in experiments by A.I. Oparin and S. Fox, when mixing biopolymers in an aqueous medium, their complexes were obtained, possessing the rudiments of the properties of modern cells
hypothesis of spontaneous synthesis of nucleic acid monomers from fairly simple starting substances that could have existed under the conditions of the early Earth
hypothesis about the possibility of synthesizing biopolymers from low-molecular compounds under early Earth conditions
the idea of spontaneous formation of coacervates under early Earth conditions
hypothesis about self-replication of nucleic acids in the conditions of the early Earth
In terms of size, the Earth ranks __________ among the 8 planets of the solar system.
Solution:
Of the eight planets in the solar system, four are giants, each of which is larger than the Earth. The remaining 4 planets form the so-called terrestrial group, in which the Earth is the largest. Thus, the Earth’s place in the hierarchy of planets in size is fifth, immediately after the four giants.
2. Both the Sun and the Earth have...
atmosphere
lithosphere
photosphere
central zone of thermonuclear reactions
Solution:
The Earth is not a star; thermonuclear reactions do not occur in it, have not occurred and will not occur.
Lithosphere – “sphere of stone”, hard rock. The sun is too hot for solid rock to exist there.
The photosphere is the “sphere of light”, the layer of the Sun in which its visible radiation is mainly formed. The visible radiation of the Earth is formed by its surface and clouds, for which there is no need to introduce a special term.
But both the Sun and the Earth have an atmosphere, that is, a relatively rarefied and transparent gas shell.
3. Among the three main gases of the modern earth’s atmosphere is not...
carbon dioxide
oxygen
Solution:
The planet's current atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon. The content of other permanent components is measured in hundredths of a percent.
4. The latest of the listed stages of the evolution of our planet is ...
formation of a nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere
formation of oceans
formation of the earth's crust
gravitational compression and heating of a protoplanet
Solution:
The protoplanet Earth, contracting under the influence of its own gravity and heating up due to this process, as well as due to the decay of radioactive isotopes in which its interior was rich, apparently spent some time in a completely molten state. Only then did cooling begin, which led to the appearance of a solid outer shell of the planet - the earth's crust. Oceans obviously could not form until the Earth had a crust to serve as the ocean floor. The oceans, in turn, became the cradle of life, which subsequently completely changed the composition of the atmosphere, bringing it to modern proportions: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and only 1% abiogenic argon.
Topic 24: Origin of life (evolution and development of living systems)
1. Establish a correspondence between the concept and its definition:
1) autotrophs
3) anaerobes
organisms that produce organic food from inorganic
organisms that can live only in the presence of oxygen
organisms that live in the absence of oxygen
organisms that feed on prepared organic matter
Solution:
Autotrophs are organisms that produce organic food substances from inorganic ones. Aerobes are organisms that can live only in the presence of oxygen. Anaerobes are organisms that live in the absence of oxygen.
2. Establish a correspondence between the concept of the origin of life and its content:
2) constant spontaneous generation
3) panspermia
life has repeatedly spontaneously arisen from non-living matter, which contains an active non-material factor
life was brought to Earth from space
Solution:
According to the concept of biochemical evolution, life arose as a result of long-term processes of self-organization of inanimate matter under the conditions of the early Earth. Proponents of the concept of constant spontaneous generation argue that life has repeatedly spontaneously arisen from non-living matter, which contains an active non-material factor. According to the panspermia hypothesis, life was brought to Earth from space with meteorites and interplanetary dust.
3. Establish a correspondence between the name of the stage in the concept of biochemical evolution and an example of the changes occurring at this stage:
1) abiogenesis
2) coacervation
3) bioevolution
synthesis of organic molecules from inorganic gases
concentration of organic molecules and formation of multimolecular complexes
emergence of autotrophs
formation of the reducing atmosphere of the young Earth
Solution:
The stage of abiogenesis corresponds to the synthesis of organic molecules characteristic of life from inorganic gases of the Earth's primary atmosphere. During the coacervation process, the concentration of organic molecules and the formation of multimolecular complexes occurred.
The emergence of autotrophs is one of the stages of the biological evolution of living things. The formation of the reducing atmosphere of the young Earth is a stage of geological evolution that precedes the emergence of life.
4. Establish a correspondence between the concept and its definition:
1) coacervation
2) prebiological selection
3) abiogenic synthesis
formation of multimolecular complexes of biopolymers with a compacted surface layer
evolution of organic polymers towards improving catalytic activity and acquiring the ability to reproduce themselves
formation of organic substances characteristic of living things outside a living organism from inorganic
the emergence of organisms with a formed cell nucleus
Solution:
The process of formation of multimolecular complexes of biopolymers with a compacted surface layer in the concept of biochemical evolution is called coacervation. Prebiological selection includes the evolution of organic polymers towards improving catalytic activity and acquiring the ability to reproduce themselves. Abiogenic synthesis– is the formation of organic substances characteristic of living things outside a living organism from inorganic ones.
5. Establish a correspondence between the experiment conducted to verify the concept of biochemical evolution, which explains the origin of life, and the hypothesis that the experiment tested:
1) in the spring of 2009, a group of British scientists led by J. Sutherland synthesized a nucleotide fragment from low molecular weight substances (cyanides, acetylene, formaldehyde and phosphates)
2) in the experiments of the American scientist L. Orgel, nucleic acids were obtained by passing a spark electric discharge through a mixture of nucleotides
3) in experiments by A.I. Oparin and S. Fox, when mixing biopolymers in an aqueous medium, their complexes were obtained, possessing the rudiments of the properties of modern cells
hypothesis of spontaneous synthesis of nucleic acid monomers from fairly simple starting substances that could have existed under the conditions of the early Earth
hypothesis about the possibility of synthesizing biopolymers from low-molecular compounds under early Earth conditions
the idea of spontaneous formation of coacervates under early Earth conditions
hypothesis about self-replication of nucleic acids in the conditions of the early Earth
Solution:
The experience of converting low molecular weight substances (cyanides, acetylene, formaldehyde and phosphates) into a nucleotide fragment confirms the hypothesis of spontaneous synthesis of nucleic acid monomers from fairly simple starting substances that could have existed in the conditions of the early Earth.
The experiment in which nucleic acids were obtained by passing an electric discharge through a mixture of nucleotides proves the possibility of synthesizing biopolymers from low molecular weight compounds under the conditions of the early Earth.
An experiment in which, by mixing biopolymers in an aqueous environment, their complexes were obtained, which have the rudiments of the properties of modern cells, confirms the idea of the possibility of spontaneous formation of coacervates.
6. Establish a correspondence between the concept of the origin of life and its content:
1) theory of biochemical evolution
2) steady state
3) creationism
the beginning of life is associated with the abiogenic formation of organic substances from inorganic
species of living matter, like the Earth, never arose, but existed forever
life was created by the Creator in the distant past
life brought from space in the form of microorganism spores
Solution:
According to the concept biochemical evolution, the beginning of life is associated with the abiogenic formation of organic substances from inorganic ones. According to the concept steady state, types of living matter, like the Earth, never arose, but existed forever. Supporters creationism(from Latin creatio - creation) they believe that life was created by the Creator in the distant past.
7. Establish a correspondence between the concept of the origin of life and its content:
1) theory of biochemical evolution
2) steady state
3) creationism
the emergence of life is the result of long-term processes of self-organization of inanimate matter
the problem of the origin of life does not exist, life has always existed
life is the result of divine creation
earthly life has cosmic origins
Solution:
According to the concept biochemical evolution, life arose as a result of processes of self-organization of inanimate matter under the conditions of the early Earth. According to the concept steady state, the problem of the origin of life does not exist, life has always existed. Supporters creationism(from Latin creatio - creation) believe that life is the result of divine creation.
The sun is the central luminary around which all the planets and small bodies of the solar system revolve. It is not only a center of gravity, but also a source of energy that ensures thermal balance and natural conditions on the planets, including life on Earth. The movement of the Sun relative to the stars (and the horizon) has been studied since ancient times to create calendars that people used primarily for agricultural purposes. The Gregorian calendar, now used almost everywhere in the world, is essentially a solar calendar based on the cyclic revolution of the Earth around the Sun*. The Sun has a visual magnitude of 26.74 and is the brightest object in our sky.
The Sun is an ordinary star located in our galaxy, simply called the Galaxy or Milky Way, at a distance of ⅔ from its center, which is 26,000 light years, or ≈10 kpc, and at a distance of ≈25 pc from the plane of the Galaxy. It orbits its center at a speed of ≈220 km/s and a period of 225–250 million years (galactic year) clockwise, as viewed from the north galactic pole. The orbit is believed to be approximately elliptical and is subject to disturbances by the galactic spiral arms due to inhomogeneous distributions of stellar masses. In addition, the Sun periodically moves up and down relative to the plane of the Galaxy two to three times per revolution. This leads to changes in gravitational disturbances and, in particular, has a strong impact on the stability of the position of objects at the edge of the Solar system. This causes comets from the Oort Cloud to invade the Solar System, leading to an increase in impact events. In general, from the point of view of various kinds of disturbances, we are in a rather favorable zone in one of the spiral arms of our Galaxy at a distance of ≈ ⅔ from its center.
*The Gregorian calendar, as a system of time calculation, was introduced in Catholic countries by Pope Gregory XIII on October 4, 1582 to replace the previous Julian calendar, and the next day after Thursday, October 4, became Friday, October 15. According to the Gregorian calendar, the length of the year is 365.2425 days and 97 out of 400 years are leap years.
In the modern era, the Sun is located near the inner side of the Orion Arm, moving inside the Local Interstellar Cloud (LIC), filled with rarefied hot gas, possibly the remnant of a supernova explosion. This region is called the galactic habitable zone. The Sun moves in the Milky Way (relative to other nearby stars) towards the star Vega in the constellation Lyra at an angle of approximately 60 degrees from the direction of the galactic center; it is called movement towards the apex.
Interestingly, since our Galaxy also moves relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) at a speed of 550 km/s in the direction of the constellation Hydra, the resulting (residual) speed of the Sun relative to the CMB is about 370 km/s and is directed towards constellation Leo. Note that in its movement the Sun experiences slight disturbances from the planets, primarily Jupiter, forming with it a common gravitational center of the Solar system - a barycenter located within the radius of the Sun. Every few hundred years, barycentric motion switches from forward (prograde) to reverse (retrograde).
* According to the theory of stellar evolution, stars less massive than T Tauri also transition to MS along this track.
The Sun was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago, when the rapid compression of a cloud of molecular hydrogen under the influence of gravitational forces led to the formation in our region of the Galaxy of a variable star of the first type of stellar population - a T Tauri star. After the start of thermonuclear fusion reactions (conversion of hydrogen into helium) in the solar core, the Sun moved to the main sequence of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (HR). The Sun is classified as a G2V yellow dwarf star, which appears yellow when observed from Earth due to a slight excess of yellow light in its spectrum caused by atmospheric scattering of blue rays. The Roman numeral V in the G2V designation means that the Sun belongs to the main sequence of the HR diagram. It is assumed that in the earliest period of evolution, before the transition to the main sequence, it was on the so-called Hayashi track, where it compressed and, accordingly, decreased luminosity while maintaining approximately the same temperature*. Following the evolutionary scenario typical of low- and intermediate-mass stars on the main sequence, the Sun is approximately halfway through the active stage of its life cycle (conversion of hydrogen into helium in thermonuclear fusion reactions), amounting to a total of approximately 10 billion years, and will maintain this activity over the next approximately 5 billion years. The Sun loses 10 14 of its mass annually, and the total losses throughout its life will be 0.01%.
By its nature, the Sun is a plasma ball with a diameter of approximately 1.5 million km. The exact values of its equatorial radius and average diameter are 695,500 km and 1,392,000 km, respectively. This is two orders of magnitude larger than the size of Earth and an order of magnitude larger than the size of Jupiter. […] The Sun rotates around its axis counterclockwise (as seen from the North Pole), the rotation speed of the outer visible layers is 7,284 km/h. The sidereal period of rotation at the equator is 25.38 days, while the period at the poles is much longer - 33.5 days, i.e. the atmosphere at the poles rotates more slowly than at the equator. This difference arises from differential rotation caused by convection and uneven mass transfer from the core outward, and is associated with a redistribution of angular momentum. When observed from Earth, the apparent rotation period is approximately 28 days. […]
The figure of the Sun is almost spherical, its oblateness is insignificant, only 9 parts per million. This means that its polar radius is only ≈10 km less than the equatorial one. The mass of the Sun is ≈330,000 times the mass of the Earth […]. The Sun contains 99.86% of the mass of the entire Solar System. […]
About 1 billion years after entering the Main Sequence (estimated between 3.8 and 2.5 billion years ago), the Sun's brightness increased by about 30%. It is quite obvious that the problems of the climatic evolution of planets are directly related to changes in the luminosity of the Sun. This is especially true of the Earth, where the surface temperature necessary to preserve liquid water (and probably the origin of life) could only be achieved by higher atmospheric greenhouse gases to compensate for low insolation. This problem is called the “young Sun paradox.” In the subsequent period, the brightness of the Sun (as well as its radius) continued to grow slowly. According to existing estimates, the Sun becomes approximately 10% brighter every one billion years. Accordingly, the surface temperatures of the planets (including the temperature on Earth) are slowly rising. About 3.5 billion years from now, the Sun's brightness will increase by 40%, by which time conditions on Earth will be similar to those on Venus today. […]
By the end of its life, the Sun will become a red giant. The hydrogen fuel in the core will be exhausted, its outer layers will greatly expand, and the core will shrink and heat up. Hydrogen fusion will continue along the shell surrounding the helium core, and the shell itself will constantly expand. More and more helium will be produced, and the temperature of the core will rise. When the core reaches a temperature of ≈100 million degrees, helium combustion will begin to form carbon. This is likely the final phase of the Sun's activity, since its mass is insufficient to initiate the later stages of nuclear fusion involving the heavier elements nitrogen and oxygen. Due to its relatively small mass, the life of the Sun will not end in a supernova explosion. Instead, intense thermal pulsations will occur, which will cause the Sun to shed its outer shells, and from them a planetary nebula will form. In the course of further evolution, a very hot degenerate core-white dwarf is formed, devoid of its own sources of thermonuclear energy, with a very high density of matter, which will slowly cool and, as the theory predicts, in tens of billions of years will turn into an invisible black dwarf. […]
Solar Activity
The Sun exhibits various types of activity, its appearance is constantly changing, as evidenced by numerous observations from Earth and from space. The most famous and most pronounced is the 11-year cycle of solar activity, which approximately corresponds to the number of sunspots on the surface of the Sun. The extent of sunspots can reach tens of thousands of kilometers across. They typically exist in pairs of opposite magnetic polarity, which alternate each solar cycle and peak at maximum activity near the solar equator. As mentioned, sunspots are darker and cooler than the surrounding surface of the photosphere because they are regions of low-energy convective transport from the hot interior, suppressed by strong magnetic fields. The polarity of the Sun's magnetic dipole changes every 11 years in such a way that the north magnetic pole becomes the south, and vice versa. In addition to changes in solar activity within the 11-year cycle, certain changes are observed from cycle to cycle, therefore 22-year and longer cycles are also distinguished. Irregularity of cyclicity manifests itself in the form of extended periods of minimum solar activity with a minimum number of sunspots over several cycles, similar to that observed in the seventeenth century. This period is known as the Maunder Minimum, which had a profound effect on the Earth's climate. Some scientists believe that during this period the Sun went through a 70-year period of activity with almost no sunspots. Recall that an unusual solar minimum was observed in 2008. It lasted much longer and with a lower number of sunspots than usual. This means that the repeatability of solar activity over tens and hundreds of years is, generally speaking, unstable. In addition, the theory predicts the possibility of a magnetic instability in the Sun's core, which can cause activity fluctuations over periods of tens of thousands of years. […]
The most characteristic and spectacular manifestations of solar activity are solar flares, coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar proton events (SPEs). The degree of their activity is closely related to the 11-year solar cycle. These phenomena are accompanied by the emission of huge numbers of high-energy protons and electrons, significantly increasing the energy of the “quieter” particles of the solar wind. They have a huge impact on the processes of interaction of solar plasma with the Earth and other bodies of the Solar System, including variations in the geomagnetic field, the upper and middle atmosphere, and phenomena on the earth’s surface. The state of solar activity determines space weather, which affects our natural environment and life on Earth. […]
Essentially a flare is an explosion, and this enormous phenomenon manifests itself as an instantaneous and intense change in brightness in an active region on the surface of the Sun. […] the release of energy from a powerful solar flare can reach […] ⅙ of the energy released by the Sun per second, or 160 billion megatons of TNT. About half of this energy is the kinetic energy of the coronal plasma, and the other half is hard electromagnetic radiation and streams of high-energy charged particles.
“In about 3.5 billion years, the Sun’s brightness will increase by 40%, by which time conditions on Earth will be similar to those on Venus today.”
The flare can last for about 200 minutes, accompanied by strong changes in X-ray intensity and powerful acceleration of electrons and protons, whose speed approaches the speed of light. Unlike the solar wind, whose particles take more than a day to reach Earth, particles generated during flares reach Earth within tens of minutes, greatly disturbing space weather. This radiation is extremely dangerous for astronauts, even those in near-Earth orbits, not to mention interplanetary flights.
Even more ambitious are coronal mass ejections, which are the most powerful phenomenon in the solar system. They arise in the corona in the form of explosions of huge volumes of solar plasma, caused by the reconnection of magnetic field lines, resulting in the release of enormous energy. Some of them are associated with solar flares or have to do with solar prominences erupted from the solar surface and held in place by magnetic fields. Coronal mass ejections occur periodically and consist of very energetic particles. Clots of plasma, forming giant plasma bubbles that expand outward, are thrown into outer space. They contain billions of tons of matter propagating in the interplanetary medium at a speed of ≈1000 km/s and forming a receding shock wave at the front. Coronal mass ejections are responsible for powerful magnetic storms on Earth. […] Even more than solar flares, coronal ejections are associated with an influx of high-energy penetrating radiation. […]
The interaction of solar plasma with planets and small bodies has a strong influence on them, primarily on the upper atmosphere and magnetosphere—either its own or induced, depending on whether the planet has a magnetic field. Such interaction is called solar-planetary (for the Earth, solar-terrestrial) connections, which significantly depend on the phase of the 11-year cycle and other manifestations of solar activity. They lead to changes in the shape and size of the magnetosphere, the occurrence of magnetic storms, variations in the parameters of the upper atmosphere, and an increase in the level of radiation hazard. Thus, the temperature of the Earth’s upper atmosphere in the altitude range of 200–1000 km will increase several times, from ≈400 to ≈1500 K, and the density changes by one to two orders of magnitude. This greatly affects the lifetime of artificial satellites and orbital stations. […]
The most spectacular manifestation of the impact of solar activity on the Earth and other planets with a magnetic field are auroras observed at high latitudes. On Earth, disturbances in the Sun also lead to disruption of radio communications, impacts on high-voltage power lines (blackouts), underground cables and pipelines, the operation of radar stations, and also damage the electronics of spacecraft.
