Perception is the process of reflecting in the human mind objects and phenomena of the real world in their integrity, in the totality of their various properties and parts, and with their direct impact on the senses.
Sensations, motor components, an individual’s life experience, memory, thinking and speech, volitional efforts and attention, interests, goals and attitudes of a person take part in the formation of perception.
Perception arises on the basis of sensations, but it is not reduced to their simple sum (in such cases they say that the process is not additive). This is a qualitatively new, more complex mental process compared to sensation. Perception is aimed at recognizing the identifying features of the perceived object and constructing its copy (model) in the mind. The result of perception is a holistic perceptual image of an object, and not its individual properties, information about which is given to a person by sensations. This, however, does not mean that all its small details are perceived along with the holistic image of the object.
There are two models of image formation in the process of perception:
- stimulus, “purely” reflexive, asserting that the appearance of an image of an object is caused only by its reflection in consciousness when stimuli influence the sensory channels;
- active, which asserts that the image that a person perceives is not so much the result of the psyche’s reaction to stimuli, but rather the consequence of the subject’s continuous construction of perceptual hypotheses that “counter” the reflected environment (a person, using his experience, seems to foresee the basic properties of the perceived object).
The difficulty of studying perception as a cognitive process lies in the fact that of all the influencing signs, only the leading ones are reflected in the human mind, while the unimportant ones remain outside the boundaries of perception. This is due not only to the characteristics of the object, but also to the fact that it is in the object that is of interest to the individual, for what purpose the individual is involved in the process of perception, what are his preliminary settings for perception.
Recognition of an object as one of the components of perception depends on a person’s life experience and his knowledge about this object. For example, a familiar word can be reconstructed (perceived) literally upon presentation of one or two of its constituent letters, but an unfamiliar one will require many more letters.
Perception sometimes requires concentration of attention on an object and certain volitional efforts. This is especially typical for cases when the individual’s interest in the object is low or there is no awareness of the need to study the object. Of course, the study and recognition of an object through the process of perception cannot take place without the involvement of memory and thinking. After all, in this case, complex processes of comparing the characteristics of an object with standards stored in a person’s long-term memory, mental analysis and synthesis of a system of these characteristics and decision-making are carried out.
It is important that information for this comes simultaneously from many senses (vision, hearing, smell, etc.). In particular, a significant contribution to the formation of the image of a perceived object is made by motor components through the eyes, pronouncing sounds, and palpating. The auditory analyzer helps in perception to navigate the spatial position of the source of information.
Finally, the perceptual process extends to higher levels of mental activity, such as speech. After all, a person thinks... in words. Isolating the leading features of the perceived object, he discusses them and designates them in words.
Thus, perception is an ordered system of active perceptual actions, formed in the process of an individual’s life.
general characteristics
Perception is the reflection in human consciousness of integral complexes of properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at a given moment on the senses. Perception differs from sensations in that it reflects the entire set of properties of an object, and its holistic image is formed. Perception is based on the relationship between the sensory and mental activities of the individual and is the result of the functioning of the analyzer system. The primary analysis, which takes place in the receptors, is supplemented by the complex analytical and sensory activity of the brain sections of the analyzers.
Perception is based on two types of neural connections:
- formed within one analyzer;
- inter-analyzer.
Thanks to the connections formed between analyzers, we reflect and perceive properties of objects or phenomena for which there are no specially adapted analyzers (for example, the size of an object, specific gravity, etc.).
Perceptual system- a set of analyzers that provide a given act of perception. In this case, one analyzer can be the leading one, and the rest can complement the perception of the object.
Perception and action. Perception is a kind of action aimed at examining the perceived object and creating its copy. Any perception includes a motor component that helps isolate an object from the surrounding background, in the form of feeling the object, eye movements, and larynx movements. Therefore, the process of perception is considered as the perceptual activity of the subject.
Basic properties of perception
The main properties of perception as a cognitive mental process include: objectivity, which is expressed in the attribution of information received from the external world: integrity, reflecting the fact that perception is always a holistic image of an object, and not a reflection of its individual properties; structurality, which manifests itself in the fact that a person perceives a generalized structure that is actually abstracted from sensations: the meaningfulness of perception, determined by an understanding of the essence of the object; constancy of perception - the relative constancy of the images of objects, in particular, their shape and color. Magnitudes when the conditions of perception change; selectivity is manifested in the preferential selection of individual objects and depends on the interests and attitudes of the individual.
Perception of time and movement, space. The perception of space includes the perception of size, shape, relative position of objects, their relief, distance and direction.
The perception of time is a reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena or events.
The perception of movements is a reflection of the direction and speed of the spatial existence of objects.
Illusions of perception. Illusions manifest themselves in an inadequate reflection of the perceived object. The most studied are the illusory affects observed during the visual perception of two-dimensional contour images - the so-called “optical-geometric illusions”, which consist in the apparent distortion of the relationships between fragments of images (equal lines seem unequal, etc.). Another class of illusions includes the phenomenon of brightness contrast (for example, a gray stripe on a light background appears darker than on a black one).
Perception- direct sensory reflection of objects and phenomena in a holistic form as a result of awareness of their identifying characteristics.
Cognizing the surrounding reality and interacting with it, we encounter the objective world. Objects are identified by us by the totality of their characteristic features. Images of perception are built on the basis of various sensations. However, they are not reduced to a simple sum of these sensations. Perception is associated with the identification, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, situations, with their attribution to a certain category, type, class. Only by including a phenomenon in a certain system of categories, covering it with the appropriate concept, can we evaluate and interpret its individual parts and elements. Even when considering ordinary points, monotonous elements, we strive for their compositional organization (Fig. 1, 2).
Being a sensory stage of cognition, perception is inextricably linked with thinking, has a motivational orientation, and is accompanied by an emotional response.
Seeing means relating perceived visual signals to one of the hypotheses existing in the brain's stores. If two different hypotheses can “work”, then the brain chooses between them - and then we see either a duck or a rabbit (Fig. 3); an Eskimo standing with his back to us at the entrance to the cave, or an Indian turning in profile (Fig. 4).
Being associated with the process of identification, perception includes processes of comparison, correlating a given object with standard standards stored in memory. Well-known objects are perceived on a stereotypical basis, quickly and confidently. (How easily literate people recognize letters and how difficult it is to recognize them at the first stages of learning.) During the process of ontogenesis, perceptual learning occurs.
People selectively see what they are used to seeing. Familiar objects are perceived simultaneously (simultaneously), while little-familiar objects are perceived in a structurally unfolded, step-by-step manner (successively). In the latter case, a hypothesis is first put forward about the essence of the object, a decision is made on its categorization, nominalization, and then its characteristics are critically assessed.
The mental development of a person is associated with the development of a culture of perception - an educated, aesthetically developed person is able to enjoy the grace of form, color and sound harmony of objects and environmental phenomena.
Rice. 5. Recording eye movements ( oculogram) when perceiving an object. The most informative points of the contour are recorded, the visual route is structurally organized.
The process of perception is perceptual action. Its effectiveness depends on what features of the object will be identified by the subject as the initial supporting elements.
The most important component of each type of perception are motor processes: the movement of the eye along the contour of an object, the movement of the hand along the surface of the object, the movement of the larynx, reproducing an audible sound (Fig. 5).
Neurophysiological basis of perception.
The physiological mechanism of perception is the complex analytical-synthetic activity of analyzers - the formation of complex conditioned reflexes to complex stimuli.
In the human visual apparatus, two systems interact. One of them selects individual fragments in an object, the other composes a complete image from established sub-images (Fig. 6).
Possible incompleteness of the complete image is filled with textures stored in memory. Therefore, we see contours even where they are not drawn, but only possible.
To recognize a situation, the brain stores ready-made generalized schemes ( frames- “skeletons”). Initially grasping the situation, we then strive to fill the cells of the emerging frame - and our eyes look for the corresponding detail.
Perception is an active process of forming an image of an object. This activity is already manifested at the receptor level. Three pairs of extrinsic muscles of each eye carry out continuous eye movement. Some of them transfer the peripheral image of an object to the center of the retina, where visual acuity is highest, others provide tracking of moving objects. The perception of an object is carried out by “palpating” eye movements: fast and large-amplitude ( saccadic) movements, smaller translational and reciprocating movements ( tremor) with a frequency from 20 to 150 Hz and an amplitude of 5-15′ arc. min, and drift— slow movements at a speed of 6′ arc. min/sec and amplitude up to 30′ arc. min, preventing the development of local adaptation. Eye movements scan the shape and those key elements of the object of perception that are essential in constructing a visual image.
In the formation of a perceptual image, the left and right hemispheres of the brain perform different functions. The sensory side of perception is served by the right, and the categorical side by the left hemisphere of the brain.
Classification of perception phenomena.
Depending on the participation of the will, the purposefulness of perception is divided into two forms: involuntary (unintentional, not associated with volitional tension and a pre-set goal) and voluntary, intentional (purposeful).
Depending on the modality of the receptors they differ visual, auditory and tactile perception.
There are also complex types of perception: perception of space And time perception.
Depending on the complexity, development, and perceptual activity, perception differs between simultaneous (one-act) and successive (stage-by-stage, sequential).
There are also three levels of perception:
1) sensory- sensory embrace of an object, its entry into the field of consciousness;
2) perceptual— comprehension of an object, assigning it to a certain category, class of objects;
3) operational— activity scope of the object.
Perceptions can also be classified depending on the specifics of the object of reflection (perception of works of art, speech, etc.). Perception is usually included in some activity, but can also act as an independent activity.
Rice. 7. The tendency of consciousness to make an object meaningful is so great that we even “see” non-existent boundaries between the triangle and the background. The incompleteness of the complete image is filled with textures stored in memory.
Systematic, specially organized perception to resolve any issue is called observation.
General patterns of perception.
Different types of perception have specific patterns. But in addition to intraspecific ones, there are general patterns of perception: 1) meaningfulness and generality; 2) objectivity; 3) integrity; 4) structure; 5) selective focus; 6) apperception; 7) constancy.
1. Meaningfulness and generality of perception. By perceiving objects and phenomena, we realize and understand what is perceived.
Perception is associated with the attribution of a given object to a certain category, concept, with its designation in a word. (It is no coincidence that children, when encountering unfamiliar objects, always ask for their name.) The categorical correlation of perceived objects organizes the entire process of perception, its adequacy and direction. Only by determining the category of the perceived object will you recognize all its features.
Perception largely depends on the purpose and objectives of the activity. In an object, those aspects of it that correspond to the given task come to the fore.
Rice. 10. The perception of a fragment of an object is facilitated by its inclusion in the context of the situation. In the upper rectangle, the letters are not recognizable by their fragments. In the lower rectangle, the letters are easy to read due to the situational context.
Rice. 9. These scattered spots are combined into a single visual image, if you turn the image 180º, you will understand its meaning.
Thanks to the meaningfulness and generality of perception, we conjecture and complete the image of an object from its individual fragments (Fig. 7 and 8).
The simplest form of understanding objects and phenomena is recognition. Here perception is closely related to memory. To recognize an object means to perceive it in relation to a previously formed image.
Recognition may be generalized, when the object belongs to some general category (for example, “this is a table”, “this is a tree”, etc.), and differentiated(specific), when the perceived object is identified with a previously perceived single object. This is a higher level of recognition. For this kind of recognition, it is necessary to identify features specific to a given object, its signs.
Recognition is characterized by certainty, accuracy and speed. When recognizing, a person does not identify all the features of an object, but uses its characteristic identifying features. (So, we recognize a steamer from a distance by the presence of a pipe and do not confuse it with a boat.)
Recognition becomes difficult when there are insufficient identification features. The minimum of features necessary to identify an object is called threshold of perception.
Rice. 11. The integrity of perception is violated if the individual elements of the object are excessively scattered. Thus, when a newspaper photograph is enlarged tenfold, the raster dots of a typographic cliche do not merge into a complete image (when the image is removed by 1 m, the integrity of perception is restored).
2. Objectivity of perception. A person recognizes mental images of objects not as images, but as real objects, taking the images outside, objectifying them. Objectivity- the attribution of brain information about objects to real objects. Objectivity of perception means adequacy, correspondence of images of perception to real objects of reality, “objectivity” of the image.
3. Integrity of perception. In objects and phenomena of reality, their individual signs and properties are in a constant, stable relationship. In perception, as in the mental image of an object, these stable connections between the components of an object or phenomenon, which is expressed in the integrity of perception.
Even in cases where we do not perceive some features of a familiar object, we mentally supplement them. We strive to combine the individual parts of the object into a single holistic formation familiar to us (Fig. 9, 10, 11).
Thus, the integrity of perception is a reflection of an object as a stable systemic integrity (even if its individual parts are not observed under given conditions). The integrity of perception is violated if the object cannot be comprehended (Fig. 12).
4. Structurality of perception. We recognize various objects thanks to the stable structure of their features. In the process of perception, the relationships between the parts and sides of an object are identified. Awareness of perception is inextricably linked with the reflection of stable relationships between the elements of the perceived object (Fig. 12 and 13).
In cases where identifying the structure of an object is difficult, the perception of the object as a whole becomes difficult.
5. Selective focus of perception. Of the countless objects and phenomena surrounding us, we currently highlight only a few of them. It depends on what a person’s activity is aimed at, on his needs and interests.
Selectivity of perception - preferential selection of an object from the background. In this case, the background serves as a reference system against which the spatial and color qualities of the figure are assessed.
Rice. 14. In the figure on the left, two vertical sectors are predominantly distinguished, and on the right, horizontal sectors.
The object stands out from the background along its contour. Contour is contrast. We perceive a contour due to a “jump” in brightness or color. The sharper and more contrasting the outline of an object, the easier it is to highlight it. Conversely, if the contours of the object are blurred, inscribed in the lines of the background, the object is difficult to distinguish. (This phenomenon underlies camouflage.)
Selectivity of perception is accompanied by centralization of perception - a subjective expansion of the zone of focus of attention and compression of the peripheral zone. When objects are equivalent, the central object and the larger object are predominantly highlighted (Fig. 15, 16).
Objects located along the vertical and horizontal axes are subject to priority selection (Fig. 14).
Rice. Fig. 18. Distribution of visual fixation points on a square panel when perceiving homogeneous material.
If the object and the background are equivalent, then they can transform into each other (the background becomes the object, and the object becomes the background (Fig. 17).
However, even when perceiving homogeneous material, attention is distributed unevenly (Fig. 18).
6. Apperception(from lat. ad- to and perceptio- perception) - the dependence of perception on experience, knowledge, interests and attitudes of the individual. Looking at a burning fire from afar, we do not feel its warmth, but this quality is included in the perception of the fire. In our experience, fire and warmth entered into a strong connection. By looking at a frozen window, we also add to our visual perception the temperature sensations gleaned from past experience. Depending on past experience, knowledge, and professional orientation, a person selectively perceives their various aspects (Fig. 19).
Apperception can be personal and situational (at night in the forest a stump can be perceived as the figure of a dangerous animal).
7. Constancy of perception. The same familiar objects are consistently perceived by us in changing conditions: under different illumination, from different points of view, at different distances. Constancy of perception(from Latin constantis - constant) - independence of the reflection of the objective qualities of objects (size, shape, characteristic color) from the changed conditions of their perception - illumination, distance, angle of view.
The image of the size of an object on the retina of the eye when it is perceived from close and far distances will be different. However, we interpret this as the distance or proximity of the object, and not as a change in its size (Fig. 20, 21).
Rice. 20. Constancy of perception. Of two objects of equal size, the more distant one produces a smaller image on the retina. However, this does not affect the adequate assessment of their actual value. At the same time, the brain takes into account information about the accommodation of the lens (the closer the object, the more curved the surface of the lens), about the convergence of the visual axes (the convergence of the visual axes of the two eyes) and about the tension of the eye muscles.
When perceiving a rectangular object (a folder, a sheet of paper) from different points of view, a square, a rhombus, or even a straight line may appear on the retina of the eye. However, in all cases we retain the inherent form of this object. A white sheet of paper, regardless of its illumination, will be perceived as a white sheet, just as a piece of anthracite will be perceived with its inherent color quality, regardless of lighting conditions.
Constancy of perception is not a hereditary quality; it is formed through experience and the learning process. Pilots of supersonic aircraft at first interpret the very rapid approach of an object as its increase in size, and a temporary lack of constancy arises. Non-constancy can arise when perceiving relief in photographs and drawings (Fig. 22).
Non-constancy(from lat. illudere- to deceive) - an illusion of perception, distortion in the perception of objects. The most common visual illusions. They arise for a number of reasons. Illusion of irradiation, in which light objects appear larger than equal dark objects, is associated with the irradiation of excitation in the retina (Fig. 23).
The perceived size of figures depends on their objective environment. Yes, thanks illusions of contrast objects of the same size will appear different in size if one of them is surrounded by large objects, and the other is surrounded by smaller objects (Ebbinghaus illusion - Fig. 24, 25).
In the Müller-Lyer illusion, two identical lines ending in differently oriented angles appear to be unequal in length. Due to the large difference between two adjacent parts of identical objects, one of them appears large (Fig. 26).
Rice. 25. Identical figures on a smaller zero appear larger.
Rice. 24. Illusion of contrast. The inner circle on the left appears larger than the inner circle on the right. In reality they are equal (Ebbinghaus illusion).
Vertical lines are overestimated compared to horizontal ones (Figure 27). Parallel lines appear non-parallel due to the influence of lines intersecting them (Zellner illusion - Fig. 28). Segments of a straight line intersecting two vertical rectangles are perceived as segments located at different levels (Pogendorff illusion - Fig. 29). Due to the overestimation of the size of acute angles, a circle with a square inscribed in it seems to be bent at the corners of the square (Fig. 30.)
Both receptor mechanisms and the functioning of the central nervous system are involved in the occurrence of illusions. Some visual illusions are caused by the optical properties of the eye.
Not only visual illusions are subject to illusions, but also other types of perception So, if you hold in your hands two objects that are identical in weight and appearance, but different in volume (for example, a large and a smaller ball, but not in weight), then the smaller object is perceived as heavier (Charpentier illusion) . This is explained by our general experience - the larger the object, the greater its weight.
If, having crossed the index and thumb, we touch a ball or pencil, placing these objects in the resulting crosshair, then we will feel a double touch (Aristotle’s illusion). This is explained by the fact that the receptive fields of opposite fingers usually touch different objects.
Contrast illusions are common not only in the field of visual perception, but also in the field of auditory, gustatory, tactile, temperature and kinesthetic sensations. Thus, the contrast illusion of kinesthetic sensitivity arises after repeated perception of objects that differ in weight and volume - the subsequent presentation of objects equal in the same respects is perceived illusory: the object located in the place of a previously presented smaller object seems larger and heavier (Uznadze’s installation experiments) .
In some cases, visual illusions may be the cause of inappropriate actions. For example, when entering the tunnel on Triumfalnaya Square (formerly Mayakovsky Square) in Moscow, cars often drove into oncoming traffic. Expert psychologists found that the advertising light, then located on the building of the Sofia restaurant, fell in such a way that it created the illusion of a displacement of the entrance to the tunnel. After the billboard was replaced, traffic violations stopped.
Illusions are recognized thanks to our psychological knowledge. They are not only “pests” of our perception, but also a factor ensuring the adequacy of conventional images. Thanks to illusions, we translate two-dimensional images of artistic paintings into three-dimensional spatial representations, and we interpret images of different sizes as the same, if the accompanying circumstances are taken into account.
Features of the perception of space and time.
Space and time are universal forms of existence of matter. The perception of space and time reflects objective spatiotemporal relationships between objects.
Perception of spatial qualities of an object consists of the perception of size, shape, volume, distance, location of objects and their movement. The size and shape of objects are perceived as a result of a combination of visual, tactile and kinesthetic (muscular-motor) sensations in human experience.
One of the factors of spatial perception is the binary nature of the senses and the symmetry of the human body. When perceiving the spatial features of objects, their location in space, a person proceeds from the normal position of his body, perpendicular to the plane of the earth, and takes into account the data of the balance apparatus.
Shape perception- a complex perceptual process. Fast, spasmodic eye movements are of great importance in it. In this case, optical data is processed by the brain in combination with data from the oculomotor muscles - the eye, as it were, feels the object.
Rice. 35. Constancy in the perception of relief images. Flip the pattern 180º - small protrusions will be perceived as indentations, and large indentations as protrusions. This depends on the subconscious interpretation of the direction of light, usually moving towards the observer.
The process of visual perception has a certain stage - microgenesis. At the first stage (30 - 50 ms), the spatial position, distance and size of the visual stimulus (object) are assessed. When perceiving a moving object, it takes from 50 to 140 ms to determine the parameters of its movement. Next, the specification of the shape of the perceived object is carried out.
The entire process of formation of a stable spatially localized visual image is completed 300 ms after the presentation of the stimulus.
The eye, in the words of I.M. Sechenov, functions as a measuring device. When perceiving a flat form, a clear distinction of the outlines of an object, its contour, is essential. When perceiving a three-dimensional form, the main role is played by depth vision. The closer the object is, the more intense the depth vision. Thus, the shape of a cube appears more elongated up close, and flattened at a distance. Tunnels, alleys and similar extended objects, when viewed from a distance, seem shorter than when perceived at close range.
When perceiving the shape of an object, its interaction with the background is essential.(from the French fon - bottom, base). In visual perception, the background serves as the basis for a frame of reference—the color and spatial characteristics of an object are evaluated in relation to the background. The background provides information about the situation of perception and ensures the constancy of perception.
Rice. 37. Vase of Ruby. In this figure, one perceives alternately the image of a vase on a black background, then two profiles on a white background. However, if one of the objects becomes the subject of active research, then it will also become a stable object of perception.
Rice. 36. And in this picture only the central figure is consistently perceived. Why?
In situations of equivalence between the object and the background, figure duality effect. In this case, periodic fluctuations in attention occur—its fluctuation occurs (Fig. 36, 37).
Clarity of perception is facilitated by the sharp delineation of the contour of the object. The process of its perception begins with the difference in the contour of an object. Only after this does its shape and structure differ.
Relief and volume of objects, depth of space are perceived due to the fact that their image falls on non-coinciding (disparate) points of the retina of two eyes - in this case, the image in the retinas of both eyes does not completely coincide and, as a result, stereoscopic effect
Remoteness of objects is also perceived due to binocular vision. The perception of the distance of an object depends not only on the size of its image on the retina, but also on the strength of the tension of the eye muscles and the curvature of the lens. When viewing distant objects, the lens becomes flat. This change in the curvature of the lens depending on the distance of the objects in question is called accommodation. But accommodation provides information about the distance of objects only within a range of up to 6 m. If objects are located at a greater distance, then information about their distance comes to the brain from the relative position of the visual axes (Fig. 38).
Rice. 39. Stereoscopic visual perception. Relief, volume, depth are reflected thanks to binocular vision - vision with two eyes. At the top is the perception of an object with one left and one right eye. Below is an object visible with both eyes.
Rice. 38. Reflection of the depth of space, the distance of the object. To assess the distance of objects, information is used about the state of the lens of the eye (the phenomenon of accommodation), the magnitude of the angle of convergence of the visual axes, the tension of the eye muscles, the overlap of some objects by others, data on linear and aerial perspective.
For the perception of the distance of objects, not only the accommodation of the lens and the relative position of the visual axes are essential, but also linear and aerial perspective. The receding lines seem to converge at the horizon. Linear perspective is enhanced by the weakening of the difference between light and shadow, the loss of individual small details. Aerial perspective consists of a slight change in the color of objects under the influence of the bluish tint of the air. Spatial perspective is also determined by the density gradient of the texture of objects (Fig. 40).
Space depth detection is limited deep vision threshold
Essential for the perception of the distance of objects is the comparison of their size with the known size of other objects. This is of particular importance in cases where objects are more than 450 m away (the maximum distance about which information is received as a result of the relative positions of the visual axes). The distance from which objects are identified is called spatial discrimination threshold(see tables below).
Rice. 40. The depth of an object is determined by the density gradient of its texture.
Spatial thresholds of perception of individual
objects:
Rice. 41. The threshold of depth vision is the minimum difference in the distance of two objects perceived by the observer. The depth vision threshold is expressed quantitatively by the difference in the corresponding parallactic angles. For most people, the Depth Vision Threshold is 5* (five seconds of arc).
Spatial thresholds for distinguishing elements of human appearance:
The spatial movement of objects, their movement is perceived due to the movement of their image on the retina. The movement of the eye and head is also essential for the perception of movement. When estimating the speed of movement, an adjustment is made for the distance of the moving object. Motion Perception Threshold equals 5 ang. min/sec, which corresponds to the maximum speed of movement of the tracking eye. The direction of movement of an object is determined by a change in its position relative to other objects, as well as by the mechanism of paired eyes (Fig. 42).
Rice. 42. Paired work of the eyes is one of the mechanisms that ensures the perception of the direction of movement of objects.
The ability to correctly assess the spatial relationships of objects is called eye. There are static and dynamic eye meters:
Static eye meter - determination of the size of stationary objects, their distance and distances between them by a stationary observer;
Dynamic eye - the ability to determine the relationship between moving objects.
There are significant individual characteristics of the eye.
The ability to see the smallest objects is called visual acuity or resolving power of the eye. Visual acuity is equal to one (it is normal) if a person distinguishes objects with an angular size of 1 minute (people with normal vision distinguish objects 3 cm in size at a distance of 100 m). Visual acuity depends on preliminary familiarization with the object, on its expectation in the field of view, color, contrast between the object and the background, and the duration of the visual stimulus. Visual acuity decreases with increasing angular velocity of an object.
In its genesis, visual perception is associated with touch.
Touch- one of the main sources of our spatial ideas. (At one time it was even believed that the hand taught the eye to see. Subsequently, however, this was refuted by experimental data.) The palpating movements of the hands reproduce the contour of an object, as if taking a cast from it.
There is a distinction between passive and active touch:
Passive touch forms a tactile image of the contour of an object when it is moved on a resting hand;
Active touch is characterized by actively feeling an object.
Bimanual touch—feeling with both hands—optimizes perceptual strategy. In this case, the functions of the hands are separated; the left hand (for right-handed people) performs the function of support and reference.
Perception of time- reflection of the duration, speed and sequence of phenomena. Temporary relationships are reflected by:
chronometry— counting time, measured using uniform movement of objects (clock hands);
chronology— reflections of time in accordance with events common to all (seasons, historical events);
chronognosia— subjective time (subjective experience of the duration of events depending on their significance and emotional coloring).
When assessing time intervals and duration of events, the peculiarities of subjective perception of time should be taken into account. With positive emotions, time is underestimated, and with negative emotions, it is overestimated. An understatement of time is always the result of the dominance of excitation over inhibition. The exaggeration of time is associated with the predominance of inhibition, which occurs as a result of exposure to monotonous, insignificant stimuli. Under the same activity conditions, time less than 1 minute is usually exaggerated, and time greater than 5 - 10 minutes is underestimated.
The entire complex of analyzers is involved in time reflection. However, time intervals are differentiated to the greatest extent by the kinesthetic and auditory analyzers. Thus, if the intermittency of visual influences differs at intervals between them of up to 1/20 sec, then the intermittency of tactile influences differs at intervals of 1/40 sec, and of sound influences - at intervals of 1/100 sec.
The time period is estimated more accurately when performing movements and when perceiving auditory influences. In this case, an involuntary motor and sound accompaniment arises, activating the process of time perception.
In activities involving the establishment of time intervals, a person achieves a great development of the “sense” of time. The perception of time is disrupted in extreme conditions (stress, affect, frustration), with prolonged sensory deprivation, alcohol and drug intoxication.
Perception, person by person.
Rice. 43. Probability of differences in facial elements at low exposures.
Rice. 44. Probability of the supporting role of facial elements during identification.
As an object of perception, a person has a special social significance. When perceiving a person who is new to himself, the subject identifies in him those features of his appearance, which provide information about it mental and social qualities. Particular attention is paid to posture, gait, gestures, facial expressions, voice, speech, behavioral habits, manners, and clothing. One of the first places is occupied by the professional characteristics of a person, his social status and basic moral and communicative qualities: angry, kind, cheerful, withdrawn, sociable, etc. Individual elements, features of the face and head are selectively identified and identified with varying accuracy (Fig. 43 , 44).
Personality characteristics based on her appearance are interpreted in various ways:
emotional- social qualities are attributed to an individual depending on the aesthetic attractiveness of his appearance (an outwardly beautiful person is interpreted as a good person);
analytical- each of the elements of appearance is associated with a specific mental property of a person (compressed lips, frowned eyebrows - an angry person, etc.);
perceptual-associative- a person is attributed the qualities of another person who is externally similar to him;
socially associative- a person is given qualities of a certain social type according to certain characteristic external signs (in glasses and a hat - an intellectual; in an overcoat - a military man).
A generalized image of a person based on external signs influences interaction with that person.
The perception of a person by a person is subject to certain socially formed stereotypes, standards, and standards. The general impression of a person, the idea of his social status are transferred to all particular manifestations of a given personality (““). Initially perceived information about a person may have a dominant meaning (“primacy effect”).
Significant differences in the social status of those communicating give rise to the “social distance effect.” The extreme manifestation of this effect is expressed in disdain and hatred towards representatives of other social groups.
People's assessments and feelings when they perceive each other are multifaceted. But basically they are divided into conjunctive- uniting and disjunctive- disconnecting. Disjunctive feelings are caused by what is condemned in a given environment.
A.A. Bodalev performed the following experiment. Two groups of people were shown the same photograph and asked to describe the person depicted in the photograph. One group was told that they would see a portrait of a hero, while the other group was warned that they would see a picture of a criminal.
It turned out that the subjects were under the influence of the stereotype and attitude in their assessments. Here is a verbal portrait given by a man who believed that in front of him was the image of a hero: “A young man of about 25 - 30 years old. A strong-willed, courageous face, with regular facial features. The look is very expressive. His hair is disheveled, unshaven, and his shirt collar is unbuttoned. Apparently, this is the hero of some kind of battle, although he is not wearing a military uniform.”
The subject, who believed that in front of him was a portrait of a criminal, gave the following verbal description: “This beast wants to understand something. Looks smart and without interruption. Standard chin, bags under the eyes, massive figure, aging, thrown forward..."
Depending on the importance people attach to various features of the external image of a person, they perceive each other differently.
Perception of oral speech.
From a physical point of view, speech is a combination of sounds that varies in frequency and intensity.
Maximum intelligibility of oral speech occurs at a speech intensity of 40 dB. At a speech intensity of 10 dB, speech sounds are not perceived as connected words. For satisfactory transmission of speech messages in noise conditions, the sound intensity of speech must be 10 dB higher than the noise level. Speech is especially drowned out by low-frequency noise.
Speech intelligibility increases with visual control of the speakers, the vocabulary of speech that is familiar to listeners, significant intensity of speech, and repetition of complex phrases in their original form.
The optimal speech rate is 70 words per minute; the upper limit is 120 words per minute.
As a socially conditioned phenomenon of speech perception is gnostic process- the process of determining the meaning and meaning of perceived speech structures; this process is characterized by different levels of recognition and discrimination. In the perception of oral speech there are sensory, perceptual and semantic levels.
Depending on the maturity, the process of perceiving oral speech can be successive(expanded) and simultaneous(collapsed).
Perception of oral speech is accompanied by probabilistic prediction. Long words are understood and recognized better than short words. The volume of the phrase should not exceed 7 ± 2 words. The most significant words should be placed in the first third of the phrase. Based on the beginning of standard phrases, the listener predicts the phrase as a whole. The level and depth of speech prediction depend on the speech culture of the listener.
The semantic perception of a speech message also depends on its situational involvement, logical semantic structure, length and depth of phrases, their communicative significance, the listener’s attitudinal orientation and the level of his mental development.
A person’s perception of the surrounding subject environment.
The environment surrounding a person is perceived by him in its entirety, and not as a set of isolated objects. This environment is considered by a person as a field of his life.
The place of permanent residence acts as a psychological center for a person, an arena of his activity, and a source of certain mental states. (Psychologist William Sheldon even identifies special psychological types of people depending on their mental interaction with the environment. Ectomorphic the type perceives the environment depending on its mood. Mesomorphic the type perceives the environment as an object of mastery - travelers, climbers, entrepreneurs. Endomorphic type perceives the environment as a lyrical object - poets, artists.)
The environment dictates a certain way of behavior for a person, activates and inhibits his motor reactions, and creates a certain mood. The environment around a person evokes an aesthetic reaction and intimate associations.
The aesthetic and organization of the human environment is a sign of culture, civilization, and psychological competence of a society.
Rice. 45. Proportionality of the human body.
Different peoples at different times develop their own aesthetic standards. However, there are also general psychological norms of beauty. What is beautiful is what is harmonious, and what is harmonious is what optimizes the process of perception. The human body itself is beautiful, harmonious and proportionate (Fig. 45).
Greek word harmonia means harmony, proportionality, balance of parts of the whole. The parts of a harmonious object are subdivided, subordinated, and ordered in such a way that they provide a certain focus of attention. An object is convenient for perception if it has a certain functional and structural organization.
In works of art, the proportional relationship of the so-called “ golden ratio“- the smaller part relates to the larger as the larger part relates to the whole (approximately 3:5, 5:8; more precisely - 100:161). The positive effect of stimuli in such a ratio was empirically discovered in ancient times. The use of the “golden section” proportion in architecture, sculpture, painting, music (intervals in sound time, the ratio of sounds and heights) promotes the integrity of perception, gives the object harmony (an ordinary box looks beautiful if its dimensions have the ratio of the “golden section”).
A harmonious object is distinguished by the balance of its elements, the optimal distribution of optical masses, the symmetry and rhythm of the arrangement of its parts.
Rhythm is used to avoid monotony and maintain the activity of perception. For this purpose, rhythmic changes are used in the spatial extent of the elements of the object, in the distances between them, the alternation of their tonality, configuration (alternating thickening and thinning, convexity and concavity, etc.).
When perceiving an object, the weight of its parts is subconsciously interpreted. This interpretation depends on the location of the objects' elements in relation to its vertical and horizontal axes. In the center of the composition, the element weighs less (although it has greater significance), and at the edges it weighs more. It is no coincidence that in the paintings of outstanding masters of painting, the figures located in the center are weighted with various visual techniques (heavier color, larger size, etc.). Elements of an object located in its upper part look heavier than those in the lower part. Elements located on the right appear heavier than those located on the left. (Look closely at Raphael’s painting “The Sistine Madonna”. The figure of the monk on the left side of the picture is depicted larger than the figure of the woman on the right side of the picture - this achieves balance in the entire composition.)
The weight interpretation of the elements of an object depends not only on the size, but also on their color. The heaviest are red and other colors in the long-wavelength part of the spectrum.
In the visual system, vertical orientation predominates. The vertical line is the base to which the relative positions of the parts of the object are attached. When an object is positioned vertically, its symmetrical balance is assessed. Depending on the function of the object, it is given different symmetry:
absolute— repetition of elements on the left and right sides;
relative- repetition of only individual homogeneous elements.
Harmonious object- an object whose content is expressed simply. By simplicity of an object we do not mean its primitive simplification, but clear definiteness, conciseness, completeness and clear unity of its elements. This kind of simplicity is the main advantage of a true work of art.
Under simplicity of composition one should not understand the limited variety of its elements. An object with more parts may be simpler than an object with less. (Thus, a square with its four sides is a simpler figure than a triangle. The greater simplicity of a square lies in the equality of its angles and sides, in the equal distance of the sides from the center and their symmetry relative to the horizontal and vertical axes.) The simplicity of an object is determined not so much by its limitations details as much as the limited number of structural features. An object is simple and concise if its complex content is covered by a minimum number of structural features.
The aesthetic impression of an object is enhanced if it emphasizes the natural color and texture of the materials used. Combining the same colors of different saturations enhances the impression of the plasticity of the object. The color division must correspond to the functional division. It is advisable to combine functionally homogeneous elements with one color. The dismemberment of the object and the contrast of its elements should not complicate the synthetic side of perception.
The harmonious organization of the subject environment means avoiding dullness, dullness, colorlessness and disorder - all that has recently come to be called an aggressive environment.
Human life should be carried out in an aesthetic, functionally organized, ergonomic environment.
Individual differences in perception.
Life experience, knowledge, interests, level of mental development determine the individual characteristics of perception - its completeness and accuracy. Representatives of the synthetic type of perception have greater integrity and emotionality of perception. Representatives of the analytical type show a greater tendency to highlight and explain individual aspects of an object. The most common is the average analytical-synthetic type of perception.
People with insufficient development of differentiation activity are characterized by incomplete and inaccurate perception. It is often supplemented by subjective additions, especially in situations of heightened emotionality. A person’s exposure to rigid stereotypes has a significant impact on perception. Incomplete experience and knowledge lead to fragmented perception, lack of meaningfulness and integrity of perception.
Perceiving objects and phenomena, a person evaluates them. Curiosity, inquisitiveness, analyticalness are expressed in his observation skills- the ability to perceive subtle significant features of phenomena (Fig. 46).
Rice. 46. The ability to observe productively is called observation. In this drawing, the mark on each hand is made by one specific object. Which one?
Perception is otherwise called perception (from the Latin percepcio - I perceive), and the processes of perception are called perceptual processes.
American neurophysiologist J. Pittigrew discovered cortical disparity neurons (from the Latin disparatis - separate). These neurons have two receptive zeros - they are excited only when the image hits both zeros at once. This explains the fact that when perceiving an object with one eye, a stereoscopic effect occurs.
The effect of object movement can also occur if different phases of the object are perceived at short intervals - a stroboscopic effect. Thus, when perceiving a film, when 24 frames with a still image change in one second, the effect of movement occurs.
Bodalev A.A. Perception and understanding of man by man. M., 1989.
This role of the vertical is due to the vertically directed force of gravity constantly acting on all living organisms.
They saw that their content did not go beyond the elementary forms of reflection. However, the real processes of reflection of the external world go far beyond the most elementary forms. A person does not live in a world of isolated spots of light or color, sounds or touches, he lives in a world of things, objects and forms, in a world of complex situations, i.e. Whatever a person perceives, he invariably deals not with individual sensations, but with whole images. The reflection of these images goes beyond isolated sensations, relying on the joint work of the senses, the synthesis of individual sensations into complex integrated systems. This synthesis can occur both within one modality (looking at a picture, we combine individual visual impressions into a whole image), and within several modalities (perceiving an orange, we actually combine visual, tactile, taste impressions, adding to them our knowledge about him). Only as a result of such unification are isolated sensations transformed into holistic perception, move from reflecting individual features to reflecting entire objects or situations.
Process of perception
It would be deeply mistaken to think that such a process (from relatively simple sensations to complex perceptions) is a simple summation of individual sensations or, as psychologists often said, the result of simple associations of individual characteristics. In fact, the perception (this reflection) of entire objects or situations is much more complex. It requires the isolation of the main leading features from the entire complex of influencing features (color, shape, tactile properties, weight, taste, etc.) with simultaneous abstraction from the unimportant ones. It requires combining a group of basic essential features and comparing the perceived set of features with previous knowledge about the subject.
When perceiving familiar objects (a glass, a table), recognition of them occurs very quickly - a person only needs to combine two or three perceived signs to come to the desired decision. When perceiving new or unfamiliar objects, their recognition is much more complex and occurs in much more detailed forms. Complete perception of such objects arises as a result of complex analytical-synthetic work, highlighting some essential features, inhibiting other, insignificant ones, and combining the perceived details into one meaningful whole.
There are theories about pattern recognition process. These theories “focus on the question: How are external signals affecting the senses transformed into meaningful perceptual impressions? As a rule, we recognize objects and events around us easily and quickly; therefore, it may seem that the operations involved in recognition are simple and straightforward. The experience of engineers shows that this idea is very far from the truth. There are no machines that are capable of recognizing the symbols and sounds common to our environment. The perception systems of animals, even the most primitive ones, are far ahead of such machines in their capabilities.
Perception is a very complex and active process that requires significant analytical and synthetic work. This complex, active nature of perception is manifested in a number of signs that require special consideration. First of all, the process of information is in no way the result of simple irritation of the sense organs and the transmission of excitations from peripherally perceiving organs to the cerebral cortex. The process of perception always includes motor components (feeling objects and eye movements, highlighting the most informative points; singing or pronouncing appropriate sounds, which play a significant role in determining the most significant features of the sound stream). Therefore, perception is most correctly designated as the perceiving (perceptual) activity of the subject.
It is natural, therefore, that perceptive activity is almost never limited to the boundaries of one modality, but develops in the joint work of several sense organs (), the result of which are the ideas formed by the subject. Finally, it is also important that the perception of an object is never carried out at an elementary level: it captures the highest levels of mental activity, in particular speech. Perceiving a watch and mentally calling it by this name, he is distracted from such unimportant features as its color, size, shape, and highlights the main feature - the function of indicating time. At the same time, he classifies the perceived object into a certain category and separates it from other objects that are similar in appearance but belong to other categories (for example, a barometer). All this once again confirms that the perceiving activity of the subject in its psychological structure can approach visual thinking. The complex and active nature of human perceptive activity determines a number of its features, which apply equally to all its forms.
Types of perception
A distinction is made between unintentional (or involuntary) and intentional (voluntary) perception. At unintended perception we are not guided by a predetermined goal or task - to perceive a given object. Perception is directed by external circumstances. Intentional perception On the contrary, from the very beginning it is regulated by the task - to perceive this or that object or phenomenon, to become familiar with it. Intentional perception can be included in any activity and carried out during its implementation. But sometimes perception can also act as a relatively independent activity.
Perception as an independent activity appears especially clearly in observation, which is a deliberate, systematic and more or less long-term (even at intervals in time) perception in order to trace the course of a phenomenon or the changes that occur in the object of perception.
Observation- This is an active form of human sensory cognition of reality. When observing as an independent, purposeful reality, from the very beginning a verbal formulation of goals and objectives is assumed, directing the observation to certain objects.
Long-term exercises in observation lead to the development of observation skills, i.e. the ability to notice characteristic, but subtle, at first glance, seemingly insignificant features of objects.
To develop observational skills, you need an organization of perception that would meet all the necessary conditions for its success: clarity of the task, preliminary preparation, active observation, its systematicity, planning, etc. Observation is necessary in all areas of human life and activity. The development of observation, accuracy and versatility of perception must be given serious attention already in childhood, especially in the process of play and learning.
So, perception- this is a visual-figurative reflection of the objects and phenomena of reality currently acting on the sense organs in the totality of their various properties and parts.
Properties of perception
Objectivity
Objectivity perception is expressed in the so-called act of objectification, i.e. in relating information received from the outside world to this world. Objectivity, without being an innate quality, performs an orienting and regulating function in practical activity. I.M. Sechenov said that objectivity is formed on the basis of processes, ultimately always externally motor ones, ensuring contact with the object itself. Without the participation of movement, our perceptions would not have the quality of objectivity, i.e. relation to objects of the external world.
Objectivity as a quality of perception plays a special role in the regulation of behavior. Usually we define objects not by their appearance, but in accordance with their practical purpose or their basic property.
Integrity
Unlike sensation, which reflects individual properties of an object, perception gives a holistic image of it. It is formed on the basis of a generalization of knowledge about the individual properties and qualities of an object, obtained in the form of various sensations.
The components of sensation are so strongly interconnected that a single complex image of an object arises even when only individual properties or individual parts of the object (velvet, marble) directly affect a person. These impressions arise conditionally as a result of the connection formed in life experience between visual and tactile stimuli.
Structurality
The integrity of perception is also associated with its structure. Perception to a large extent does not correspond to our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. We actually perceive a generalized structure abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over some time.
If a person listens to some melody, then the previously heard notes still continue to sound in his mind when a new note arrives. Usually the listener understands the musical thing, i.e. perceives its structure as a whole. Obviously, the last note heard cannot in itself be the basis for such an understanding - the entire structure of the melody with the various interrelations of its elements continues to sound in the mind of the listener. The process of rhythm perception is similar.
The sources of integrity and structure of perception lie in the characteristics of the reflected objects themselves.
Constancy
Constancy perception is the relative constancy of certain properties of objects when its conditions change. Thanks to the property of constancy, which consists in the ability of the perceptual system (the set of analyzers that provide a given act of perception) to compensate for these changes, we perceive the objects around us as relatively constant. Constancy is observed to the greatest extent in the visual perception of color, size and shape of objects.
Constancy of color perception is the relative constancy of visible color when lighting changes (a piece of coal on a summer sunny afternoon sends out about 8-9 times more light than chalk at dusk). The phenomenon of color constancy is determined by the combined effect of a number of reasons, among which adaptation to the general level of brightness of the visual field, light contrast, as well as ideas about the actual color of objects and their lighting conditions are of great importance.
The constancy of the perception of the size of objects is the relative constancy of the visible size of objects at their different (but not very large) distances. For example, the size of a person from a distance of 3.5 and 10 m is reflected by the retina in the same way, although the image on it changes, its apparent size remains almost unchanged. This is explained by the fact that at relatively small distances of objects, the perception of their size is determined not only by the size of the image on the retina, but also by the action of a number of additional factors, among which the tension of the eye muscles, which adapt to fixing an object at different distances, is especially important.
The constancy of the perception of the shape of objects lies in the relative invariance of its perception when their position changes in relation to the line of sight of the observer. With each change in the position of an object relative to the eyes, the shape of its image on the retina changes (looks straight, from the side) due to the movement of the eyes along the contour lines of the objects, and the identification of characteristic combinations of contour lines; known to us from past experience.
What is the source of the constancy of perception? Maybe this is an innate mechanism?
In a study of the perception of people constantly living in a dense forest, who did not see objects at a great distance, it was found that they perceive them as small, and not as distant. Builders constantly see objects located below, without distorting their sizes.
The actual source of constancy of perception is the active actions of the perceptual system. Repeated perception of the same objects under different conditions ensures constancy (invariance - unchanging structure) of the perceptual image relative to changing conditions, as well as movements of the receptor apparatus itself. Thus, the property of constancy is explained by the fact that perception is a kind of self-regulating action that has a feedback mechanism and adapts to the characteristics of the perceived object and the conditions of its existence. Without constancy of perception, a person would not be able to navigate in an infinitely diverse and changeable world.
Meaningfulness of perception
Although perception arises from the direct action of a stimulus on the sense organs, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. Human perception is closely related to thinking. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, that is, to assign it to a certain group, class, to generalize it into a word. Even when we see an unfamiliar object, we try to establish similarities in it with familiar ones.
Perception is not determined simply by a set of stimuli affecting the senses, but is a constant search for the best interpretation of the available data.
Apperception
Perception depends not only on irritation, but also on the subject himself. It is not the eye and ear that perceive, but a specific living person, and therefore perception always affects the characteristics of a person’s personality. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, on the characteristics of his personality, is called apperception.
When subjects are presented with unfamiliar figures, already in the first phases of perception, they look for standards to which the perceived object could be attributed. In the process of perception, hypotheses are put forward and tested about whether an object belongs to a particular category. Thus, during perception, traces of past experience are activated. Therefore, the same object can be perceived differently by different people.
49. Erroneous perceptions of real things or phenomena are called
51. Images that arise in a person without the presence of external influences on the senses are called
52. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life and on the characteristics of his personality is called
54. The property of perception, characterized by the perception of things closely related to thinking and understanding the essence of objects, is called
57. The selection of information entering the brain from the environment depends mainly on
58. A human property, manifested as the ability to notice little-known but significant details in what is perceived, characterizes
59. Time, saturated in the past with experiences and activities, is remembered as
60. The body’s readiness to perceive an object or phenomenon of a certain type is defined as
61. The block model of information processing was developed within the framework
62. Neuropsychological problems of memory in natural science studied
63. A supporter of the associative direction in the psychology of memory was (a)
65. The memory of one's memory is called
66. The basis for the division of memory into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal is
...
Full content Similar material:
- Lecture Topic “The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods”, 923.87kb.
- OP discipline program. F. 01 Psychology goals and objectives of the discipline, 483.88kb.
- A book called "Psychology of Intelligence", 2310.29kb.
- Discipline program General Psychology (2nd year) for direction 030300. 62 “Psychology”, 215.23kb.
- Working program of the academic discipline general psychology Labor intensity (in credit units), 377.92kb.
- Course program I course Part Introductory questions Subject of psychology; nature of the psyche, 17.27kb.
- Abstract topics Section 1 Introduction to psychology Topic 1 Psychology as a science. Item , 85.99kb.
- Textbook Contents Introduction Section Social psychology as a science Section Study, 933.46kb.
- Course of lectures Kemerovo 2002 Section Psychology Chapter I. Psychology as a science, 1641.1kb.
- Work program for the discipline “general psychology” Specialty, 495.76kb.
Perception
40. Perception is often called:a) touch,
b) apperception,
c) perception,
d) observation.
41. The concept of perceptual actions was first put forward in:
a) cognitive psychology
b) domestic psychology
c) Gestalt psychology
d) psychology of consciousness
42. Perception is the process (result) of constructing an image of an object in the perceptual space of the subject when:
a) its direct interaction with this object
b) its indirect interaction with this object
c) absence of a perceived object
d) all answers are incorrect
43. Images of ideas ______ in relation to images of sensation and
perception.
a) primary
b) secondary
c) tertiary
d) all answers are correct
44. The set of analyzers that provide this act of perception is:
a) apperception
b) perceptual system
c) perceptual actions
d) touch
45. The main criterion for the classification of perception into the perception of space, time, and movement is:
a) leading analyzer
b) subject of reflection
c) form of existence of matter
d) subject activity
46. The basis for dividing perception into voluntary and involuntary is:
a) leading analyzer
b) subject of reflection
c) form of existence of matter
d) the purposefulness of the nature of the subject’s activity
47. Type of perception that develops on the basis of tactile and motor sensations:
a) apperception
b) illusions
c) observation
d) touch
48. Subsensory perception is one of the manifestations of:
a) unconscious
b) conscious
c) supraconscious
d) all answers are correct
49. Erroneous perceptions of real things or phenomena are called:
a) agnosia
b) hallucination
c) illusion
d) delirium
50. An example of a drawing that is perceived either as a vase or as two human profiles illustrates the law:
a) transpositions
b) figure and background
c) pregnancy
d) constancy
51. Images that arise in a person without the presence of external influences on the senses are called:
a) illusions of perception
b) hallucinations
c) fantasies
d) dreams
52. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life and on the characteristics of his personality is called:
a) insight
b) perception
c) apperception
d) sensitivity
53. The phenomenon of relative independence of the parameters of a figure from changes in its background is known as _______ perception.
a) illusion
b) constancy
c) integrity
d) objectivity
54. The property of perception, characterized by the perception of things closely related to thinking and understanding the essence of objects, is called:
a) constancy
b) meaningfulness
c) selectivity
d) integrity
55. Constancy of perception is a _____ property.
a) congenital
b) acquired
c) genetically determined
d) all answers are correct
56. In a person’s ability to recognize an object by its incomplete or erroneous image, the property of _____ perception is manifested:
a) integrity
b) objectivity
c) constancy
d) structure
57. The selection of information entering the brain from the environment depends mainly on:
a) needs
b) interests
c) expectations
d) all answers are correct
58. The human property, manifested as the ability to notice little-known but significant details in what is perceived, characterizes:
a) illusions
b) perceptual actions
c) observation
d) touch
59. Time, saturated in the past with experiences and activities, is remembered as:
a) longer
b) quickly past
c) usually, without changes
d) all answers are correct
60. The body’s readiness to perceive an object or phenomenon of a certain type is defined as:
a) apperception
b) installation
c) observation
d) touch
Memory
61. The block model of information processing was developed within the framework:a) Gestalt psychology
b) associative psychology
c) behaviorism
d) cognitive psychology
62. Neuropsychological problems of memory in natural science studied:
a) V.M. Bekhterev
b) A.R. Luria
c) P.I. Zinchenko
d) L.S. Vygotsky
63. A supporter of the associative direction in the psychology of memory was:
a B C. Zeigarnik
b) G. Ebbinghaus
c) G. Muller
d) all answers are correct
64. The direction in psychology, which, as the primary “memory factors,” puts forward certain holistic “psychological structures” that cannot be reduced to the sum of its constituent parts, is known as:
a) activity theory of memory
b) associative theory of memory
c) Gestalt theory
d) psychoanalytic theory of memory
65. The memory of one’s memory is called:
a) RAM
b) metamemory
c) autobiographical memory
d) RAM
66. The basis for the division of memory into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal is:
a) leading analyzer
b) subject of reflection
c) subject activity
d) type of activity
67. Indirect and direct memory differ in:
a) leading analyzer
b) the use of aids in the process of memorization
c) the degree of activity of the subject
d) types of activities
68. Genetically primary is considered:
a) motor memory
b) figurative memory
c) emotional memory
d) verbal memory
69. The highest type of memory is considered:
a) motor memory
b) figurative memory
c) emotional memory
d) verbal memory
70. The type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material is called _____ memory.
a) mechanical
b) logical
c) emotional
d) auditory
71. The type of visual memory that retains a vivid image for a long time with all the details of what was perceived is ____ memory.
a) eidetic
b) visually figurative
c) phenomenal
d) emotional
72. The type of memory in which the feelings experienced by a person are primarily stored and reproduced is known as ____ memory.
a) visual-figurative
b) phenomenal
c) emotional
d) verbal-logical
73. Memory associated with remembering the form of a material and based on repeating the material without understanding it is called:
a) long-term
b) emotional
c) arbitrary
d) mechanical
74. Sensory memory:
a) acts at the receptor level
b) lasts less than one second
c) lies, in particular, at the basis of sequential images
d) all answers are correct
75. Type of memory, including the processes of remembering, storing and reproducing information processed during the execution of an action; and necessary only to achieve the goal of a given action is called _____ memory.
a) operational
b) iconic
c) short-term
d) echonic
76. The main characteristics of RAM are:
a) duration of storage
b) lability
c) noise immunity
d) all answers are correct
77. The earliest genetic form of memory is ______ memorization.
a) involuntary
b) arbitrary
c) post-voluntary
d) all answers are incorrect
78. As studies have shown ____, for the productivity of involuntary memorization, the place that this material occupies in the activity is important.
a) P.I. Zinchenko
b) A.A. Smirnova
c) A.N. Leontyev
d) A.A. Leontyev
79. The number of reproduced or recognized elements of a series in absolute numbers or as a percentage of the total volume of presented stimulus material is called the coefficient:
a) memorization
b) memorization accuracy
c) mistakes
d) forgetting
80. The strength of memorization is determined by what (-o);
a) the degree of participation of the relevant material in the further activities of the subject
b) the significance of the relevant material for achieving upcoming goals
c) the emotional state of the subject
d) all answers are correct
81. Individual characteristics of memory are expressed in different memorization.
a) speed
b) strength
precisely
d) all answers are correct
82. It has been established that material is remembered better if it:
a) turns on the conditions for achieving the goal
b) is included in the content of the main goal of the activity
c) is included in the ways to achieve the goal
d) all answers are correct
83. The importance of structuring material for memorization was emphasized by representatives of:
a) psychoanalysis
b) Gestalt psychology
c) behaviorism
d) associationism
84. The characteristics of memorizing this or that material are determined by the ____ activity of the individual,
a) motives
b) goals
c) ways
d) all answers are correct
85. To study mediated memorization, it is used
method:
a) paired associations
b) pictograms
c) double stimulation
d) all answers are correct
86. The basis for dividing memory into involuntary and voluntary is:
a) leading analyzer
b) subject of reflection
c) subject activity
d) type of activity
87. The capacity of long-term memory and the duration of information storage depends on:
a) the importance of the memorized material
b) the nature of the material
c) previous experience
d) all answers are correct
88. Connections between mental phenomena, in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another, are called:
a) accommodations
b) associations
c) assimilation and
d) accentuations
89. Association _____ combines two phenomena related in time or space.
a) by contiguity
b) by speed
c) by contrast
d) in meaning
90. The association _____ connects two opposing phenomena.
a) by contiguity
b) by speed
c) by contrast
d) in meaning
91. Forgetting factors include:
a) age of the subject
b) non-use of learned material
c) the nature of the material
G) all answers are correct
92. The fact that unfinished actions are remembered better expresses the effect:
a) halo
b) placebo
c) B.V. Zeigarnik
d) recency
93. G. Ebbinghaus studied the effect on memorization:
a) the amount of memorized material
b) number of repetitions
c) proximity and direction of associative connections
d) all answers are correct
94. The _______ preservation of material depends on the process of memorization.
a) completeness
b) accuracy
c) strength
d) all answers are correct
95. The criterion for storing information in memory is:
a) reproduction
b) recognition
c) further education
d) all answers are correct
96. The storage and subsequent reproduction of information is affected by:
a) a type of activity intermediate between memorization and reproduction
b) temporal localization in the interval between learning and reproduction
c) degree of initial memorization
d) all answers are correct
97. Forgetting usually proceeds as a ____ process.
a) arbitrary
b) involuntary
c) post-voluntary
d) all answers are incorrect
98. The rate of forgetting material depends on:
a) its volume
c) similarities between memorized and interfering material
d) all answers are correct
99. Reconstruction during reproduction manifests itself in:
a) selection of the main and elimination of secondary material
b) generalization and introduction of new content
c) changing the sequence of presentation
d) all answers are correct
100. Recognition is _____ reproduction:
a) primary
b) repeated
c) tertiary
d) all answers are correct
101. Individual characteristics of memory are to a certain extent associated with differences in ______ nervous processes,
a) excitation and inhibition forces
b) degree of balance
c) degree of mobility
d) all answers are correct
102. Recognition of a perceived object as already known from past experience is:
a) recall
b) recognition
c) presentation
d) reminiscence
103. A visual image of an object or phenomenon, arising on the basis of past experience by reproducing it in memory, is recorded as:
a) recall
b) recognition
c) presentation
d) reminiscence
104. Conscious reproduction, associated with overcoming certain difficulties and requiring effort and diligence, is:
a) recall
b) recognition
c) presentation
