Activity- this is a specifically human activity, regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at understanding and transforming the external world and the person himself.

The main feature of activity is that its content is not determined entirely by the need that gave rise to it. Need as a motive (motivation) gives impetus to activity, but the very forms and content of activity determined by public goals, requirements and experience.

Distinguish three main activities: play, learning and work. Purpose games is the “activity” itself, and not its results. Human activity aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities is called teaching. is an activity whose purpose is the production of socially necessary products.

Characteristics of activity

Activity is understood as a specifically human way of actively relating to the world - a process during which a person creatively transforms the world around him, turning himself into an active subject, and the phenomena being mastered into the object of his activity.

Under subject Here we mean the source of activity, the actor. Since it is, as a rule, a person who exhibits activity, most often it is he who is called the subject.

Object call the passive, passive, inert side of the relationship, on which activity is carried out. The object of activity can be a natural material or object (land in agricultural activities), another person (a student as an object of learning) or the subject himself (in the case of self-education, sports training).

To understand an activity, there are several important characteristics to consider.

Man and activity are inextricably linked. Activity is an indispensable condition of human life: it created man himself, preserved him in history and predetermined the progressive development of culture. Consequently, a person does not exist outside of activity. The opposite is also true: there is no activity without a person. Only man is capable of labor, spiritual and other transformative activities.

Activity is a transformation of the environment. Animals adapt to natural conditions. A person is capable of actively changing these conditions. For example, he is not limited to collecting plants for food, but grows them in the course of agricultural activities.

Activity acts as a creative, constructive activity: Man, in the process of his activity, goes beyond the boundaries of natural possibilities, creating something new that did not previously exist in nature.

Thus, in the process of activity, a person creatively transforms reality, himself and his social connections.

The essence of the activity is revealed in more detail during its structural analysis.

Basic forms of human activity

Human activity is carried out in (industrial, domestic, natural environment).

Activity- active interaction of a person with the environment, the result of which should be its usefulness, requiring from a person high mobility of nervous processes, fast and accurate movements, increased activity of perception, emotional stability.

The study of a person in the process is carried out by ergonomics, the purpose of which is to optimize work activity on the basis of rational consideration of human capabilities.

The whole variety of forms of human activity can be divided into two main groups according to the nature of the functions performed by a person - physical and mental labor.

Physical work

Physical work requires significant muscle activity, is characterized by a load on the musculoskeletal system and functional systems of the body (cardiovascular, respiratory, neuromuscular, etc.), and also requires increased energy costs from 17 to 25 mJ (4,000-6,000 kcal) and higher per day.

Brainwork

Brainwork(intellectual activity) is work that combines work related to the reception and processing of information, requiring attention, memory, and activation of thinking processes. Daily energy consumption during mental work is 10-11.7 mJ (2,000-2,400 kcal).

Structure of human activity

The structure of an activity is usually represented in a linear form, with each component following the other in time.

Need → Motive→ Goal→ Means→ Action→ Result

Let's consider all components of the activity one by one.

Need for action

Need- this is need, dissatisfaction, a feeling of lack of something necessary for normal existence. In order for a person to begin to act, it is necessary to understand this need and its nature.

The most developed classification belongs to the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and is known as the pyramid of needs (Fig. 2.2).

Maslow divided needs into primary, or innate, and secondary, or acquired. These in turn include the needs:

• physiological - in food, water, air, clothing, warmth, sleep, cleanliness, shelter, physical rest, etc.;
• existential— safety and security, inviolability of personal property, guaranteed employment, confidence in the future, etc.;
• social - the desire to belong and be involved in any social group, team, etc. The values ​​of affection, friendship, love are based on these needs;
• prestigious - based on the desire for respect, recognition by others of personal achievements, on the values ​​of self-affirmation and leadership;
• spiritual - focused on self-expression, self-actualization, creative development and use of one’s skills, abilities and knowledge.
• The hierarchy of needs has been changed many times and supplemented by various psychologists. Maslow himself, in the later stages of his research, added three additional groups of needs:
• educational- in knowledge, skill, understanding, research. This includes the desire to discover new things, curiosity, the desire for self-knowledge;
• aesthetic- desire for harmony, order, beauty;
• transcending- a selfless desire to help others in spiritual self-improvement, in their desire for self-expression.

According to Maslow, in order to satisfy higher, spiritual needs, it is necessary to first satisfy those needs that occupy a place in the pyramid below them. If the needs of any level are fully satisfied, a person has a natural need to satisfy the needs of a higher level.

Motives for activity

Motive - a need-based conscious impulse that justifies and justifies an activity. A need will become a motive if it is perceived not just as a need, but as a guide to action.

In the process of motive formation, not only needs, but also other motives are involved. As a rule, needs are mediated by interests, traditions, beliefs, social attitudes, etc.

Interest is a specific reason for action that determines. Although all people have the same needs, different social groups have their own interests. For example, the interests of workers and factory owners, men and women, youth and pensioners are different. So, innovations are more important for pensioners, traditions are more important for pensioners; Entrepreneurs' interests are rather material, while artists' interests are spiritual. Each person also has his own personal interests, based on individual inclinations and likes (people listen to different music, play different sports, etc.).

Traditions represent a social and cultural heritage passed on from generation to generation. We can talk about religious, professional, corporate, national (for example, French or Russian) traditions, etc. For the sake of some traditions (for example, military ones), a person can limit his primary needs (by replacing safety and security with activities in high-risk conditions).

Beliefs- strong, principled views on the world, based on a person’s ideological ideals and implying a person’s willingness to give up a number of needs (for example, comfort and money) for the sake of what he considers right (for the sake of preserving honor and dignity).

Settings- a person’s predominant orientation towards certain institutions of society, which overlap with needs. For example, a person may be focused on religious values, or material enrichment, or public opinion. Accordingly, he will act differently in each case.

In complex activities, it is usually possible to identify not one motive, but several. In this case, the main motive is identified, which is considered the driving one.

Activity goals

Target - This is a conscious idea of ​​the result of an activity, an anticipation of the future. Any activity involves goal setting, i.e. ability to independently set goals. Animals, unlike humans, cannot set goals themselves: their program of activity is predetermined and expressed in instincts. A person is able to form his own programs, creating something that has never existed in nature. Since there is no goal-setting in the activity of animals, it is not an activity. Moreover, if an animal never imagines the results of its activity in advance, then a person, starting an activity, keeps in his mind the image of the expected object: before creating something in reality, he creates it in his mind.

However, the goal can be complex and sometimes requires a series of intermediate steps to achieve it. For example, to plant a tree, you need to purchase a seedling, find a suitable place, take a shovel, dig a hole, place the seedling in it, water it, etc. Ideas about intermediate results are called objectives. Thus, the goal is divided into specific tasks: if all these tasks are solved, then the overall goal will be achieved.

Tools used in activities

Facilities - these are techniques, methods of action, objects, etc. used in the course of activity. For example, to learn social studies, you need lectures, textbooks, and assignments. To be a good specialist, you need to receive a professional education, have work experience, constantly practice in your activities, etc.

The means must correspond to the ends in two senses. First, the means must be proportionate to the ends. In other words, they cannot be insufficient (otherwise the activity will be fruitless) or excessive (otherwise energy and resources will be wasted). For example, you cannot build a house if there are not enough materials for it; It also makes no sense to buy materials several times more than are needed for its construction.

Secondly, the means must be moral: immoral means cannot be justified by the nobility of the end. If goals are immoral, then all activities are immoral (in this regard, the hero of F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “The Brothers Karamazov” Ivan asked whether the kingdom of world harmony is worth one tear of a tortured child).

Action

Action - an element of activity that has a relatively independent and conscious task. An activity consists of individual actions. For example, teaching activities consist of preparing and delivering lectures, conducting seminars, preparing assignments, etc.

The German sociologist Max Weber (1865-1920) identified the following types of social actions:

• purposeful - actions aimed at achieving a reasonable goal. At the same time, a person clearly calculates all the means and possible obstacles (a general planning a battle; a businessman organizing an enterprise; a teacher preparing a lecture);
• value-rational- actions based on beliefs, principles, moral and aesthetic values ​​(for example, a prisoner’s refusal to transfer valuable information to the enemy, saving a drowning man at the risk of his own life);
• affective - actions committed under the influence of strong feelings - hatred, fear (for example, flight from an enemy or spontaneous aggression);
• traditional- actions based on habit, often an automatic reaction developed on the basis of customs, beliefs, patterns, etc. (for example, following certain rituals in a wedding ceremony).

The basis of activity is the actions of the first two types, since only they have a conscious goal and are creative in nature. Affects and traditional actions are only capable of exerting some influence on the course of activity as auxiliary elements.

Special forms of action are: actions - actions that have value-rational, moral significance, and actions - actions that have a high positive social significance. For example, helping a person is an act, winning an important battle is an act. Drinking a glass of water is an ordinary action that is neither an act nor an act. The word "act" is often used in jurisprudence to denote an action or omission that violates legal norms. For example, in legislation “a crime is an unlawful, socially dangerous, guilty act.”

Result of activity

Result- this is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). For example, the result of study can be knowledge, skills and abilities, the result - , the result of scientific activity - ideas and inventions. The result of the activity itself can be, since in the course of the activity it develops and changes.

A game- a type of unproductive activity where the motive lies not in its result, but in the process itself. The game accompanies humanity throughout its history. Children begin to play from the moment they are born. As you age, games become more difficult. For children, games have a predominantly developmental value. For adults, play is not a leading activity, but serves as a means of communication and relaxation.

There are several types of games: individual, group, subject, plot, role-playing and games with rules.

• Individual games are a type of activity when one person is engaged in a game.
• Group games - several individuals are involved in the activity.
• Object games are associated with the inclusion of any objects in play activities.
• Story games are game activities based on a specific scenario.
• Role-playing games are human behavior limited to a specific role that a person takes on in the game.
• Games with rules are gaming activities regulated by a certain system of rules of conduct for their participants.

These types can be mixed - subject-role, plot-role, plot with rules.

At first, the child’s play activity is objective. However, the need to master the system of human relationships and the desire to participate in them lead the growing child to use games with increasing mental content. Children begin to play role-playing and role-playing games, which require them to have significantly greater knowledge about the imaginary objects involved in the game and cause deeper experiences. This is the developmental power of this type of game.

With age, games are replaced by more serious activities and work. However, even here the game does not disappear completely.

Teaching is an activity whose purpose is to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Learning can be either organized in special institutions, or unorganized and carried out spontaneously, while carrying out other types of activities.

There are two sides to teaching: the activity of the teacher and the activity of the student (learning). At school, a child not only adopts a body of knowledge, skills and abilities, but, no less important, he learns to live, understand life in all its complexity and take part in it.

The driving force behind learning is the contradiction between what the child knows and what he wants or needs to know. For example, in infancy, manipulation of objects and toys allows the child to learn to use them in accordance with their intended purpose. The child learns most actions according to a model. In one case, the child sees how adults act and reproduces their actions himself. In another, adults specifically show the techniques and help them master them. Typically, children’s independent mastery of patterns is much greater than those they master on the initiative and with the help of adults. Here there is a close connection between play and learning, a constant transition of play and learning into each other, and the inclusion of elements of one activity into another.

Learning as knowledge of the world and play are inextricably linked from the very first days of a child’s life.

Learning organized and directed by adults is called teaching.

From individual and independent learning, this process turns into learning - a two-way, purposeful process, one side of which is learning, and the other is teaching.

The learning process is quite complex and consists of several stages.

• Stage 1 - preparation for perception. Its essence lies in arousing interest in new knowledge and creating an attitude towards studying it.
• Stage 2 - perception. After the student has developed an interest in learning and a desire to learn new things, the teacher can only provide material for learning.
• Stage 3 - comprehension. In its essence, it corresponds to the stage of abstract thinking in the process of knowledge and differs from it in that the comprehension of the perceived material takes place under the guidance and with the active help of the teacher.
• Stage 4 - consolidation and improvement of knowledge, development of skills and abilities to apply them. The main condition for the successful consolidation of perceived and meaningful material in memory is its repetition, not mechanically, but meaningfully.
• Stage 5 - application of knowledge, skills and abilities. This link in the educational process essentially corresponds to the stage of testing the theory of knowledge in practice.
• Stage 6 - verification of learning results, their analysis and evaluation. The essence of this stage is to establish feedback: the teacher receives information about the successes of each student, analyzes and evaluates this information, determines ways and means of further work.

Labor occupies a special place in the system of human life.

Work- this is an activity aimed at transforming material and intangible objects and adapting them to meet human needs. According to the nature of the main efforts expended, labor activity can be divided into several types:

• physical work;
• intellectual work;
• spiritual work.

In theory and in practice, labor, in fact, is understood to the greatest extent as physical labor.

Physical labor can be classified as follows: - self-care work (maintaining home, clothing, workplace in order, preparing food for oneself, etc.);

• domestic family work;
• productive work.

Self-care work is mastered earlier than others in childhood and accompanies a person throughout his life.

Household family work- labor is longer, more complex in content and requires more effort. Often it can only be conditionally separated from self-care work. The main sign of its isolation is the performance of work not for oneself or not only for oneself.

Productive labor is acquiring a mass character, in which craft labor (using the simplest machines, tools, equipment) and industrial labor (the highest form of productive labor) are distinguished.

Intellectual work. Mental work (and only it) allows a person to know the world and his place in it.

Mental labor - this type of labor can also include work on self-improvement, constant self-control, and reflection.

Only in work - physical, intellectual and spiritual - does a person become a person.

Humans have an inherent need to communicate and interact with other people. By satisfying this need, he manifests and realizes his capabilities.

Human life throughout its entire duration manifests itself, first of all, in communication. And all the diversity of life is reflected in the equally endless variety of communication: in the family, school, at work, in everyday life, in companies, etc.

Pedagogical communication- this is professional communication between a teacher and students in and outside the lesson, which has certain pedagogical functions and is aimed at creating a favorable psychological climate and optimizing educational activities.

Pedagogical communication is carried out mainly for the sake of the pupil, and the real result is ensured thanks to the activities of the pupil himself.

Another feature of pedagogical communication is its educational nature: unlike other types of communication (social, psychological, everyday, etc.), the solution of pedagogical problems is necessarily provided.

The normative function of pedagogical communication is expressed in ensuring the assimilation of norms and rules of social behavior and the formation of certain skills. This is carried out during specially organized events - conversations, discussions, meetings, as well as in the normal daily work of the teacher. Communication between students is also of great importance if it is purposefully organized and adjusted by teachers.

The cognitive function of pedagogical communication is to ensure that students acquire knowledge about the world around them, about nature, social phenomena and processes.

The emotional function of pedagogical communication is the enrichment of the entire spectrum of students’ states during any type of educational work by replenishing the students’ memory, developing their thinking, and improving the world of emotions and experiences.

The actualizing function of pedagogical communication is understood as the self-affirmation of the teacher and student, their affirmation in the opinions of others. Communication provides an opportunity for them to understand their individuality and significance.

The listed functions are implemented using verbal and non-verbal means.

In pedagogical communication, as in its other types, the role of the word is great. With its help, the teacher explains and asks, convinces, guides and stimulates, and the student reports his problems, successes and desires.

Any need, when excited, causes the imagination to work, leading to increased activity, including techniques for satisfying this need. Thus, achieving a goal caused by the need for prestige includes a certain technique for satisfying this need, causing certain actions in the partner: a positive assessment of my achievements, admiration for me. The ways in which a person evokes the behavior he needs in his partner, in fact, constitute this technique, which some master, albeit unconsciously, to perfection.

Communication depends on the extent to which we were able to evoke desired experiences, aspirations and behaviors in our partner. As a rule, a smile is answered with a smile, a greeting is answered with a greeting, and a question and answer is answered. Therefore, the art of communication consists precisely in effortlessly eliciting in another actions that support communication.

The technique of involving another in communication will be different depending on what need is actualized in a given situation, what images arise in the mind of the communication partner.

Each need has its own specific technique of satisfaction. It is developed mostly unconsciously in everyday communication and can be adequate or inadequate, effective or ineffective. It helps to satisfy the needs that caused the need for communication.

Yu. M. Orlov highlighted the following basic rules for improving self-analysis and communication techniques:

1. Any act of communication should be considered from the point of view of answering the question of what kind of needs are satisfied in this communication. What motives support it and give it meaning? It is from this point of view that past communication should be analyzed in memory. Such analysis expands our understanding of the motives of communication and improves its experience. "
2. Control your needs satisfied in communication. An excessive need, for example, to gain recognition can make you look funny and strange. It should be remembered that controlling needs does not reduce the pleasure from satisfying them.
3. Clearly and distinctly define the goals of communication, both yours and your partner’s. Questions: “What do I want? What does he want? - require an exact answer.
4. When attributing motives and goals of communication to another, check them, and if they do not agree with the real signs of the partner’s behavior, abandon this assumption and put forward another one. The motivation for communication is flexible and changes not only depending on the situation, but also depending on the personality of the person you involve in communication. Don’t repeat the mistake of a stupid coquette, who in any situation attributes motives to all men to court her and, of course, looks funny.
5. Study the ways to satisfy the needs described in this book as they manifest themselves in your communication and in the behavior of others, especially people who are significant to you.
6. Do not impose your patterns of behavior and your motivation on others, take those actions that cause the reactions you want from your partner. Your actions should be an incentive for your partner's actions.
7. Strive to be natural and do not take on a role that is difficult to fulfill. To do this, you need to be truthful not only to your partner, but, above all, to yourself.
8. Recognize yourself as a unique and unique creature, interesting to communicate with. There is every reason for this. Each of us is a configuration of many personality traits, and any one of us cannot be compared with another at the same time on all traits. And a comparison based on a single trait will not provide grounds for drawing conclusions about which of us is generally better and which is worse. Only the narrowness of consciousness when fixating it on a separate property leads to this kind of comparison.
9. It should be remembered that the art of communication completely excludes the solution of its problems with the help of force and imposition. Any violence in communication does not give rise to a satisfying response from communication, but to the protective behavior of the partner, which leads to the alienation of people. Therefore, partners must meet the goals and objectives of communication and have a desire for such communication. This rule provides for the use of the second, non-violent paradigm of managing communication and the behavior of another.

Following these rules will help optimize the communication process and reduce the disorganizing influence of the above factors.

In psychology, activity is usually understood as the active interaction of a person with the environment, in which he achieves a consciously set goal that arose as a result of the emergence of a certain need or motive. Types of activities that ensure the existence of a person and his formation as an individual - communication, play, learning, work. Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1999, 672 p.

Learning takes place where a person’s actions are controlled by the conscious goal of acquiring certain knowledge, abilities, skills, forms of behavior and activity. Teaching is a specifically human activity, and it is possible only at that stage of development of the human psyche when he is able to regulate his actions with a conscious goal. The teaching makes demands on cognitive processes (memory, intelligence, imagination, mental flexibility) and volitional qualities (attention management, regulation of feelings, etc.).

Learning activities combine not only the cognitive functions of activity (perception, attention, memory, thinking, imagination), but also needs, motives, emotions, and will.

Any activity is a combination of some physical actions, practical or verbal. If teaching is an activity, then can it be carried out without external and visible forms? Research by scientists has shown that in addition to practical activities, a person is also capable of carrying out special Gnostic(cognitive) activity. Its goal is to understand the world around us.

Gnostic activity, like practical activity, can be objective and external. It can also be a perceptual activity or a symbolic activity. Unlike practical activity, gnostic activity can also be internal, or at least not observable. Thus, perception is often carried out with the help of externally not observable perceptual actions that ensure the formation of an image of an object. Memorization processes are implemented through special mnemonic actions (highlighting semantic connections, mental schematization and repetition). Special studies have discovered that the most developed forms of thinking are carried out through special mental actions performed by a person “in his head” (for example, actions of analysis and synthesis, identification and discrimination, abstraction and generalization). During the learning process, these types of activities are usually closely intertwined. Thus, while studying the classification of plants, the student examines them (perceptual activity), separates the main parts of the flower (objective activity), describes what he sees (symbolic or speech activity), sketches (objective perceptual activity), etc. In different cases, the ratio of these types of activities is different, but in all cases the teaching is expressed in active gnostic activity, which often has internal forms.

The works of many psychologists (Vygotsky, Leontiev, Halperin, Piaget, etc.) have shown that internal activity arises from external activity in the process of interiorization, due to which the objective action is reflected in the consciousness and thinking of a person. For example, the objective action of dividing, disassembling a thing into parts when solving corresponding problems is replaced by an action in the mind (dividing a thing based on its image or concept of it). Objective action turns into a process of interiorization, into an action of mental analysis. Systems of such mental (mental) actions unfolding in an ideal plan are internal activities.

It has been established that the main means of interiorization is the word. It allows a person to, as it were, “tear off” the action from the object itself and turn it into action with images and the concept of the object.

External gnostic activity is mandatory for teaching when images, concepts about the subject and the actions corresponding to them have not yet been formed in the human mind. If the child already has the images, concepts and actions necessary for mastering new knowledge and skills, then internal gnostic activity is sufficient for learning.

When deciding the nature of educational activity, it is necessary first of all to analyze what knowledge and skills the assimilation of new material requires. If the student does not yet master certain images, concepts and actions, then the teaching must begin with objective gnostic activity. The student must carry out the appropriate actions with his own hands. Then, highlighting and consolidating them with words, he must gradually translate their implementation into an ideal internal plan. If the student already has an arsenal of necessary initial concepts and actions, then he can begin his teaching directly with internal gnostic activity. In this case, the student can be presented with the appropriate words, since he already knows what they mean and what actions are necessary with them. Traditional teaching by communication and demonstration is based on this. It corresponds to such methods of learning as listening, reading, observing.

Educational activity is the leading activity at school age. Leading activity is understood as such activity, during which the formation of basic mental processes and personality properties occurs, new formations appear that correspond to age (arbitrariness, reflection, self-control, internal plan of action). Educational activities are carried out throughout the child’s education at school. Educational activity is especially intensively formed during primary school age. Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy.-M.: Vlados, 1999.-576 p.

Changes occur during educational activities:

• - in the level of knowledge, skills and abilities;
• - in the level of formation of individual aspects of educational activity;
• - in mental operations, personality traits, i.e. in the level of general and mental development.

Educational activity is, first of all, an individual activity. It is complex in its structure and requires special formation. Like work, educational activity is characterized by goals and objectives, motives. Just like an adult doing work, a student must know What do, For what, How, see your mistakes, control and evaluate yourself. A child entering school does not do any of this on his own, i.e. he does not have the skills to study. In the process of learning activities, the student not only masters knowledge, skills and abilities, but also learns to set educational goals (goals), find ways to assimilate and apply knowledge, monitor and evaluate his actions.

Structure of educational activities. Psychological components Lerner I.Ya. Didactic foundations of teaching methods. - M.: Pedagogy, 1981

Educational activity has an external structure consisting of the following elements (according to B.A. Sosnovsky):

• 1) educational situations and tasks - as the presence of a motive, a problem, its acceptance by students;
• 2) educational activities aimed at solving relevant problems;
• 3) control - as the relationship between an action and its result with given patterns;
• 4) assessment - as recording the quality (but not quantity) of the learning result, as motivation for subsequent educational activities and work.

Each of the components of the structure of this activity has its own characteristics. At the same time, being an intellectual activity by nature, educational activity is characterized by the same structure as any other intellectual act, namely: the presence of a motive, a plan (intention, program), execution (implementation) and control

An educational task acts as a specific educational task that has a clear goal, but in order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to take into account the conditions in which the action must be carried out. According to A.N. Leontiev, a task is a goal given under certain conditions. As learning tasks are completed, the student himself changes. Learning activities can be presented as a system of learning tasks that are given in certain learning situations and involve certain learning actions.

An educational task acts as a complex system of information about some object, a process in which only part of the information is clearly defined, and the rest is unknown, which must be found using existing knowledge and solution algorithms in combination with independent guesses and searches for optimal solutions.

In the general structure of educational activities, a significant place is given to the actions of control (self-control) and assessment (self-assessment). This is due to the fact that any other educational action becomes arbitrary, regulated only if there is monitoring and evaluation in the structure of the activity.

Control involves three links: 1) a model, an image of the required, desired result of an action; 2) the process of comparing this image and the real action and 3) making a decision to continue or correct the action. These three links represent the structure of internal control of the subject of activity over its implementation.

P.P. Blonsky outlined four stages of self-control in relation to the assimilation of material. The first stage is characterized by the absence of any self-control. A student at this stage has not mastered the material and therefore cannot control anything. The second stage is complete self-control. At this stage, the student checks the completeness and correctness of the reproduction of the learned material. The third stage is characterized as a stage of selective self-control, in which the student controls and checks only the main issues. At the fourth stage, there is no visible self-control; it is carried out as if on the basis of past experience, on the basis of some minor details, signs.

In educational activities there are many psychological components:

• - motive (external or internal), corresponding desire, interest, positive attitude towards learning;
• - meaningfulness of activity, attention, consciousness, emotionality, manifestation of volitional qualities;
• - direction and activity of activity, variety of types and forms of activity: perception and observation as work with sensually presented material; thinking as active processing of material, its understanding and assimilation (various elements of imagination are also present here); the work of memory as a systemic process, consisting of memorizing, preserving and reproducing material, as a process inseparable from thinking;
• - practical use of acquired knowledge and skills in subsequent activities, their clarification and adjustment.

Educational motivation is defined as a particular type of motivation included in the activities of learning, educational activities. Like any other type, educational motivation is determined by a number of factors specific to this activity:

• 1) the educational system itself, the educational institution where educational activities are carried out;
• 2) organization of the educational process;
• 3) subjective characteristics of the student (age, gender, intellectual development, abilities, level of aspirations, self-esteem, his interaction with other students, etc.);
• 4) the subjective characteristics of the teacher and, above all, the system of his relations to the student, to the work;
• 5) the specifics of the academic subject.

A necessary condition for creating students’ interest in the content of learning and in the learning activity itself is the opportunity to demonstrate mental independence and initiative in learning. The more active the teaching methods, the easier it is to get students interested in them. The main means of cultivating a sustainable interest in learning is the use of questions and tasks, the solution of which requires active search activity from students.

A major role in the formation of interest in learning is played by the creation of a problem situation, the confrontation of students with a difficulty that they cannot solve with the help of their existing stock of knowledge; When faced with a difficulty, they become convinced of the need to acquire new knowledge or apply old knowledge in a new situation.

All the constituent elements of the structure of educational activity and all its components require special organization, special formation. All these are complex tasks that require relevant knowledge and considerable experience and constant everyday creativity to be solved.

Classification of types of educational activities of students Gershunsky B.S. Philosophy of education for the 21st century - M.: Perfection, 1998.-608 p.

Theoretical Practical Activities in class Extracurricular activities

When classifying by organizational form, three characteristics are identified: frontally, in groups and individually. Of course, these forms exist as independent ones, but in the real educational process they are most often combined, for example, frontal work and work in groups. Having received a common task, students work in groups that are assigned different tasks. In some activities, at some stage of problem solving, individual students work individually.

In the classification by type of research - theoretical and practical, it is also very difficult to give preference to any type. Often theoretical and practical research are interconnected.

The division according to didactic goals is also very arbitrary, since in one lesson it is possible to combine all (or most) of these characteristics, for example, control of knowledge, skills and abilities, carried out in the form of an experimental task, is appropriate when learning new material.

When determining the content of educational activities, classwork and extracurricular work are distinguished with the main forms of organizing classes. These forms of classes are used directly in lessons and in extracurricular activities, according to the classification, but they are almost all interconnected. That is, their active use is possible, both in lessons and in extracurricular activities and at home.

It should also be noted that a connection can be identified between the main forms of organizing students’ activities through educational and research activities and operations. Some types of activities consist of a sufficiently large number of actions, which at the initial stage are considered as independent activities, consisting of simpler actions based on elementary operations.

Teaching acts as a type of activity, the purpose of which is to acquire by a person the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary ultimately to perform work activities. The peculiarity of educational activity is that it directly serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.

Two persons are certainly involved in educational activities: 1) the teacher; 2) student.

But this is not just a transfer of knowledge from one to another. This is, first of all, a process of active acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities under the guidance of a teacher. By imparting knowledge to students, the teacher teaches them to think and observe, and to express what they understand in speech. The student acquires not only knowledge, but also a way to think independently and acquire knowledge. Well-organized training is educational in nature. During the learning process, the student’s personality is formed: its orientation, strong-willed character traits, abilities, etc.

During school, a child goes through a long developmental path. In the elementary grades, he masters the basics of literacy, natural science and historical knowledge available to him, as well as elementary forms of labor (paper and fabric processing). Primary school prepares students for high school education.

Educational activities in secondary school require the student to be more responsible and conscientious about learning. First of all, in connection with subject teaching, the teacher’s control over the student’s activities weakens. The requirements for the quality of mental activity are increasing. The student is required not so much to memorize close to the text as to understand and rethink the material being studied. Mathematics, physics, history and other subjects form a system of concepts, knowledge, and lay the foundations of a worldview.

21. Educational activities: general characteristics, specifics, structure.

Educational activity (D.B. Elkonin) is a directed activity whose content is the mastery of generalized methods of action in the field of scientific concepts. Educational activity can accordingly be considered as a specific type of activity. It is aimed at the student himself as its subject - improvement, development, formation of him as an individual thanks to his conscious, purposeful appropriation of sociocultural experience in various types and forms of socially useful, cognitive, theoretical and practical activities. The student’s activities are aimed at mastering deep systemic knowledge, developing generalized methods of action and their adequate and creative application in a variety of situations.

Structure of educational activities (D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov):

1) educational and cognitive motives, the essence of which is the assimilation of generalized methods of action in a specific area of ​​the subject being studied;

2) a learning task, which in its content is a method of action to be mastered;

3) educational actions, which are actions as a result of which an idea or preliminary image of the action being learned is formed and the initial reproduction of the sample is carried out;

4) control actions (self-control), which consists of comparing the reproduced action with a sample through its image;

5) the action of assessing (self-assessment) the degree of assimilation of those changes that have occurred in the subject himself.

22. Motivation for learning: characteristics, content, types.

The motivational sphere of the individual is a set of persistent motives that have a certain hierarchy and express the orientation of the individual.

Motive is an individual’s internal motivation for one or another type of activity associated with the satisfaction of a specific need.

Learning motivation is the motivated activity exhibited by students in achieving learning goals.

If the student’s activity is aimed at working with the object being studied, then we can talk about different types of cognitive motives.

Cognitive motives:

1) broad cognitive motives consist of schoolchildren’s orientation towards mastering new knowledge;

2) educational and cognitive motives consist of students’ orientation towards mastering methods of acquiring knowledge;

3) motives for self-education - this is the focus of schoolchildren on independently improving the ways of acquiring knowledge.

If the student’s activity during learning is aimed at relationships with other people, then here we are talking about social motives.

Social motives:

1) broad social motives consist in the desire to acquire knowledge in order to be useful, in understanding the need for learning, and in a sense of responsibility;

2) narrow social motives or positional motives consist of the desire to take a certain position, place in relations with others, gain approval and earn authority from them;

3) motives for social cooperation - the desire to understand, analyze the methods, forms of one’s cooperation and relationships with the teacher and classmates, and constantly improve these forms.

The motivation for learning is determined by the following points (according to A.K. Markova):

1) the nature of the educational activity of schoolchildren: how well the components of the educational activity are formed;

2) the meaning of learning for each student;

3) the nature of the teaching motives;

4) maturity of goals;

5) the characteristics of emotions accompanying the learning process.

Motivation for learning has two series of characteristics: content and dynamic.

The presence of personal meaning of learning for the student;

The presence of an effective motive;

The place of motive in the general structure of motivation;

Independence of the emergence and manifestation of the motive;

Level of motive awareness;

The extent to which the motive extends to different types of activities (depends on the development of interest)

Dynamic characteristic:

The stability of motives is expressed in the frequency of updating in all learning situations or in most of them; degree of satisfaction;

The emotional coloring (modality) can be negative (I must do something, otherwise...) or positive; speed of occurrence, strength, intensity, expression, etc.

Types of motivation for educational activities (Ya.L. Kolomensky)

1) personal motivation - motivational formations that were formed at previous stages of human development and are currently the property of the individual:

Direct personal motivation (the need to acquire new information and knowledge)

Indirect personal motivation (the use of non-cognitive needs to motivate learning - the need for communication, social prestige, etc.)

Personal motivation based on a system of values ​​and ideals (interests, goals, volitional efforts to achieve a goal)

2) situational motivation is created in the process of the educational activity itself, formed within a specific pedagogical situation and built on external aspects of the situation:

The situation for success in learning is reinforcement with praise;

Systematic use of extracurricular motivations in the educational process - reliance on professional training in high school;

The most general concept denoting the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth) is learning. Learning a person as a result of the purposeful, conscious appropriation of the socio-historical experience transmitted (broadcast) to him and the individual experience formed on this basis is defined as doctrine . However, most researchers of this problem (I. Lingart, I.I. Ilyasov, etc.) use the concept of teaching as the most general one for the analysis and interpretation of the formation of individual experience not only in humans, but also in animals.

The problem of teaching is interdisciplinary; Accordingly, it can be viewed from different positions:

From the perspective of biology, teaching is an adaptation process that considers heredity, environment, adaptation, regulation (direct, genetically determined and “indirect” from the environment).

From the standpoint of physiology, the teaching is considered in terms of neurohumoral mechanisms for the development of conditioned reflexes, patterns of higher nervous activity (concentration and irradiation of excitation and inhibition, positive and negative induction, dominance), analytical and synthetic activity of the brain.

From the perspective of psychology, learning is considered as an activity of the subject, as an activity, as a factor in mental development. The teaching manifests itself and leads to further systemic changes in human behavior. From this position, particular importance is attached to the information function of sign-symbolic structures, meaning formation, changes in cognitive and motivational structures.

From the position of sociology, teaching is considered as a factor of socialization, as a condition for the connection between individual and social consciousness. From this position, various forms of social management of educational systems in which teaching is carried out are considered.

From the position of axiology and ethics, teaching is considered as a process of value formation and self-determination, internalization of social norms, rules, and values.

From the perspective of cybernetics, learning can be considered as an information process in a learning system, characterized by control through channels of direct and feedback connections, development and change of strategies, programs and algorithms.

From the position of philosophy (in epistemological terms), teaching is a specific form of knowledge. In teaching, contradictions arise and are resolved between the objective and the subjective, form and content, etc.

From a logical point of view, teaching is considered as the basis for the formation of logical thinking and the development of generalized algorithms. Logical ordering of educational material, optimization of the organization of the process - the essence of the logical consideration of teaching.

From a pedagogical position, teaching is considered in a context where education and training represent a system of purposeful, desirable conditions from the point of view of the needs of society, which should ensure the most effective transfer of social experience. Educational psychology considers teaching primarily from the standpoint of psychology and pedagogy, but also takes into account sociological, cybernetic, philosophical, and logical positions.

According to I.I. Ilyasov, who conducted a systematic sequential analysis of the basic concepts of the doctrine to identify the features of its structural organization, doctrine is considered as:

1) acquisition of knowledge and skills to solve various problems (Ya.A. Komensky);

2) assimilation of knowledge, skills and development - improvement of general cognitive processes (I. Herbart);

3) the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities in certain disciplines (A. Disterweg), while A. Disterweg distinguished between learning and development;

4) an active thought process associated with overcoming difficulties - the emergence of a problem situation (J. Dewey);

5) the active process of constructing new formations from elements of sensory and mental content with the necessary participation of external movements (V. Lai);

6) gaining knowledge and solving problems (K.D. Ushinsky);

7) an active process of internal initiative of the student, which is the internal side of the pedagogical process (P.F. Kapterev);

8) change in behavior, change in external reactions to changing stimuli according to the “stimulus-response” scheme (J. Watson) and according to the “situation-response” scheme with mandatory reinforcement (E. Thorndike, B. Skinner, K. Hull); acquisition of new plans, cognitive maps of behavior in problem situations according to the formula “stimulus - - intermediate variable (image, map, plan) - reaction” (E. Tolman);

9) assimilation of meaning, i.e. acquisition of the ability to evoke with some stimuli (primarily speech signs) the same reactions as with the stimulus object, as well as the assimilation of instrumental reactions (C. Osgood);

10) restructuring of previous structures of experience, where two phases are the formation (for the first time) of new forms of activity (success) and the preservation and reproduction of new forms of activity that have arisen (memory) (K. Koffka);

11) different types of acquiring experience on three grounds: gradualism - leap; awareness - unawareness; awareness of explicit and implicit connections (J. Piaget);

12) change in the content of reflection of objects of reality in three forms that exist in humans: external motor, sensory-figurative and symbolic (D. Bruner);

13) the regulated process of obtaining encoding, storing and using information (R. Gagni);

14) a type of activity in which a subject in a given situation changes under the influence of external conditions and depending on the results of his own activities, builds his behavior and his mental processes in such a way as to reduce the degree of his uncertainty with new information and find the correct answer or an adequate rule of behavior (AND Lingart).

In domestic psychology, one can also identify several approaches to considering this concept.

15) acquisition of knowledge, abilities, skills (whereas development is the acquisition of abilities, new qualities) (L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontyev, S.L. Rubinstein);

16) assimilation of knowledge based on the actions performed by the subject (P.Ya. Galperin);

17) a specific type of educational activity (D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov);

18) learning (along with play and work) is a type of leading activity that not only takes a long period of time (often up to 15-16 years), but also in line with which the student’s very personality, his intellect, and private activities are formed (A. N. Leontyev). Teaching is considered as a multi-motivated and multi-meaningful activity.