The world-famous Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire surprised the world with his revolutionary and controversial views on society, the system of power and the relationship between the state and its citizens. His works have not lost their relevance in our time and cause controversy, and philosophical ideas about the state of society and the position of man in society require a long study and understanding. And although Voltaire worked in the 18th century, his research is quite modern and, in the light of political events, requires a special approach and detailed study.

Brief biography of Voltaire

Marie Francois Arouet (the future Voltaire) was born on November 21, 1694 in one of the arrondissements of Paris in the family of a notary and tax collector Francois Arouet. His mother Marie Marguerite Demare was the daughter of a criminal court secretary. The Voltaire family led the life of respectable bourgeois. Much later, the future philosopher abandoned his father and declared himself the illegitimate son of the Chevalier de Rochebrune, a poor musketeer and poet, since the life of a rentier and bourgeois caused a protest in the young man that he could not put up with.

Since at that time it was customary for teenagers to follow in the footsteps of their parents, at the insistence of his father, young Voltaire went to study at the Jesuit Lyceum, where for seven years (1704-1711) he studied law. But the young man’s freedom-loving nature took its toll and he gave up studying boring laws and began writing daring, freedom-loving poems and threw himself into the whirlpool of social life.

Very soon, in May 1717, the young poet ended up in the Bastille, a fortress that terrifies everyone - an unshakable symbol of royal power, for writing an epigram on the Duke of Orleans, the regent of France, but one year of imprisonment did not force the young poet to reconsider his worldview.

First experiments in dramaturgy

In 1718, his first play, Oedipus, based on Greek myths, was staged in a Paris theater, but in fact it was the first jab at the existing system of power and social laws. The play was favorably received by the public. At this time, the playwright performed for the first time under the pseudonym “du Voltaire”.

The next major play, “The League,” soon renamed “Henriad,” brought success to the young Voltaire as a fighter for ideas and civil liberties. The play depicted the time of religious wars in France (16th century) and was dedicated to King Henry VI; the idea of ​​the play was the conflict between the views of the king’s society - a despot who does not tolerate any objections, and a king who is tolerant of public opinion.

As Voltaire continued to move in the whirlwind of social life, clashes were inevitable between the witty poet and the high-born nobles, who did not tolerate superiority in anyone. In 1726, a similar skirmish occurred between Voltaire and Chevalier Rogan, who reproached the writer for hiding his low origins behind a pseudonym.

Departure for England

The young man answered the nobleman boldly, but he did not consider it necessary to challenge him to a duel, but simply ordered his lackeys to beat the playwright. This humiliation greatly affected the moral state of the philosopher; he understood that he lived in a class society, but hoped that intelligence, education and brilliant abilities would help him rise in the eyes of the world.

Armed with dueling pistols, he tried to answer for the insult, but was again arrested and thrown into the Bastille. A few months later, the young man left inhospitable France and went to England. Staying in England for two years in conditions of religious tolerance and the struggle for political freedom greatly changed the young man and helped to complete the formation of his beliefs. New views were reflected in the collection of articles “Philosophical Letters,” which were published in 1733 in English, and in 1734 in French.

In this work, again using the technique of contrast, the English liberal order was compared and the political situation in France was described in a gloomy light.

Upon Voltaire’s return to his homeland, the book was declared heretical and burned by the verdict of the French Parliament, and the author himself was under investigation for a long time. The threat of imprisonment in the Bastille hung over him again.

Stay in Champagne

In the same year, in order not to tempt fate, Voltaire moved away from Paris to Champagne, to the Sirey castle, which belonged to his mistress, the Marquise de Châtelet. For her time, an extremely educated woman, she shared the risky views of Voltaire, was fond of metaphysics, natural sciences, and seriously studied the Bible. The ten years that Voltaire and his beloved spent in a secluded castle were extremely fruitful.

It was here that the dramas “Alzira”, “Mohammed”, the great “Treatise on Metaphysics” and “Fundamentals of Newton’s Philosophy” were written. Reports of laboratory experiments confirming his conclusions were constantly sent to the Royal Academy of Sciences. At the same time, the large historical work “The Life and Age of Louis XIV” was almost completed.

The scientific approach to the study of the world gradually changed the views of the scientist, who was so critical of the Christian explanation of the appearance of the Universe. An inquisitive mind tried to scientifically explain the reasons for the emergence of the state and social relations, laws and private property.

It was during this period that the drama “The Virgin of Orleans”, which caused a lot of noise, was written, dedicated to one of the most difficult periods of French history and its national heroine Jeanne D, Arc. The poem was completed back in 1735, but it was officially published only in 1762.

In this work, the playwright tried to debunk the duplicity and hypocrisy of the Jesuit clergy. To do this, he was not afraid to show the mysticism and religious visions of young Jeanne a little ironically; he laughed at the miracles allegedly created by the girl and clearly did not believe in her divine destiny.

Even speaking about Jeanne’s virginity, he ironized the words of the Jesuits that only an innocent girl could save France at that time.

But at the end of the work, Voltaire abandoned irony and skepticism; with pathos and delight he showed Jeanne’s dedication, her faith in the success of the cause, her ability to lead an entire army and instill confidence in her soldiers in victory.

He directly blames the king and the Jesuits for the terrible death of the girl at the stake; he angrily denounces her executioners and traitors to the national heroine.

Voltaire - the courtier

Voltaire's career as a courtier was rather short and very unsuccessful. In 1745 he was appointed historiographer of France, and in 1746 he was appointed a sitting member of the French Academy of Sciences.

And at this moment, the philosopher wanted to win the approval of the king and receive constant income from the treasury, but all his work, known to the government, never won the approval of the crown.

The death of his beloved Marquise du Châtelet, disappointment in high society, the indifference of the king - all this prompted the philosopher to seek refuge in Prussia, at the court of King Frederick II. Their relationship began back in 1736, when the young crown prince wrote an enthusiastic letter to Voltaire. Now (in 1750) Voltaire left France for Prussia, where he hoped to gain understanding and respect, and also counted on the generosity and benevolence of the philosopher king.

But Voltaire did not stay at the Prussian court for long, only three years. During this time, he discovered in his “friend” not only broad-mindedness and a sharp mind, but also despotism, arrogance and rejection of other people’s points of view. Therefore, in 1753 he left Prussia and traveled around Europe for almost a year, until in 1754 he settled in Switzerland.

Creation of the "Encyclopedia"

In Switzerland, not far from Geneva, Voltaire bought a small estate and named it “Otrada”. It was here that, together with Denis Diderot and Jean D'Alembert, the famous “Encyclopedia” was created, which glorified the names of these philosophers throughout the world.

Already in 1755, the fifth volume of the publication published the articles “Spirit and Soul”, “Eloquence”, “Grace”, written by Voltaire.

In his article “History,” the philosopher doubted many historical events and their correct coverage, especially in the part where various miracles and visions were described.

In the essay “Idols and Idolatry,” he reproached Christians for worshiping idols no less than pagans, only Christians hide behind higher ideas and beautiful words, but sacrifices are not made directly, as was the case among the pagans, but secretly under the cover of darkness and ignorance.

In 1757, the article “Geneva” was published, which caused a lot of noise and was later considered unsuccessful. In this article, Voltaire took up arms against the theoreticians of the Reformed Church and, in particular, John Calvin.

On the one hand, he praised the freedom-loving Swiss and their political system, and this sounded like a criticism of French politics. But on the other hand, Voltaire showed Calvin and his followers as people intoxicated by one idea and for this reason capable of initiating another “Night of Bartholomew.”

This article had a negative impact not only on the attitude towards Voltaire himself, but also called into question the authority of his friends - philosophers.

Creativity in Ferney

Fearing reprisals from the Swiss clergy, Voltaire decided to protect himself and acquired two small estates on both sides of Lake Geneva, near the border with France.

The Ferney estate became his small state, where he carried out reprisals and justice, becoming like “enlightened monarchs.” By this time, Aviary's financial situation had improved significantly, and he was able to afford an almost luxurious lifestyle. He received several boarding houses from those in power from different countries of the world. Plus the inheritance received from his parents, the republication of his literary works, and the ability to properly conduct financial transactions - all this by 1776 turned the once poor philosopher into one of the richest people in France.

It was the Ferney estate that became a place of pilgrimage for philosophers from all over the world. Here Voltaire spent almost twenty happy years. All enlightened travelers considered it their duty to visit the philosopher-hermit. It was from here that he conducted extensive correspondence, with many august persons: the Prussian King Frederick II, the Russian Empress Catherine the Great, the Polish monarch Stanislav Augustus, the King of Sweden Gustav III and the King of Denmark Christian VII.

Even at the age of 65, Voltaire wrote and sent hundreds of letters. Commissioned by the Russian government, he wrote “The History of the Russian Empire under Peter the Great,” published in 1763. His work showed Peter Alekseevich as a great reformer who managed to break with barbarism and ignorance.

It was during the Ferney period that the most famous stories “Candide” and “The Simple-Minded” were written, showing the lies and hypocrisy of modern society.

At the same time, Voltaire took up arms against the role of the Catholic Church in political persecution and defended its victims, such prominent figures as Serlin, Calas, Count de Lally, Chevalier Le La Bar. The philosopher’s appeal from a letter to Alembert (1760): “Crush the reptile!” was directed against Catholicism and the absolute power of the Jesuits.

However, another catchphrase of Voltaire is no less famous: “If God did not exist, he would have to be invented.” He, like a true son of his time, believed that only religion could restrain the people, and only the help of the church would help the government keep the third estate in check.

Death in Paris

In his declining years, in 1778, the philosopher decided to visit the city of his childhood and youth for the last time. In February he arrived in Paris, where he was greeted with great enthusiasm.

The visit to the capital of France was very eventful: Voltaire attended several meetings of the French Academy of Sciences, saw the premiere performance of his play “Irene”, joined the Masonic lodge “Nine Sisters”, and died three months later.

Realizing before his death that the Catholic Church would try to take revenge on him for all the attacks, he formally confessed and received communion. But the Archbishop of France, Christophe de Beaumont, considered that the heretic’s repentance was clearly insufficient, and denied the philosopher a Christian burial.

The philosopher's relatives took his body to Champagne, where he was buried. Such neglect of a world-famous person who glorified his homeland caused indignation among wide circles of the population. In 1791, the philosopher’s body was solemnly brought to Paris, where it was again buried in the Pantheon, which served as a tomb for all famous people of France.

Voltaire's main ideas (briefly)

The main ideas of the philosophers of the Enlightenment were the moral re-education of society, which must rise to revolution and win its freedom with arms in hand.

Voltaire was an opponent of the existing materialist school, and adhered to the empirical (experimental) direction in science.

The philosopher defended the natural rights and freedoms of every person: life, freedom, security, property rights and universal equality without classes and estates. At the same time, he understood that people are deceitful and evil by nature, therefore society must create reasonable laws to harmonize social relations.

It is interesting that while defending equality, Voltaire nevertheless divided society into two large groups: rich and educated people and uneducated and poor people who must work for the upper class. At the same time, the poor and working people do not need to be educated, since their unnecessary education and wrong reasoning can ruin the entire government system.

Voltaire's philosophy (briefly)

Any philosophical school must, first of all, answer a question that has interested all enlightened humanity since ancient times. These are questions: “Who am I? Why did you come into this world? What is the meaning of human existence?

In his philosophical works, Voltaire considered the Catholic Church and its absolute power over the world to be the cause of all evil in society. Judging by church canons, a person lives and dies according to the will of God, and cannot resist divine providence.

It is the church that destroys freedom of conscience and freedom of speech. But Voltaire, as a true son of his time, could not deny the existence of God and the necessity of religion. At the same time, he believed that evidence of the existence of God should be obtained empirically, and not by blind faith.

For all his freedom-loving views, Voltaire was not a supporter of democracy; he advocated an “enlightened monarchy.” He was afraid of democracy and believed that the people needed to be kept in check. At the same time, the philosopher sharply criticized the foundations of feudal society, its laws and class prejudices. All his works are imbued with humanism and tolerance.

VOLTAIRE, FRANOIS-MARIE AROUET DE (Voltaire, Franois-Mari Arouet de) (1694–1778), French philosopher, novelist, historian, playwright and poet of the Enlightenment, one of the greatest French writers. Known primarily under the name Voltaire. Born on November 21, 1694 in Paris, he lost his mother at the age of seven. His father, Francois Arouet, was a notary. The son spent six years at the Jesuit College of Louis the Great in Paris. When he left college in 1711, his practical-minded father got him into the office of lawyer Allen to study laws. However, young Arouet was much more interested in poetry and drama, moving in the circle of freethinking aristocrats (the so-called “Society of the Temple”), united around the Duke of Vendôme, head of the Order of the Knights of Malta.
After numerous everyday troubles, young Arouet, with his characteristic impetuosity and recklessness, began to compose satirical poems that were aimed at the Duke of Orleans. This venture, naturally, ended in imprisonment in the Bastille. There he had to spend eleven months, and it is said that, wanting to brighten up the long hours in a prison cell, he laid the foundation for his future famous epic poem Henriade. His tragedy Oedipus (Oedipe, 1718) was a resounding success on the stage of the Comédie Française, and its twenty-four-year-old author was hailed as a worthy rival to Sophocles, Corneille and Racine. The author, without false modesty, added the aristocratic “de Voltaire” to his signature. Under the name Voltaire he achieved fame.
At the end of 1725, at the Opera Theater, Voltaire was insulted by the scion of one of the most noble families in France - the Chevalier de Rohan-Chabot. Full of irony, Voltaire’s answer, as one might guess, was more caustic than tactful. Two days later there was another skirmish at the Comédie Française. Soon Voltaire, who was dining with the Duke de Sully, was called out into the street, attacked and beaten, with the Chevalier giving instructions while sitting in a carriage nearby. Voltaire’s high-born friends without hesitation took the aristocrat’s side in this conflict. The government decided to avoid further complications and hid not the Chevalier in the Bastille, but Voltaire. This happened in mid-April 1726. About two weeks later he was released, setting the condition that he would leave Paris and live in exile. Voltaire decided to leave for England, where he arrived in May and where he remained until the end of 1728 or early spring of 1729. He enthusiastically studied various aspects of English life, literature and social thought. He was struck by the liveliness of the action he saw on the stage of Shakespeare's plays.
Returning to France, Voltaire spent most of the next twenty years living with his mistress Madame du Châtelet, the “divine Emilie,” at her castle of Ciret in the east of the country, near the Lorraine border. She diligently studied science, especially mathematics. Partly under her influence, Voltaire became interested, in addition to literature, in Newtonian physics. The years in Sira became a decisive period in Voltaire’s long career as a thinker and writer. In 1745 he became the royal historiographer, was elected to the French Academy, and in 1746 became “a gentleman admitted to the royal bedchamber.”
In September 1749, Madame du Chatelet died unexpectedly. For several years, driven by a feeling of jealousy, although, of course, prudence, she dissuaded Voltaire from accepting the invitation of Frederick the Great and settling at the Prussian court. Now there was no longer any reason to reject this offer. In July 1750 Voltaire arrived in Potsdam. At first, his close communication with the “philosopher king” inspired only enthusiasm. In Potsdam there was no elaborate ritual and formality typical of the French court, and there was no timidity in the face of non-trivial ideas - unless they went beyond the boundaries of private conversation. But Voltaire soon became burdened with the responsibility of editing the king's French writings in verse and prose. Frederick was a harsh and despotic man; Voltaire was vain, envied Maupertuis, who was placed at the head of the Royal Academy, and, despite the orders of the monarch, achieved his goals bypassing the established order. A clash with the king became inevitable. In the end, Voltaire felt happy when he managed to escape “from the lion’s claws” (1753).
Since he was believed to have fled to Germany three years earlier, Paris was now closed to him. After much hesitation, he settled in Geneva. At one time he spent the winter in neighboring Lausanne, which had its own legislation, then he bought the medieval castle of Torne and another, more modern one, Ferne; they were close to each other, on both sides of the French border. For about twenty years, from 1758 to 1778, Voltaire, in his words, “reigned” in his small kingdom. He set up watch workshops and pottery production there, carried out experiments with the breeding of new breeds of cattle and horses, tested various improvements in agriculture, and conducted extensive correspondence. People came to Ferne from all over the world. But the main thing was his work, denouncing wars and persecution, standing up for those unjustly persecuted - and all this with the goal of protecting religious and political freedom. Voltaire is one of the founders of the Enlightenment; he is the herald of penal reform carried out during the French Revolution.
In February 1778, Voltaire was persuaded to return to Paris. There, surrounded by universal worship, despite the open reluctance of Louis XVI and experiencing a surge of energy, he was carried away by one endeavor after another: he was present at the Comedie Française at the performance of his last tragedy, Irene, met with B. Franklin, and invited the Academy to prepare everything articles with "A" for the new edition of her Dictionary. Death overtook him on May 30, 1778.
Voltaire's works amounted to fifty volumes of almost six hundred pages each in the famous edition of Maulant, supplemented by two large volumes of Indexes. Eighteen volumes of this edition are occupied by the epistolary heritage - more than ten thousand letters.
Voltaire's numerous tragedies, although they greatly contributed to his fame in the 18th century, are now little read and have hardly been staged in the modern era. Among them, the best remain Zaira (Zare, 1732), Alzire (Alzire, 1736), Mahomet (Mahomet, 1741) and Merope (Mrope, 1743).
Voltaire's light poems on secular topics have not lost their shine, his poetic satires are still capable of hurting, his philosophical poems demonstrate a rare ability to fully express the author's ideas, without deviating anywhere from the strict requirements of poetic form. Among the latter, the most important are the Epistle to Uranie (Eptre Uranie, 1722) - one of the first works denouncing religious orthodoxy; The man of the world (Mondain, 1736), a playful in tone, but quite serious in thought, justification of the advantages of a life of luxury over self-restraint and simplification; Discourse about man (Discours sur l "Homme, 1738–1739); Poem about natural law (Pome sur la Loi naturelle, 1756), which talks about “natural” religion - a popular topic at that time, but dangerous; the famous Poem about the death of Lisbon (Pome sur le Dsastre de Lisbonne, 1756) - about the philosophical problem of evil in the world and the suffering of the victims of the terrible earthquake in Lisbon on November 1, 1755. Guided by prudence and heeding the advice of friends, Voltaire, however, gave the final lines of this poem a moderately optimistic sound .
One of Voltaire’s highest achievements is his works on history: History of Charles XII, King of Sweden (Histoire de Charles XII, roi de Sude, 1731), The Age of Louis XIV (Sicle de Louis XIV, 1751) and Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations ( Essai sur les moeurs et l "esprit des nations, 1756), first called General History. He brought his remarkable gift of clear, fascinating narrative to historical writings.
One of the early works of Voltaire the philosopher that deserves special attention is the Philosophical Letters (Les Lettres philosophiques, 1734). It is often also called Letters about the English, since it directly reflected the impressions the author made from his stay in England in 1726–1728. With constant insight and irony, the author depicts Quakers, Anglicans and Presbyterians, the English system of government, and parliament. He promotes vaccinations against smallpox, introduces readers to the philosopher Locke, sets out the main provisions of Newton's theory of gravity, and in several sharply written paragraphs characterizes the tragedies of Shakespeare, as well as the comedies of W. Wycherley, D. Vanbrugh and W. Congreve. In general, the flattering picture of English life is fraught with criticism of Voltaire’s France, which loses against this background. For this reason, the book, published without the name of the author, was immediately condemned by the French government and was publicly burned, which only contributed to the popularity of the work and strengthened its impact on minds. Voltaire paid tribute to Shakespeare's ability to construct stage action and appreciated his plots, drawn from English history. However, as a consistent student of Racine, he could not help but be indignant at the fact that Shakespeare neglects the classicist “law of three unities” and in his plays elements of tragedy and comedy are mixed. The Treatise on Tolerance (Trait sur la tolrance, 1763), a reaction to the outbreak of religious intolerance in Toulouse, was an attempt to rehabilitate the memory of Jean Calas, a Protestant who had been a victim of torture. The Philosophical Dictionary (Dictionnaire philosophique, 1764) conveniently, in alphabetical order, sets out the author's views on the nature of power, religion, war and many other ideas characteristic of him. Throughout his long life, Voltaire remained a convinced deist. He sincerely sympathized with the religion of moral behavior and brotherly love, which does not recognize the power of dogma and persecution for dissent. Therefore, he was attracted to the English Quakers, although much of their everyday life seemed to him amusing eccentricity. Of all that Voltaire wrote, the most famous is the philosophical story Candide (1759). The fast-paced story describes the vicissitudes of life of a naive and simple-minded young man named Candide. Candide studied with the philosopher Pangloss (lit. “just words,” “bad talk”), who inspired him, following Leibniz, that “everything is for the best in this best of possible worlds.” Little by little, after repeated blows of fate, Candide begins to doubt the correctness of this doctrine. He is reunited with his beloved Cunegonde, who has become ugly and quarrelsome due to the hardships she has endured; he is again next to the philosopher Pangloss, who, although not so confidently, professes the same view of the world; his small company consists of several other characters. Together they organize a small commune near Constantinople, in which a practical philosophy prevails, obliging everyone to “cultivate his own garden”, doing the necessary work without overly zealous clarification of the questions “why” and “for what purpose”, without trying to unravel the insoluble speculative mysteries of a metaphysical nature . The whole story seems like a light-hearted joke, and its irony masks a damning refutation of fatalism.

Two astrologers told Voltaire that he would live to be 33 years old. But the great thinker managed to deceive death itself; he miraculously survived due to a failed duel with a certain nobleman from the de Rohan family. The biography of the French philosopher is full of both ups and downs, but, nevertheless, his name has become immortal for centuries.

Voltaire, who went to England as a writer and returned as a sage, made an undeniable contribution to a special form of knowledge of the world; his name is on a par with and. The writer, who did not have a drop of noble blood in his veins, was favored by great rulers - the Russian Empress, the King of Prussia, Frederick "Old Fritz" II and the owner of the Swiss crown, Gustave III.

The thinker left stories, poems, and tragedies for his descendants, and his books “Candide, or Optimism” and “Zadig, or Fate” were divided into quotes and popular expressions.

Childhood and youth

François-Marie Arouet (the philosopher's name at birth) was born on November 21, 1694 in the city of love - Paris. The baby was so frail and weak that immediately after birth the parents sent for a priest. Unfortunately, Marie Marguerite Daumard, Voltaire's mother, died when the boy was seven years old. Therefore, the future ruler of the thoughts of Western Europe grew up and was brought up with his father, who was in bureaucratic service.

It cannot be said that the relationship between little Francois and his parent was friendly, so it is not surprising that already in adulthood Arouet declared himself the illegitimate son of the Chevalier de Rochebrune, a poor poet and musketeer. Francois Arouet Sr. sent his child to the Jesuit college, which now bears the name of the Lyceum of Louis the Great.

In this college, Voltaire studied “Latin and all sorts of nonsense,” because the young man, although he received serious literary training, for the rest of his life hated the fanaticism of the local Jesuit fathers, who put religious dogma above human life.

Voltaire's father wanted his son to follow in his footsteps and become a notary, so Francois was quickly assigned to a law office. Soon the young man realized that legal science, favored by the ancient Greek goddess Themis, was not his path. Therefore, in order to dilute the green melancholy with bright colors, Voltaire took up an inkwell and a pen not to copy documents, but to compose satirical stories.

Literature

When Voltaire turned 18, he composed his first play and even then had no doubt that he would definitely leave his mark on history as a writer. Two years later, François-Marie Arouet had already gained the reputation of the king of ridicule in Parisian salons and among sophisticated ladies and gentlemen. Therefore, some literary figures and high-ranking officials were afraid to find Voltaire's publication exposing them to society in a bad light.

But in 1717, Francois-Marie Arouet paid for his witty satires. The fact is that the talented young man ridiculed the regent of the French kingdom under the young king, Philip II of Orleans. But the ruler did not treat Voltaire’s poems with proper humor, so the writer was sent to the Bastille for a year.

But in prison, Voltaire did not lose his creative fervor, but, on the contrary, began to intensively study literature. Once free, Voltaire received recognition and fame, because his tragedy “Oedipus,” written in 1718, took place on the stage of the Comedy Française theater.

The young man began to be compared with famous French playwrights, so Voltaire, who believed in his literary talent, composed one work after another, and these were not only philosophical tragedies, but also novels and pamphlets. The writer relied on historical images, so theater regulars could see actors dressed as Brutus or Mohammed on stage.

In total, François-Marie Arouet's track record includes 28 works that can be classified as classical tragedy. Voltaire also cultivated aristocratic genres of poetry; messages, gallant lyrics and odes often came from his pen. But it is worth saying that the writer was not afraid to experiment and mix seemingly incompatible things (tragic and comic) in one bottle.

He was not afraid to dilute rational coldness with notes of sentimental sensitivity, and exotic characters often appeared in his ancient works: the Chinese, Iranian-speaking Scythians and coats of arms professing Zoroastrianism.

As for poetry, Voltaire's classic epic "Henriad" was published in 1728. In this work, the great Frenchman condemned despot kings for their frantic worship of God, using not fictitious images, but real prototypes. Then, around 1730, Voltaire worked on his seminal satirical parody poem, The Virgin of Orleans. But the book itself was first published only in 1762; before that, anonymous publications were published.

“The Virgin of Orleans” by Voltaire, written in a syllabic twelve-syllable, immerses the reader in the story of a real-life personality, the well-known national heroine of France. But the writer’s work is by no means a biography of the commander of the troops, but a complete irony on the structure of French society and the church.

It is worth noting that he read this manuscript in his youth; the Russian poet even tried to imitate Voltaire in his poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” (but, having matured, Pushkin addressed a very critical work to the “French mentor”).

Among other things, François-Marie Arouet distinguished himself with philosophical prose, which gained unprecedented popularity among his contemporaries. The master of the pen not only immersed the book holder in adventure stories, but also made him think about the futility of existence, the greatness of man, as well as the meaninglessness of pure optimism and the absurdity of ideal pessimism.

The work “The Innocent,” published in 1767, tells the story of the misadventures of an adherent of the “theory of natural law.” This manuscript is a mixture of lyrical element, educational novel and philosophical story.

The plot revolves around a typical character - a noble savage, a kind of Robinson Crusoe of the Enlightenment, who illustrates the innate morality of man before his contact with civilization. But it is also worth paying attention to Voltaire’s short story “Candide, or Optimism” (1759), which instantly became a world bestseller.

The work gathered dust behind a hopeless curtain for a long time, since the work was banned due to obscenity. It is interesting that the author of “Candide” himself considered this novel stupid and even refused to acknowledge his authorship. “Candide, or Optimism” is somewhat reminiscent of a typical picaresque novel, a genre that developed in Spain. As a rule, the main character of such a work is an adventurer who evokes sympathy.

But Voltaire's most quoted book is endowed with absurdity and angry sarcasm: all the adventures of the heroes are invented in order to ridicule society, the government and the church. In particular, the Saxon philosopher who propagated the doctrine described in Theodicy, or the Justification of God, fell into disgrace.

The Roman Catholic Church blacklisted the book, but this did not stop Candide from gaining fans in the form of Alexander Pushkin, Gustave Flaubert, and the American composer Leonard Bernstein.

Philosophy

It so happened that Voltaire returned again to the cold walls of the Bastille. In 1725–1726, a conflict arose between the writer and the Chevalier de Rohan: the provocateur allowed himself to publicly ridicule Francois-Marie Arouet, who, under the pseudonym Voltaire, allegedly tried to hide his non-noble origins. Since the author of tragedies will not go into his pocket for a word, he allowed the offender to say:

“Sir, glory awaits my name, and oblivion awaits yours!”

The Frenchman literally paid for these daring words - he was beaten by de Rohan's lackey. Thus, the writer experienced first-hand what bias is and became an ardent defender of justice and social reform. Having left the exclusion zone, Voltaire, unnecessary in his homeland, was expelled to England by order of the king.

It is noteworthy that the government structure of the United Kingdom, which was fundamentally different from conservative monarchical France, amazed him to his fingertips. It was also useful to get acquainted with English thinkers, who unanimously argued that a person can turn to God without resorting to the help of the church.

The French thinker outlined his impressions of his travels around the island state in the treatise “Philosophical Letters,” promoting teachings and denying materialist philosophy. The main ideas of the Philosophical Letters were equality, respect for property, security and freedom. Voltaire also hesitated on the issue of the immortality of the soul; he did not deny, but also did not affirm the fact that there is life after death.

But on the question of the freedom of human will, Voltaire moved from indeterminism to determinism. Louis XV, having learned about the treatise, ordered Voltaire’s work to be burned, and the author of the unceremonious work to be sent to the Bastille. To avoid a third confinement in a cell, François-Marie Arouet went to Champagne to visit his beloved.

Voltaire, a supporter of inequality and a zealous opponent of absolutism, criticized the structure of the church to the nines, but he did not support atheism. The Frenchman was a deist, that is, he recognized the existence of the Creator, but denied religious dogmatism and supernatural phenomena. But in the 60s and 70s, Voltaire was overcome by skeptical thoughts. When contemporaries asked the enlightener whether there was a “higher authority,” he replied:

“There is no God, but my lackey and wife should not know this, since I don’t want my lackey to kill me, and my wife to disobey me.”

Although Voltaire, contrary to his father’s wishes, never became a lawyer, the philosopher was later involved in human rights activities. In 1762, the author of Candide participated in a petition to overturn the death sentence of the merchant Jean Calas, who was the victim of a biased trial due to a different religion. Calas personified Christian xenophobia in France: he was a Protestant, while others professed Catholicism.

The reason why Jean was executed on the wheel in 1762 was the suicide of his son. At that time, a person who committed suicide with his own hands was considered a criminal, which is why his body was publicly dragged on ropes and hanged in the square. Therefore, the Kalas family presented their son’s suicide as a murder, and the court considered that Jean killed the young man because he converted to Catholicism. Thanks to Voltaire, three years later Jean Calas was rehabilitated.

Personal life

In his free time from writing treatises and philosophical thoughts, Voltaire played chess. For 17 years, the Frenchman's rival was the Jesuit Father Adam, who lived in the house of Francois-Marie Arouet.

Voltaire's lover, muse and inspiration was the Marquise du Châtelet, who passionately loved mathematics and physics. This young lady even had the opportunity to translate a fundamental work in 1745.

Emily was a married woman, but she believed that all responsibilities to a man should be fulfilled only after the birth of children. Therefore, the young lady, without transgressing the bounds of decency, plunged into fleeting romances with mathematicians and philosophers.

The beauty met Voltaire in 1733, and in 1734 she provided refuge from re-imprisonment in the Bastille - her husband’s dilapidated castle, in which the philosopher spent 15 years of his life, returning there from numerous trips.

Du Châtelet instilled in Voltaire a love for equations, the laws of physics and mathematical formulas, so the lovers often solved complex problems. In the fall of 1749, Emily died after giving birth to a child, and Voltaire, having lost the love of his life, sank into depression.

By the way, few people know that Voltaire was actually a millionaire. Even in his youth, the philosopher met bankers who taught Francois how to invest capital. The writer, who became rich by the age of forty, invested in equipment for the French army, gave money to buy ships and bought works of art, and on his estate in Switzerland there was a pottery production.

Death

In the last years of his life, Voltaire was popular; every contemporary considered it his duty to visit the Swiss house of the wise old man. The philosopher hid from the French kings, but with the help of persuasion he returned to the country and Parmesan, where he died at the age of 83.

Voltaire's Sarcophagus

Bibliography

• 1730 – “The History of Charles XII”
• 1732 – “Zaire”
• 1734 – “Philosophical Letters. English letters"
• 1736 – “Newton's Epistle”
• 1738 – “Essay on the Nature of Fire”
• 1748 – “The World as It Is”
• 1748 – “Zadig, or Fate”
• 1748 – “Semiramis”
• 1752 – “Micromegas”
• 1755 – “The Virgin of Orleans”
• 1756 – “Lisbon earthquake”
• 1764 – “White and Black”
• 1768 – “Princess of Babylon”
• 1774 – “Don Pedro”
• 1778 – “Agathocles”

Quotes

• “It is impossible to believe in God; not to believe in him is absurd.”
• “For most people, improving means changing your shortcomings”
• “Kings know no more about the affairs of their ministers than cuckolds know about the affairs of their wives.”
• “It is not inequality that is painful, but dependence”
• “There is nothing more unpleasant than being hanged in obscurity”

Voltaire, first of all, is famous for his literary works. Most of his work was published underground - the philosopher was subject to public criticism all his life for his progressive views. In his plays and pamphlets, the philosopher criticized the church and promoted the need for freedom and enlightenment. Voltaire's philosophy influenced the development of the socio-political system in France and throughout Western Europe.

Biography of the philosopher

Voltaire's biography contains many contradictory and scandalous facts. The philosopher abandoned his real name, François-Marie Arouet, and signed with an invented pseudonym. Born in Paris, into the family of a wealthy official and having received a good education at a Jesuit college, he, against the wishes of his parents, abandoned his career as a lawyer. His first work was the composition of satirical poems, which displeased the aristocracy. For his work, the thinker ended up in the Bastille twice.

After leaving captivity, the future public figure moved to England. There, the philosopher studied the humanities and worked on his first book. Voltaire compiled his impressions of England into a collection of essays, Philosophical Letters, and published it immediately upon returning home. For this work he was again sentenced to imprisonment in the Bastille, but he managed to escape to Lorraine. There, the man met the Marquise du Chatelet, with whom he lived for 15 years. From Lorraine he has to flee to the Netherlands to avoid a new prison sentence for charges of mockery of religion.

Having become a court poet, the man quickly made new enemies among the local nobility and moved to Prussia, but he could not settle down there either, and soon moved to Switzerland, where he bought an estate in which he lived until the end of his days. In addition to an impressive number of enemies, he also made influential friends. He was patronized by supporters of enlightenment, which included royalty. Thanks to their patronage, including financial, the man became one of the wealthiest Frenchmen. At the age of 83, the man returned to Paris.

Soon the thinker began to be bothered by severe pain and he had to be examined by different doctors, but their final diagnosis was categorical - prostate cancer. In search of a way to extend his life by at least a few months, the thinker joined the “Nine Sisters” - a French Masonic lodge. But after 2 months the man still died.

Key Ideas

Voltaire's main idea was expressed in his attitude towards obscurantism and religious fanaticism. An irreconcilable fighter against the power of the church, he wanted to rid society of religious errors. The thinker criticized faith, but not the believers themselves. The thinker was a supporter of enlightenment and advocated freedom for all people, regardless of their origin.

The thinker denied religion, but believed in God. He considered the surrounding world itself to be proof of its existence, which could not appear on its own, which means that it has a creator and this creator is God. But he is not as he is described in the books.

According to Voltaire, God:

• omnipotent,
• infinite;
• indifferent.

Along with religion, the philosopher also rejected atheism. But he treated atheists with much greater sympathy than adherents of religion. Atheists retain the ability of sanity - the main feature separating people from animals. And fanatics, obsessed with their religion, lose the ability to think and become like wild animals.

Philosophy

Voltaire's philosophical views were based on the teachings of Locke. He shared his empirical approach, but had a negative attitude towards materialism. The question of the immortality of the soul and the need for free will remained open for the philosopher.

He published his philosophical notes in the collection “Pocket Philosophical Dictionary”. In this work, he criticized religion and church morality. Voltaire viewed the church as a criminal organization that robs a person of his natural right to freedom. He praised scientific achievements, for which he saw the future.

The best way to develop society

The thinker was an opponent of social equality. The thinker believed that in a developed society there should remain a division of people into the educated and wealthy and those who should work for their benefit. Workers cannot be educated, otherwise they will destroy the very foundation of society, and this will lead to chaos.

Being a supporter of the old order, in his works Voltaire praises aristocracy and monarchism. The thinker glorifies the French nobility, endowing noble traits to landowners and nobles. He portrays people of non-noble origin reluctantly and assigns them the roles of negative satirical characters.

Attitude to faith and religion

Voltaire was a merciless critic of religion. In his books, the thinker used logic to prove the absurdity and inconsistency of the religious worldview. The philosopher touched upon Christianity and Judaism, condemned the church, clericalism and the power of ignorance. At the same time, the thinker described the personality of Jesus with great respect, not denying the existence of God, but refusing to honor him in accordance with Christian traditions.

The philosopher spoke in defense of scientists accused by the church. He preached ideas of religious tolerance - in the 18th century this term meant not acceptance, but contempt. In his plays and pamphlets, Voltaire ridiculed Catholicism. The positive characters in his works were people who denied religion and sought to eradicate it. Christianity was especially hard hit - Voltaire considered Christian myths to be fiction created to control people. In the poem "Pros and Cons" he examines the main idea of ​​Christianity - love for a merciful God. Voltaire convincingly argues that this idea is the main deception on which religion is built. If you read the Bible with an open mind, you can easily see how cruel God's actions are towards people. The Creator is not a loving father, but a cruel tyrant, whom it is unworthy to honor.

While speaking out against the church, the philosopher also criticizes atheism. Professing deism, he claims that God exists and that he created the universe. But gradually his views changed. Publicly, Voltaire remained faithful to the idea of ​​a divine creation, but he himself increasingly doubted the existence of any higher powers. In frank conversations with like-minded people, the thinker agrees that there is no God.

Voltaire argues that faith in God is necessary for society. Without external control, people will not be able to restrain themselves from mutual destruction. God acts as a judge and deterrent, and in this sense, faith does not harm, but helps preserve the human race.

Another side of religion that Voltaire considered destructive was monastic asceticism. According to the thinker, refusing simple joys in the form of delicious food and fun pastime is great stupidity. He took an optimistic approach to life: everything is fine, or will definitely be fine in the future.

Literary works

Voltaire wrote both poetry and prose. He began as the author of satirical poems, in which he ridiculed prominent public figures and familiar aristocrats. Because of his evil humor, the writer often found himself in prison, participated in duels and constantly received threats. But his dramatic works brought him fame:

1. Candide. In this work, Voltaire described the ideal country, in his opinion, Eldorado. It is contrasted with the evil, stupid and cruel world, in the description of which everyone recognized modern Europe. The story was banned for publication in France, and during Voltaire's lifetime it was published illegally.
2. Virgin of Orleans. In this poem, Voltaire ridicules the values ​​of the feudal world, briefly examines all the negative aspects of the socio-political system, bringing the heroic poem to a farce.
3. The story of Charles, King of Sweden. This work tells the story of Peter the Great and Charles, two European monarchs, and their confrontation. Since the publication of this work, Voltaire's popularity as a writer began.
4. Princess of Babylon. It is a cycle of works. In them, the philosopher examines the basic issues of human existence. According to Voltaire, man's destiny is happiness, but life's difficulties overshadow it, so man is forced to suffer.

Voltaire also wrote heroic works. The drama in his performance evolved, his characters were sentimental, romantic and acted atypically for representatives of their era.

Views on politics

Among the philosophers there were few adherents of the monarchical system, but Voltaire undoubtedly belonged to them. The philosopher opposed absolutism. He advocated for enlightenment, the need for education for a separate part of society, which is represented by philosophers and intelligentsia.

A proper monarch, capable of taking care of his subjects and creating a decent life for them, must also be an enlightened person. The philosopher often described his ideal of a ruler in his works. The rulers in his poems were the luminaries leading a savage country to civilization.

Voltaire had an extremely negative attitude towards the idea of ​​social equality and democracy as the power of the people. In his opinion, unenlightened workers cannot know what a good life should be and they definitely need a strong ruling hand that can guide them. He saw the kingdom as one large structure ruled by a single monarch. Those who are against monarchism are actually against the development of humanity.

In a situation where a cruel and stupid person is in power, the subjects themselves are to blame. Voltaire denied the divine nature of the ruler and the fact that God blesses him on the throne. The king is the same person, and other people can either bring him to the throne or remove him. In the role of a ruler, the philosopher dreamed of seeing a modern person, tuned to development and creation.

Voltaire corresponded with several monarchs whose political views appealed to him. Among them was Catherine the Great. After the death of the philosopher, she bought his library for a huge sum - 30,000 gold rubles. Catherine hoped to receive letters along with the books, but they remained in France and were soon published.

Human rights activities

Voltaire often spoke out in defense of people whom the church, in his opinion, had unfairly condemned. After the execution of Jean Calas, the philosopher organized a campaign to reconsider the case and overturn the sentence. Kalas was sentenced to death for the murder of his son, but there was no direct evidence of his guilt. As a result, the court relented and acquitted Kalas posthumously, and also acquitted everyone involved in the case.

However, some believed that the philosopher simply used this case to once again express his hatred of the church and draw public attention to the imperfections of the judicial system.

Biography

The son of official François Marie Arouet, Voltaire studied “Latin and all sorts of nonsense” at a Jesuit college; his father was destined for the profession of lawyer, but he preferred literature to law; began his literary activity in the palaces of aristocrats as a poet-freeloader; for satirical poems addressed to the regent and his daughter, he ended up in the Bastille (where he was later sent a second time, this time for other people’s poems); was beaten by a nobleman whom he ridiculed, wanted to challenge him to a duel, but due to the intrigue of the offender, he again found himself in prison and was released on the condition of traveling abroad; went to England, where he lived for three years (-), studying its political system, science, philosophy and literature.

Fighting in word and deed (intercession for the victims of religious fanaticism - Calas and Servetus) against the domination and oppression of religious superstitions and prejudices, against clerical fanaticism, Voltaire tirelessly preached the ideas of religious tolerance both in his journalistic pamphlets (Treatise on Tolerance), and in his works of art (the image of Henry IV, who put an end to the religious strife between Catholics and Protestants; the image of the emperor in the tragedy “Gebras”).

Denying medieval church-monastic asceticism in the name of the human right to happiness, which is rooted in reasonable egoism (“Discours sur l’homme”), for a long time sharing the optimism of the English bourgeoisie of the 18th century, which transformed the world in its own image and likeness and asserted through the lips of the poet Pope: “Whatever is, is right” (“everything is good that is”), Voltaire, after the earthquake in Lisbon, which destroyed a third of the city, somewhat reduced his optimism, declaring in a poem about the Lisbon disaster: “now not everything is good, but everything will be fine” .

Social and philosophical views

According to social views, Voltaire is a supporter of inequality. Society should be divided into “educated and rich” and those who, “having nothing,” are “obliged to work for them” or “amuse” them. Therefore, there is no need to educate workers: “if the people start to reason, everything will perish” (from Voltaire’s letters). When printing Meslier’s “Testament,” Voltaire threw out all of his sharp criticism of private property, considering it “outrageous.” This explains Voltaire’s negative attitude towards Rousseau, although there was a personal element in their relationship.

A convinced and passionate opponent of absolutism, he remained until the end of his life a monarchist, a supporter of the idea of ​​enlightened absolutism, a monarchy based on the “educated part” of society, on the intelligentsia, on “philosophers.” An enlightened monarch is his political ideal, which Voltaire embodied in a number of images: in the person of Henry IV (in the poem “Henriad”), the “sensitive” philosopher-king Teucer (in the tragedy “Laws of Minos”), who sets as his task “to enlighten people, to soften morals of his subjects, to civilize a wild country,” and King Don Pedro (in the tragedy of the same name), who tragically dies in the fight against the feudal lords in the name of the principle expressed by Teucer in the words: “A kingdom is a great family with a father at its head. Whoever has a different idea about the monarch is guilty before humanity.”

Voltaire, like Rousseau, sometimes tended to defend the idea of ​​the "primitive state" in plays such as "The Scythians" or "The Laws of Minos", but his "primitive society" (Scythians and Sidonians) has nothing in common with Rousseau's depiction of the paradise of small property owners -farmers, but embodies a society of enemies of political despotism and religious intolerance.

Literary creativity

Dramaturgy

Continuing to cultivate the aristocratic genres of poetry - epistles, gallant lyrics, odes, etc., Voltaire in the field of dramatic poetry was the last major representative of classical tragedy - wrote 28; among them the most important: “Oedipus” (), “Brutus” (), “Zaire” (), “Caesar” (), “Alzira” (), “Mohammed” (), “Merope” (), “Semiramis” ( ), “Rome Saved” (), “Chinese Orphan” (), “Tancred” ().

However, in the context of the extinction of aristocratic culture, classical tragedy was inevitably transformed. Into her former rationalistic coldness, notes of sensitivity burst into ever greater abundance (“Zaire”), her former sculptural clarity was replaced by romantic picturesqueness (“Tancred”). The repertoire of ancient figures was increasingly invaded by exotic characters - medieval knights, Chinese, Scythians, Hebrians and the like.

For a long time, not wanting to put up with the rise of the new drama - as a “hybrid” form, Voltaire ended up defending the method of mixing the tragic and comic (in the preface to “The Spendthrift” and “Socrates”), considering this mixture, however, legitimate trait only of “high comedy” and rejecting as a “non-fiction genre” the “tearful drama”, where there are only “tears”. For a long time opposing the invasion of the stage by plebeian heroes, Voltaire, under the pressure of bourgeois drama, gave up this position as well, opening wide the doors of drama “for all classes and all ranks” (preface to “The Tartan Woman”, with references to English examples) and formulating (in “Discourse on Hebras”) essentially a program of democratic theater; “To make it easier to instill in people the valor necessary for society, the author chose heroes from the lower class. He was not afraid to bring on stage a gardener, a young girl helping her father with rural work, or a simple soldier. Such heroes, who stand closer to nature than others and speak in simple language, will make a stronger impression and achieve their goals more quickly than princes in love and princesses tormented by passion. Enough theaters thundered with tragic adventures, possible only among monarchs and completely useless for other people.” The type of such bourgeois plays includes “The Right of the Seigneur”, “Nanina”, “The Spendthrift”, etc.

Poetry

If, as a playwright, Voltaire moved from orthodox classical tragedy through its sentimentalization, romanticization and exoticism to the drama of the New Age under the pressure of the growing movement of the “third estate,” then his evolution as an epic writer is similar. Voltaire began in the style of a classical epic (“Henriad”; originally “The League or the Great Henry”), which, however, like classical tragedy, was transformed under his hand: instead of a fictional hero, a real one was taken, instead of fantastic wars - in fact, the former, instead gods - allegorical images - concepts: love, jealousy, fanaticism (from “Essai sur la poésie épique”).

Continuing the style of the heroic epic in the "Poem of the Battle of Fontenoy", glorifying the victory of Louis XV, Voltaire then in "The Virgin of Orleans" (La Pucelle d'Orléans), caustically and obscenely ridiculing the entire medieval world of feudal-clerical France, reduces the heroic poem to the heroic farce and moves gradually, under the influence of Pope, from a heroic poem to a didactic poem, to “discourse in verse” (discours en vers), to the presentation in the form of a poem of his moral and social philosophy (“Letter on the Philosophy of Newton”, “Discourse in Verse” about man", "Natural Law", "Poem about the Lisbon disaster").

Philosophical prose

From here there was a natural transition to prose, to a philosophical novel (“The Vision of Babuk”, “Zadig or Fate”, “Micromegas”, “Candide”, “The Tale of the Babylonian Princess”, “Scarmentado” and others, - s), where, on the core of adventure, travel, and exoticism, Voltaire develops a subtle dialectic of the relationship between chance and predetermination (“Zadig or Fate”), the simultaneous baseness and greatness of man (“The Vision of Babuk”), the absurdity of both pure optimism and pure pessimism (“Candide”) , and about the only wisdom, which consists in the conviction of Candide, who has known all the vicissitudes, that a person is called to “cultivate his garden” or, as the Simple One from the story of the same name begins to understand in a similar way, to mind his own business and try to correct the world not with loud words, but with a noble example.

As for all “enlighteners” of the 18th century, fiction was not an end in itself for Voltaire, but only a means of promoting his ideas, a means of protest against autocracy, against churchmen and clericalism, an opportunity to preach religious tolerance, civil freedom, etc. According to this attitude, his work is highly rational and journalistic. All the forces of the “old order” rose furiously against this, as one of his enemies dubbed him, “Prometheus”, overthrowing the power of earthly and heavenly gods; Freron was especially zealous, whom Voltaire branded with his laughter in a number of pamphlets and brought out in the play “The Tartan” under the transparent name of the informer Frelon.

Human rights activities

In 1762, Voltaire began a campaign to overturn the sentence of Protestant Jean Calas, who had been executed for the murder of his son. As a result, Jean Kalas was found innocent and the rest of those convicted in this case were acquitted.

Attitude towards Jews

In his “Philosophical Dictionary” Voltaire wrote: “... you will find in them (the Jews) only an ignorant and barbaric people, who have long combined the most disgusting greed with the most despicable superstitions and with the most invincible hatred of all peoples who tolerate them and at the same time they enrich... Nevertheless, they should not be burned.” Louis de Bonald wrote: “When I say that philosophers are kind to Jews, one must exclude from their number the head of the 18th century philosophical school Voltaire, who throughout his life demonstrated a decisive hostility towards this people...”.

Followers of Voltaire. Voltairianism

Main article: Voltairianism

Voltaire was often forced to publish his works anonymously, renouncing them when rumor declared him to be the author, printing them abroad, and smuggling them into France. In the struggle against the dying old order, Voltaire could, on the other hand, rely on a huge influential audience both in France and abroad, ranging from “enlightened monarchs” to broad cadres of the new bourgeois intelligentsia, right up to Russia, to which he devoted his “History of Peter” and partly “Charles XII”, being in correspondence with Catherine II and with Sumarokov, and where his name was christened, although without sufficient reason, a social movement known as Voltairianism.

The cult of Voltaire reached its apogee in France during the Great Revolution, and in 1792, during the performance of his tragedy The Death of Caesar, the Jacobins decorated the head of his bust with a red Phrygian cap. If in the 19th century, in general, this cult began to decline, then the name and glory of Voltaire were always revived in eras of revolution: at the turn of the 19th century - in Italy, where the troops of General Bonaparte brought the principle of a declaration of human and civil rights, partly in England, where the fighter against The Holy Alliance, Byron, glorified Voltaire in the octaves of “Childe Harold”, then - on the eve of the March Revolution in Germany, where Heine resurrected his image. At the turn of the 20th century, the Voltairean tradition, in a unique refraction, flared up once again in the “philosophical” novels of Anatole France.

Voltaire Library

After Voltaire's death (1778), Russian Empress Catherine II expressed a desire to acquire the writer's library and instructed her agent in Paris to discuss this proposal with Voltaire's heirs. It was specifically stipulated that Catherine’s letters to Voltaire should also be included in the subject of the transaction. The heiress (Voltaire's niece, Denis's widow) willingly agreed, the transaction amount was a large sum for those times: 50,000 ecus, or 30,000 rubles in gold. The library was delivered to St. Petersburg on a special ship in the fall of 1779; it consisted of 6 thousand 814 books and 37 volumes with manuscripts. The empress did not receive her letters back; they were purchased and soon published by Beaumarchais, but Catherine agreed in advance with him that before publication she would be given the opportunity to remove individual fragments of the letters.

Voltaire's library was originally housed in the Hermitage. Under Nicholas I, access to it was closed; only A.S. Pushkin, by special order of the Tsar, was admitted there during his work on “The History of Peter”. In 1861, by order of Alexander II, Voltaire's library was transferred to the Imperial Public Library (now the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg).

Bibliography

1. Collected works in 50 volumes. - R. 1877-1882.
2. Voltaire's correspondence, ibid., vols. 33-50.
3. Yazykov D. Voltaire in Russian literature. 1879.
4. Novels and stories, translation by N. Dmitriev. - St. Petersburg, 1870.
5. Collection of poems, translation by Kurochkin. II, - St. Petersburg, 1869.
6. Voltaire M.-F. Candide. - Pantheon, 1908 (abbreviated as “Ogonyok”, 1926).
7. Voltaire M.-F. Princess of Babylon. Publishing house "World Literature", 1919.
8. Voltaire M.-F. The Virgin of Orleans", in 2 vols., with notes and articles, 1927.
9. Voltaire. Aesthetics. Articles. Letters. - M.: Art, 1974.
10. Ivanov I. I. The political role of the French theater in the 18th century. - M., 1895. on the Runiverse website
11. Zasulich V. Voltaire. - St. Petersburg, 1909.
12. Shakhov A. Voltaire and his time. - St. Petersburg, 1912.
13. Hal Hellman Great Controversies in Science. Ten most exciting debates - Chapter 4. Voltaire vs. Needham: The Birth Controversy= Great Feuds in Science: Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever. - M.: “Dialectics”, 2007. - P. 320. - ISBN 0-471-35066-4
14. Desnoiresterres G. Voltaire et la société du XVIII siècle, 8 vv. - P., 1867-1877.
15. Morley J. Voltaire. - London, 1878 (Russian translation. - M., 1889).
16. Bengesco G. Voltaire. Bibliographie de ses œuvres. 4vv. - P., 1889-1891.
17. Champion G. Voltaire. - P., 1892.
18. Strauss D. F. Voltaire. - Lpz., 1895 (Russian translation. - M., 1900).
19. Crousle L. La vie et les œuvres de Voltaire. 2 vv. - P., 1899.
20. Lanson G. Voltaire. - P., 1906.
21. Brandes. Voltaire. 2 vv. - P., 1923.
22. Maugras G. Querelles des philosophes Voltaire et Rousseau. - P., 1886.
23. Brunetière F. Les époques du théâtre français. - P., 1892.
24. Lion H. Les tragedies et les théories dramatiques de Voltaire. - P., 1896.
25. Griswald. Voltaire als Historiker. - 1898.
26. Ducros L. Les encyclopedistes. - P., 1900 (there is a Russian translation).
27. Robert L. Voltaire et l'intolérance réligieuse. - P., 1904.
28. Pellissier G. Voltaire philosophe. - P., 1908.

Film adaptations of works

Translators of Voltaire into Russian

Myths about Voltaire

Voltaire and the British Bible Society

One of the earliest references to this legend is in Sidney Collett's book The Scriptures of Truth, first published in England in 1905. According to Collett, Voltaire, who died in 1778, predicted that 100 years after his death Christianity would become a thing of history. However, less than a quarter of a century had passed before the British and Foreign Bible Society was founded (1804). The printing press on which Voltaire had printed atheistic literature was now used to print the Bible, and the house in which he lived was converted by the Bible Society of Geneva into a book warehouse where biblical literature was stored.

Collett's book went through many editions in England and was published in the USA under the title All About the Bible. Even if she is not the source of the myth, she plays a leading role in its spread.

Similar stories have been published in many books and Internet sites. Most often houses appear in Geneva or Paris, less often in Germany or Austria. The Bible organization usually referred to is the Geneva Bible Society or the British and Foreign Bible Society. The period between Voltaire's death and the purchase of the house varies from 20 to 100 years. It is noteworthy that in most sources Voltaire is characterized as an atheist, whereas he was a deist. None of the publications contain links to sources of information.

The Bible societies of France, Switzerland and Great Britain deny ownership of the former houses of Voltaire. Voltaire's biographer Theodore Besterman also denies this:

The likely source of the misunderstanding was the acquisition in 1846 by the British and Foreign Bible Society (English) Russian "Gibbon's House" in Lausanne, named after the famous historian and atheist Edward Gibbon. Until 1859, this building housed a transit center for the distribution of religious literature. American Bible Society (English) Russian (ABS) participated in this purchase, providing assistance to the British brothers in the amount of $10,000. Speech dedicated to this event by ABS member William Snodgrass (English) Russian contained in the 1849 ABS Annual Report. The mention of Voltaire in this context apparently served as one of the sources of the myth:

“...The committee found it possible to send $10,000 to France, the birthplace of Voltaire, who predicted that in the 19th century the Bible would be known only as an antique. I may report in this connection that Gibbon's house (named after the famous atheist) has been converted into a warehouse for the Bible Society, under the direction of a book agent. The very ground on which this famous scoffer walked became the site of the distribution of the book against which his efforts were directed.” Original text(English) “… The committee had been able to redeem their pledge by sending $10,000 to France, the country of Voltaire, who predicted that in the nineteenth century the Bible would be known only as a relic of antiquity. He could say, while on this topic, that the Hotel Gibbon (so-called from that celebrating infidel) is now become the very depository of the Bible Society, and the individual who superintends the building is an agent for the sale and receipt of the books. The very ground this illustrious scoffer often paced, has now become the scene of the operation and success of an institution established for the diffusion of the very book against which his efforts were directed.