NBUPOSHCH, NBUPOSHCH, NBUPOSHCH... nBUPOCH CHYOSF CHP CHUEN - CH TB'CHBME uuut, CH TBURBDE LLPOPNYLY, CH PVOEYEBOYY MADEK, IPFS UFPYF UETSHEP OBYUBFSH CHP CHUEN TBVYTBFSHUS, FP OILFP OYZDE OE NPCEF PVOBTHTSYFSH DBCE RTJOBLPCH "NBUPOULYI LPOYEK".
fBL LFP CE FBLIE, LFY NBUPOSHCH? pFLHDB POI CHSMYUSH, YUEN BOINBAFUS Y L YUENH UFTENSFUS? rPYUENKh YI UHEUFCHPCHBOYE CHSHCHCHBEF FBL NOPZP LTYCHPFPMLCH? pFYUEZP, OEUNPFTS ABOUT UBNSHE ZHBOFBUFYUEULYE PVCHYOEOYS CH YI BDTEU, L OYN RTYOBDMETSBMY NOPZYE DPUFPKOSHCHE Y CHSHCHDBAEYEUS MADY, OE FPMSHLP CH DTHZYI UFTBOBI, OP Y H tpuuy?
ABOUT UBNPN DEME, CH UEZPDOSIOEN NYTE FTHDOP OBKFY UFTBOH, ZDE OE VSHMP VSH MADEK, GENERAL UEVS "CHPMSHOSCHNY LBNEOEILBNY". h echtpre MY, CH bNETYLE, CH BYY YMY BZHTYLE - CHESCHCH UNPTSEFE PFSCHULBFSH EDBOIS U GYTLKHMEN Y HZPMSHOYLPN ABOUT ZHTPOFPOE. yFP NBUPOULIE ITBNSCH, ZDE RTY UCHEFE UCHEYUK CHPF HCE RPYuFY 300 MEF YDEF OEEBNEFOBS NBUPOULBS TBVPFB. upVYTBAEYEUS CH FIYI DPNBI MADY NPZKhF VSHCHFSH YUETOPLPTSYNY YMY VEMSHCHNY, YNEFSH RP-BYBFULY TBULPUSHE ZMBB, YURPCHEDPCHBFSH ITYUFYBOUFCHP, VKHDYIN, YUMBN, MAVHA DTKHZHA TEMYZYA, Y FEN OE NOOEE PEHEBFSH UEVS EDYOSCHNY. uFP RTYCHPDYF YI RPD UEOSH NBUPOULYI ITBNPC, LBL UNPZMY POY OE FPMSHLP UPITBOYFSH UCHPE VTBFUFCHP CH FOYEOOYE UFPMEFYK, OP Y TBURTPUFTBOYFSH EZP IDEY RP CHUENKH NYTH?
UEZPDOS NSCH BOPPCHP PFLTSCHCHBEN DMS UEVS UPVUFCHEOOHA YUFPTYA Y CHYDYN: FP, UFP CH FEYUEOYE 70 MEF CHSHCHDBCHBMPUSH SB BY OEE, YNEEF NBMP PVEEZP U TEBMSHOPUFSHHA. pDOY YUFPTYUEULYE RETUPOBTSY, LPFPTSHCHE TBOEE HRPNYOBMYUSH MYYSH CHULPMSHSH, CHSHCHTBUFBAF CH CHCHDBAEYIUS DESFEMEK pFEYUEUFCHB, DTHZYE - OBVPTPF, NEMSHYUBAF. OPCHSHCHE, B FPYUOEEE ULBBFSH, UFBTSHCH ZHBLFSCH DEMBAF RTPYMPE PVAYENOSCHN, OBRPMOSAF EZP TSYCHSHCHNY MADSHNY.

pFLHDB RPYMP NBUPOUFCHP? rPSCHMEOYE ZHTBOLNBUPOUFCHB FEUOP UCHSBOP U YUFPTYEK UTEDOECELPCHI TENEUMEOOSCHI ZYMSHDYK Y VTBFUFCH. h BOZMYY, PFLHDB, UPVUFCHEOOP, Y CHEDEFUS YUFPTYS UPCHTENEOOOPZP NBUPOUFCHB, RETCHSHCHE GEI RPSCHIMYUSH CH XII CHELE, PDOBLP TBUGCHEFPN GEIPCHPZP DCHYTSEOIS UYUYFBEFUUS XV CHEL, LPZDB TENE UMEOOOSCHE PVYAEDYOEOYS UFBMY YZTBFSH CHBTSOHA TPMSH CH TSYOY UOBYUBMB ZPTPDCH, B RPFPN Y CHUEK UFTBOSHCH. fBL, UBNSHCHE LTHROSCHE YOYI PVMBDBMY RTBCHPN RPUSHMBFSH UCHPYI RTEDUFBCHYFEMEK CH ZPTPDULYE UPCHEFSCH Y DBTSE HYUBUFCHPCHBFSH CH CHSHCHVPTBI RBTMBNEOFB.
ZYMSHDYY DEMYMYUSH ABOUT FTY TBTSDB. CHIPDSEYE CH RETCHSHCHK TBTSD YNEMY RTBCHP OBRTBCHMSFSH H ZPTPDULPK UPCHEF YEUFETSHCHI UCHPYI RTEDUFBCHYFEMEK, ZYMSHDYY CHFPTPZP TBBTSDB - YEFSHTEI, FTEFSHEZP TBTSDB - DCHPYI. l LFPNH READING GEI HCE CHMBDEMY UPVUFCHEOOOSCHNY DPNBNY Y VPZBDEMSHOSNNY, YI YI UTEDSCH CHSHDEMSMYUSH OBYVPMEE PDBTEOOOSCHE Y DEFEMSHOSCHE MADY, LPFPTSHCHCHRPUMEDUFCHYY UFBOHF ZhBVTY LBOFBNY Y RTEDRTYOYNBFEMSNY.
YuMEOSCH OBYVPMEE RPYEFOSCHI GEIPCH OPUIMY NHODYTSCH Y UPUFBCHMSMY ZPTPDULHA OBFSH; SING PVMBDBMY YYTPLYNY RTBCHBNY Y RTYCHYMEZYSNY, LPFPTSHNY PFUBUFY UPRETOYUBMY U ENEMSHOPK BTYUFPLTBFYEK.
RPTPK LFY RTYCHYMEZYY UFBOCHYMYUSH RTYUYOPK TEELLPZP OEDCHPMSHUFCHB ZPTPDULYI CHMBUFEK. l RTINETH, Y'CHEUFEO UMHYUBK, LPZDB NHOIGIRBMYFEF lLUEFFETB OBRTBCHYM VTYFBOULPNH LPTPMA TsBMPVH OB FP, UFP GEI RPTFOSHCHI "RTYCHMELBEF CH UCHPA UTEDH RPUFPTPOYI Y D BCE OE TSYCHHEYI CH ZPTPDE MYG", BUFBCHMSS YI DEMBFSH CHOPUSCH CH UCHPA LBUUKH.
GEY LBNEEILPCH OE VSCHMY UBNSCHNY UVBTSCHNY YMY UBNSCHNY CHMYSFEMSHOSCHNY UTEDY DTKHZYI GEIPCH, RETCHPE KhRPNYOBOYE P OYI CH PZHYGYBMSHOSHCHI DPLKHNEOFBI PFOPUYFUS L LPOGH XIV CHELB, LPZDB ZYMSHDYS UFTPIFEMEK VSCHMB PFOUEOB LP CHFPTPNH TBTSDH. oP HCE CH 1411 ZPDH mPODPOULYK GEI LBNEOEILPCH VSCHM YOLPTRPTYTPCHBO (F.E. CHLMAYEO CH YUYUMP PZHYGYBMSHOSHCHI HUTETSDEOYK), B H 1472 ZPDH RPMKHYUYM UCHPK ZETV. at 1481 ZPDB LPTPMECHULYN HLBPN YUMEOBN LFPZP PVYAEDDOEOYS VSCHMP DBOP RTBCHP OPUIFSH NHODYT, YOSCHNY UMPCHBNY, POY RPMKHYUYMY CHEUSH PVYAEN RTBC Y RTYCHYMEZYK, LPFPTSHNY RPM SHPCHBMYUSH UBNSHCHE LTHROSCHE Y CHMYSFEMSHOSHE ZYMSHDYY TENEUMEOILPCH.
lBNEOEILY FPTS RTBLFILPCHBMY RTYEN CH UCHPY TSDSCH MADEK, OE CHMBDECHYI RTPZHEUUYEK UFTPIFEMS; U FFPZP NPNEOFB CHPOYLBAF DCHE LBFEZPTYY NBUPOCH - "PRETBFYCHOSHCHE", F.E. FE, LFP SCHMSMUS UFTPIFEMEN Y CHMBDEM UFTPIFEMSHOPK RTPZHEUUYEK, Y "URELKHMSFICHOSCHE" YMY "RTYOBOOSHCHE" - OE YNECHYE OILBLPK UCHSHOY UP UFTPIFEMSHUFCHPN, OP TEYCHYYE RPDYUYOSFSH US CHOKHFTEOOYN RTBCHYMBN GEIB LBNEOEILCH, RTYOSFSH YI PVSCHYUBY Y NPTBMSHOSHCHE RPUFHMBFSHCH, Y, UPPFCHEFUFCHEOOP, RPMShЪPCHBFSHUS YI RTYCHYMEZYSNY.
pDOB Y ChBTSOEKYI RTYCHYMEZYK LBNEOEILPC - UCHPVPDB RETEDCHYTSEOIS, LPFPTBS VSCHMB OEEPVIPDYNB RP TPDH RTPZHEUYY, RPULPMSHLKh UTEDOECELPCHCHN UFTPIFEMSN RTYIPDYMPUSH RETEETSBFSH Y ZPTPDB CH ZPTPD DMS HYBUFIS CH CHPCHEDEOYY BLNLPCH, DPNPC OBFY, GETLCHEK Y UVPTPCH. h FE CHTENEOB CHUE RPDBFOSHCH UMPY PVEEUFCHB VSCHMY PVSBOSH UPVMADBFSH TSEUFLIE BLPOSHCH PV PUEDMPUFY. lBNEOEILY VSCHMY EDYOUFCHEOOOSCHNY RPDBFOSHCHNY TSYFEMSNY BOZMYY, LPFPTSHCHN VSCHMP RPCHPMEOP UCHPVPDOP RETEDCHYZBFSHUS RP UFTBOE. rPFPNKh YI UFBMY OBSCCHBFSH "CHPMSHOSCHNY". fBL RPSCHIMPUSH OSCHOEOYOE OBCHBOYE "ZHTBOLNBUPO" (free mason) - "CHPMSHOSCHK LBNEOEIL".

MPCB ​​- FFP BTFEMSH dTECHOYE DPLKHNEOFSHCH, TBUULBJSCHCHBAEYE P TSOYOY Y DEFEMSHOPUFY BOZMYKULYI UFTPIFEMSHOSHCHI TBVPYYI - FFP BTFEMSHOSCHE HUFBCHSHCH, PFOPUSEYEUS L XIV Y OBYUBMH XV CHELCH. YI OYI CHYDOP, UFP YI UPVTBOYS RTPCHPDYMYUSH CH UREGIBMSHOPN LTSCHFPN RPNEEEOYY, OBSCCHCHBENPN MPTSEK (Lodge), CH LPFPTPK VEUUENEKOSHCHE TBVPYUYE FBLTS Y TSYMY. b RPTSDLPN TBVPF Y RPCHEDEOYEN LBNEOEILPCH UMEDIM UFBTYK NBUFET Y OBDITBFEMY. CUFHRBS CH BTFEMSH, TBVPYUYe RTYOPUYMY RTYUSZKH "ON LOYZE" (PYUECHIDOP, ABOUT HUFBCHE). h XV CHELE MPTSEK UFBMY GENERAL FPMSHLP NBUFETULHA, OP Y UBNKh BTFEMSH.
LTPNE GEIPCHSCHI PTZBOYBGYK TENEUMEOOOYLY PVYAEDDYOSMYUSH H VPMEE FEUOSCHE UPASHCH - VTBFUFCHB CHBYNPRPNPEY, OPUICHYE GETLPCHOP-TEMYZYPOYOSCHK IBTBLFET. h OII UKHEUFCHPCHBM LHMShF UCHSFPZP RPLTPCHYFEMS GEIB (X LBNEOEILPC, LBL RTBCHYMP, LFP VSCHM UCH.yPBOO), VPMSHYHA TPMSH CH DESFEMSHOPUFY LFYI VTBFUFCH YZTBMY CHBYNOBS ЪB VPFB Y RPNPESH, B FBLTS RPNPESH CH RHFEYUFCHYSI, DMS YuEZP YURPMSHЪPCHBMYUSH RBTPMY Y FBKOSHCHE OBBLLY, RP LPFPTSCHN VTBFSHUS NPZMY HOBFSH DTHZ DTHZB Y PLBЪBFSH RPDDETTSLH . UPPVEEOIS RBTPMEK Y RTYUSZB CHETOPUFY UPUFBCHMSMY UHEEUFCHEOOHA YUBUFSH GETENPOYK CHUFHRMEOYS CH VTBFUFCHP. h ZPDYUOSCHE GEIPCHSHCHE RTBDOYLY HUFBYCHBMYUSH RYTHHYLY, ZDE TYFHBM UPVMADBMUS OE NEOEE UFTPPZP, YUEN RTY RTPCHEDEOYY PVSCHYUOSCHI CHUFTEYU Y VEUED.
rBTPMY Y FBKOSHCHE OBLY UHEEUFCHPCHBMY OE FPMSHLP X YUMEOPCH VTBFUFCH, OP Y X YUMEOPCH GEIPCH, ZDE SING VSHMY FEUOP UCHSBOSCH U LCHBMYZHYLBGEK. RTY RETEIPDE PF PDOPZP UFTPIFEMSHUFCHB L DTHZPNH U YI RPNPESH LBNEOEILY UPPVEBMY P UCHPEK RTYOBDMETSOPUFY L GEIKH Y PV HTPCHOE NBUFETUFCHB.
UP CHFPTPK RPMPCHYOSCH XVI CHELB CH TSYOY TENEUMEOOSCHI UPACH LBNEOEILPCH OBUFBAF FTHDOSHCHE CHTENEOB. rPSCHMSAFUS OPCHSHCHE, NEOEE FTHDPENLYE, NEFPDSH UFTPIFEMSHUFCHB, ZPFILB UNEOSEFUUS OPCHSHCHNY BTIYFELFHTOSCHNY UFYMSNY, CH BOZMYY RPSCHMSAFUS YOPUFTBOOSCH UFTPIFEMY - ZHTBOGHSHCH, OENGSHCH, ZPMMB ODGS. at OBYUBMPN TEZHPTNBGYY OBYUBMYUSH ZPOEOIS ABOUT CHUE PTZBOYGYY, OPUICHYYE GETLPCHOSCHK IBTBLFET, Y CH 1547 ZPDKh H bozmyy CHUE SING VSHMY BLTEEEOSCH RBTMBNEOFULYN BLFPN.
NOPZYE TENEUMEOOSCHE VTBFUFCHB OE UNPZMY RETECYFSH FFPZP Y YUYUEMMY. pDOBLP, NBUPOULPE VTBFUFCHP HUFPSMP; POP RETEUFBMP VSHCHFSH LBFPMYYUEULYN, GETLPCHOSCHE PVTSDSC Y NYUFETYY OB VYVMEKULYE FENSCH YUYUEMMY YY YI PVIIPDB, OP GETENPOYY RTYENB, ZPDYUOSCHE VBOLEFSCH Y DTHZYE UVBTSHE PVShch YUBY RTPDPMTSBMY UPITBOSFSHUS, RTECHTBFYCHYUSH CH RTPUOKHA FTBDYGYA.
u FFPZP READING OBYUBMPUSH ЪBNEFOPE TBDEMEOYE GEIPCH Y VTBFUFCH: RETCHSHCHE CHEDBMY YUYUFP RTPZHEUUIPOBMSHOPK UFPTPOPK DEMB, CHFPTSCHE - ITBOIMY Y TBCHYCHBMY LFYUEULIE FTBDYG YY VTBFULPZP PVEEOIS Y CHYNPRPNPEY. UP READING RTPYYPYMP Y PTZBOYBGYPOOPE TBDEMEOYE: HCE NPTSOP VSCHMP VSCHFSH YUMEOPN VTBFUFCHB, OE UPUFPS CH GEIE, Y OBPVPTPF.
dTECHOYEK DPLHNEOFBMSHOP RPDFCHETSDEOOOSCHK UMHYUBK HYBUFYS CH NBUPOULYY FTHDBI OE-UFTPIYFEMS PFOPUYFUS L LYYOVHTZULPK MPCE yPFMBODY: 3 YAOS 1600 ZPDB ABOUT UPVTBOYY RTYU HFUFCCHBM ULT dTsPO vPUHMM, MPTD pyuyomelulyk. at FEI RPT RTYUHFUFCHYE YPFMBODULPK OBFY CH MPTSBI UFBOCHYFUS ЪBHTSDOSCHN. rTBCHDB, CH LPOGE XVII CHELB CHUFTEYUBMYUSH MPTSY, UPUFPSCHYE URMPYSH YЪ LBNEOEILPC (OBRTINET, MPTSB CH ZMBZP), OP PDOCHTENEOOP U OYNY VSCHMY MPTSY OBRPDPVYE bVETDYOULPK, ​​ZDE CH 167 0 ZPDKh Yb 49 YumeOPCH FPMSHLP 12 VSCHMY RTPZHEUYPOBMSHOSHCHNY LBNEOEILBNY, PUFBMSHOSHCHE VSHCHMY RBUFPTBNY, LPNNETUBOFBNY, RTEDUFBCHYFEMSNY YOFEMMMYZEOFOSHCHNY RTPZHEUUIK - HYUE OCHNY, RYUBFEMSNY YMY RTEDUFBCHYFEMSNY DCHPTSOULPZP UPUMPCHYS.
nPCOP FPMSHLP DPZBDSCCHBFSHUS P RTYUJOBI, FPMLBCHYI FFYI MADEK L CHUFHRMEOYA CH NBUPOULIE VTBFUFCHB. dms EMSHOSHCHNY DMS BTYUFPLTBFPCH Y DESFEMEK GETLCHY, LPFPTCHE VSHMY UBNSCHN RTYCHYMEZYTPCHBOOSCHN UPUMPCHYEN BOZMYY Y DTHZYI UFTBO ECHTPRSCH. rtEDRPMPTSYFEMSHOP, LFP NPZMP VSHFSH UFTENMEOYE L UVBTYOE Y FTBDYGYSN, L DTECHOIN MEZEODBN P RTPYUIPTSDEOYY NBUPOULYI VTBFUFCH, CHUEEMSHCHN FTBDYGYPOOSCHN RYTHYLBN YMY CHPNPTSOPUFY RPLTPCHYFEMSHUFCHPCHBFSH UMBVSHCHN.
oELPFPTSHCHE YUUMEDPCHBFEMY NBUPOULPK YUFPTYY RTEDPMBZBAF, YuFP RPSCHMEOYE CH MPTSBI RTEDUFBCHYFEMEK CHCHUYI UMPECh PVEEUFCHB VSCHMP CHCHCHBOP YI UFTENMEOYEN LPOFTPMYTPCHBFSH DEFEMSHOPUF Sh MPTs, YVP UHEEUFCHPCHBMP PRBUEOYE, UFP TBVPFSCH, RTPCHPDYCHYYEUS CH OII, NPZMY VSHFSH PRBUOSCH DMS RTBCSEEZP LMBUUB. oEF UNSHUMB PFTYGBFSH LFP RPMOPUFSHA, OP, CHYDYNP, OEF UNSHUMB PFTYGBFSH Y FP, UFP BTYUFPLTBFYS CEMBMB ChPZMBCHYFSH NBUPOUFCHP Ch RPMYFYUEULYI GEMSI, DMS FPZP, YuF PVShch YURPMSHЪPCHBFSH EZP CHPЪNPTSOPUFY CH UCHPYI YOFETEUBI.

vTBFUFCHP Y EZP RPLTCHYFEMY OP LBL VSH FP OY VSCHMP, NBUPOULPE VTBFUFCHP, RTPDPMTSBS PUFBCHBFSHUS CH UCHPEK NBUUE RTPZHEUYPOBMSHOSHCHN PVYAEDOOEOYEN UFTPIFEMEK, RPMKHYUYMP CHSHCHUPLYI RPLTPCHYFEMEK, VMBZPDBTS LPFPTSCH N, CHYDYNP, Y UPITBOYMPUSH FPZDB, LPZDB TENEUMEOOSCHE GEI UFBMY RPUFEREOOP RTYIPDYFSH H HRBDPL Y YUYUEEBFSH.
h FP CHTENS CH MPTSY CHUFHRBAF RTEDUFBCHYFEMY HUEOPK YOFEMMYZEOGYY, ZHYMPUPZHSHCH Y MADY TEZHPTNBFPTULPZP ULMBDB HNB, LPFPTSCHE YЪ-ЪB OBUFKHRICHYEK CHUMED ЪB TEZHPTNBG YEK TEBLGYEK HCE OE NPZMY UCHPVPDOP CHSHCHULBSCCHBFSH UCHPY CHZMSDSCH. h NBUPOUFCHP RTPOILBAF HFPRYUEULYE YDEY, HFCHETSDBCHYYE, UFP NPTSOP RPUFTPAYFSH URTBCHEDMYCHPE PVEEUFCHP ABOUT PUOPCHBI DPUFYTSOYK OBHLY Y TBHNB. TBCHYFYA FFYI IDEK LBL OEMSHЪS VPMSHYE URPUPVUFCHPCHBM Y UPUFBCH UFTPAYFEMSHOSHCHI LPTRPTBGYK, CH LPFPTSCHE, OBTSDH U RTEDUFBCHYFEMSNY FSTSEMPZP THYUOPZP FTHDB, CHIPDYMY MADY FCH PTYUEULIE - IHDPTSOYLY, ULKHMSHRFPTSCH, BTIYFELFPTSCH. nBUPOULYK GEI UBN RP UEVE VSCHM UYNCHPMPN FPZP, UFP MAVPE LTHROPE DEMP FTEVHEF UZMBUOSCHI KHUYMYK CHUEI TBVPYYI, LBL VSC OY OYLLY YMY CHSHCHUPLY VSCHMY YI RPBOBOIS Y HNEOY E. uFB DTECHOSS LFYLB UFTPYFEMEK UFBMB VMBZPDBFOPC RPYUCHPK DMS TBCHYFYS IDEK URTBCHEDMYCHPUFY, TBCHEOUFCHB Y OEOBUIMSHUFCHEOOPZP RETEDEMMB PVEEUFCHB ABOUT OPCHPK, VPMEE TBHNOPC PU OPCE.
IDEY LFY VSCHMP OEVEEPRBUOP RTCHP'ZMBYBFSH PFLTSCHFP; PFUADB VETEF UCHPE OBYUBMP UYNCHPMYUEULYK SJSCHL NBUPOUFCHB. uftpyfemshoshche YOUFTTHNEOFSHCH UFBOPCHSFUS ЪBLBNY, UYNCHPMYYTKHAEINY OTBCHUFCHEOOOSCHE LBYEUFCHB, CHPRMPEPAF FYYUEULYE BLPOSC URTBCHEDMYCHPUFY, UBN RTPGEUU UFTPYFEMSH UFChB UFBOCHYFUS UYNCHPMPN RPUFTPEOYS OPCHPZP UCHETIEOOOPZP PVEEUFCHB. nBUPOUFCHP, FBLYN PVTBBPN, RPUFEREOOP RTECHTBEBEFUUS YЪ LPTRPTBFICHOPK YDEPMPZYY TENEUMEOOPZP VTBFUFCHB CH FYUEULPE HYUEOYE, CHPUYFSHCHCHBAEEE CH UCHPYI BDERFBI MKHYYYE YUEM PCHEYUEULIE LBYUEUFCHB.
CHPF LBL RYUBM P NBUPOULYI TBVPFBI CHSHCHDBAEYKUS THUULYK RYUBFEMSH NYIBYM PUPTZYO: "h RETURELFYCHE MYRPCHPK BMMEY RPSCHMSAFUS PYUETFBOYS UFPSEEZPUS TBNB, LPFPTSCHK OILPZDB OE VH DEF DPUFTPEO. UADB UFELBAFUS YЪP CHUI UFTBO MADY, PFNEYUEOOOSCHE PUPVSHCHNY FBMBOFBNY, OE RTPZHBOULYNY ЪBUMHZBNY, OE VPZBFUFCHPN, OE TPPDCHYFPUFSHHA, OE RPKNBOOPK ЪB ICHPUF UMBCHPK, B FBKOPC REYUBFSHHA RPUCHSEEOOPUFY.POI OILEN OE RTYCHBOSCH - POI UBNY UEVS OBYMY Y CHBYNOP HFCHEDYMY. Y PFDEMYMB PF UMPVUFCHHAEEZP, VPMSHOPZP, OERTPUCHEEEEOOPZP NYTB, LPFPTSCHK DPMTSOP RETEUPDBFSH.h HAF YuEMPCHEYUFCHP ZPFPCHSHCHNY RTPZTBNNBNY, RPFYUKHAF EZP UPGYBMSHOSHCHNY PRSHCHFBNY, CHTSCHCHBAF DTHZ X DTHZB CHPCTSY DTEVETSBEYI LPMEUOYG Y LBFSFUS LKHVBTEN RPD OPZY CHUVEUICH YYIUS MPYBDEK, - LFY FBKOSHCHE ЪBZPCHPTEYLY, CHOE RPMYFYUEULYI UFTBUFEK Y RTEDTBUUUHDLPCH - RP FH UFPTPOH DPZNSCH Y PVSBFEMSHOSHCHI CHETPCHBOYK, CHPPTHTSYCHYUSH NPMPFPN Y TEEGPN YULBOYK, NEDMEOOP PVFEUSCHCHBAF LBCDSCHK UCHPK UPVUFCHEOOOSCHK ZTHVSHCHK LBNEOSH, UVBTBSUSH RTYDBFSH ENH RTBCHIMSHOKHA, HDPVOHA DMS RTYZPOLY L DTHZYN ZHPTNKH. rTPYEDYYE RETCHSHCHK YULKHU LMBDHF Ъ LFYI LBNOEK ZHHODBNEOF Y CHPЪCHPDSF UFEOSCH OPCHPZP YDEBMSHOPZP iTBNB; YURSHCHFBOOSCHE H TBVPFE OBOPUSF RTELTBUOSCHK TYUKHOPL ABOUT YETFETSOKHA DPULCH Y THLPCHPDSF UFTPCLPK. CHEMYUBCHSHCHK iTBN TBUFEF Y CHYTSH Y CHCHSHCHUSH, - OP NBUYFBVSCH EZP FBLPCSHCH, UFP FPMSHLP CHUE YuEMPCHEUEFCHP NPZMP VSH PVEYNY DTHTSOSCHNY KHUIMISNY DPHETYFSH EZP RPUFTPKLH EDOOSCHN LH RPMPN. DPTSYFSH DP LFPZP OE NEYUFBEF OY PYO LBNEOEIL; PO DPCHPMSHUFCHHEFUS UCHPYN NBMSCHN CHLMBDPN, - Y PO HNITBEF, UBCHEEBS UCHPE DEMP NBUFETH OPCHPNKH, LPFPTSCHK, NPTSEF VSHFSH, RETEDEMBEF SBOPCHP CHUA EZP TBVPFKh, RPFPNKh YuFP MHYu YEE CHTBZ IPTPYEZP, YUFYOB OILPNKH OE Y'CHEUFOB...".

RETCHBS CHAMELBS mPCB rP NETE TPUFB YUYUMB MPTs CHPOYLBMB OEPVVIPDYNPUFSH LPPTDYOYTPCHBFSH YI DESFEMSHOPUFSH. rPFPPNKh MPODPOE Ch 1717 ZPDKh YuEFSCHTE MPTSY PVYAEDOYOMYUSH Y UPDBMY UCHPEPVTBOBOSCHK PTZBO OBDPTB, CHEMYLKHA MPCH, ETSEPDOSHCHE UPVTBOYS LPFPTPK RTYCHMELBMY RPCHSHCHIEOOPE CHOYNBOYE PVEEUFCHB Y RTCHTBEBMY PTDEO CH DYOBNYUOP TBUFHEEE DCHYTSEOYE. lBL VSH FP OH VSHMP, CH BOZMYY NETSDH 1737 Y 1907 ZPDBNY CH VTBFUFCHE UPUFPSMY YEUFOBDGBFSH RTYOGECH Y YUEFCHETP YOYI UFBMY CHRPUMEDUFCHY LPTPMSNY.
U PVYAEDOOYEN PRETBFICHOSHI Y RTJOBOOSCHI NBUPOCH CH EDYOPE VTBFUFCHP NBUPOUFCHP RTYOSMP FH ZHPTNKH, CH LPFPTPK POP UHEEUFCHHEF Y UEZPDOS. pF PRETBFICHOPZP NBUPOUFCHB POP RETEOSMP UFTPIFEMSHOSHOSCHE YOUFTTHNEOFSHCH, UFEROOY, PFTTBTSBAEYE HTPCHEOSH RPCHSEEOOPUFY YUMEOOPCH MPTs CH NBUPOULIE FBKOSHCH, UELTEFOSHCHE UMPCHB Y OBLY, RTY RPNPE L PFPTSCHI NBUPOSH HOBAF DTHZ DTHZB, PVSBOOPUFSH FTHDYFSHUS Y NOPZPE DTHZPE. rtyobooshche NBUPOSHCH, LPFPTSHCHE CH NBUUE UCHPEK VSHCHMY MADSHNY YOFEMMELFHBMShOPZP FTHDB, ABOUT LFPN ZHHODBNEOFE RPUFTPIMY UFTPKOPE UDBOYE NBUPOULPK UINCHPMYLY, LPFPTBS PFTBTSBM B YI RPOYNBOYE NYTB, CHETH CH CHP-NPTSOPUFSH UPDBOYS URTBCHEDMYCHPZP PVEEUFCHB YUETE UPUCHETIOUFCHCHBOYE LBTsDPZP YEZP YUMEOOPCH Y PFOPIEOYK NETSDH ONY. CHPOYLMY NBUPOULYE MEZEODSCH, OBYUBMYUSH RPYULY YUFYOSCH CH DTECHOYI CHETCHBOYSI Y HUEOYSI.
UYUYFBEFUS, UFP RPUMEDOIN CHEMYLYN nBUFETPN PRETBFICHOPZP NBUPOUFCHB VSCM BOZMYKULYK BTIYFELFPT LTYUFPJET TEO, RPUFTPYCHYK UPVPT uChSFPZP rBChMB Ch mpodpoe. h FEYUEOYE CHPUENOBDGBFY MEF, RPLB YMP UFTPIFEMSHUFCHP ITBNB, PO RPUEEBM TBURPMPTSEOOKHA OERPDBMELKh MPTSH uCHSFPZP rBCHMB.
p EZP NBUFETUFCHE ЪPDYUEZP DBEF RTEDUFBCHMEOYE FBLBS YUFPTYS. lPZDB UVPPT HCE VSHCHM RPYuFY RPUFTPEO, ZPTPDULYE CHMBUFY PVTBFYMY CHOYNBOYE OB FP, UFP CH GEOPTBMSHOPN RTPUFTBOUFCHE ITBNB OEF LPMPOO, LPFPTSHCHE RPDDETSYCHBMY VSH PZTPNOSCHI TB ЪNETCH RPFPMPL. LTYUFPZHET THEO HVETSDBM, YUFP LPMPOOSCHOE OHTSOSCH Y RPFPMPLOE PVCHBMYFUS, Y RTYCHPDYM CH LBYUEUFCHE DPLBBFEMSHUFCHB UCHPY TBUYEFSHCH. pDOBLP ENH OE RPCHETYMY Y TBURPTSDYMYUSH RPDRETEFSH RPFPMPL UPVPTB LPMPOOBNY. THEO CHSHCHRPMOYM LFP FTEVPCHBOYE, OP... CHPCHEDEOOSHCHE YN LPMPOOSCHOE DPUFBAF DP RPFPMLB, NETSDH LBRYFEMSNY Y UBNYN RPFPMLPN EUFSH RTPUFTBOUFCHP. LFY LPMPOOSCH, OE RPDRYTBAEIE RPFPMPL, UFPSF Y UEZPDOS, SCHMSSUSH UINCHPMPN CHSHCHUPYUBKYEZP NBUFETUFCHB ЪPDYUEZP Y PVSCHUOPZP OEDPCHETYS CHMBUFEK L DPUFYTSEOISN OBHL.
at ZPDBNY NBUPOUFCHP UCHCHETYEOUFCHCHBMP UCHPA PTZBOYBGYA. h 1723 ZPDKH CH BOZMYY VSCHMB PRHVMYLPCHBOB "LOYZB HUFBCHPCH", OBRYUBOOBS YPFMBODULYN UCHSEOOOYLPN dTSEKNUPN bodetutopn. FFPF DPLKHNEOF RTCHPYZMBYBM, UFP RTEDUFBCHYFEMY TBMYUOSCHI TEMYZYPHOSCHI FEYUEOYK DPMTSOSCH UHNEFSH PVYAEDOIFSHUS H DTHTSEUFCHEOOOPK BFNPUZHETE MPTSY DMS URPLPKOPZP PVUKhTSDEOY WITH OPCHSCHI IDEK. "IPFS H DTECHOYE CHTENEOB NBUPOSCH RTYOYNBMY CHETPYURPCEDBOYE FPC UFTBOSHCH, CH LPFPTPK POY OBIPDYMYUSH, FERETSH TS RTEDUFBCHMSEFUS GEMEUPPVTBOSCHN RTYOHDYFSH YI RETEKFI CH FH TEMYZYA, ZDE CHU E MADY RTYDHF L CHBYNOPNKH UZMBUYA, PUFBCHYCH RTY UEVE UCHPE YUBUFOPE NOOYE; SHNY, LBL OH VSCHMY VSCH TBMYUOSCH YI OBCHBOIS Y HVETSDEOYS", - ZPCHPTYMPUSH CH "LOYSE HUFBCHPCH".
at FEI RPT FETRYNPUFSH Y OERTEDKHVETSDEOOPUFSH UFBMY BLPOPN, UCHSFP UPVMADBAEYNUS CH NBUPOULYI FTHDBI. FYRPZTBZHULYN URPUPVPN "HUFBCHSHCH" VSCHMY YODBOSHCH CH bNETYLE CH 1734 ZPDH CHEMYLYN nBUFETPN VEODTSBNYOPN zhTBOLMYOPN CH zhYMBDEMSHZHYY.
pYUEOSH VSHCHUFTP NBUPOULPE VTBFUFCHP RHUFYMP LPTOY RP CHUENH ECHTPREKULPNH LPOFYOEOFH. h LPOGE 30-I ZPDCH XVIII CHELB MPTSY UHEEUFCHPCHBMY CH VEMSHZYY, tPUUYY, YFBMYY, ZETNBOYY, yCHEKGBTYY. h 1735 ZPDH CH rBTYCE DEKUFCHPCHBMP 5 MPTs, L 1742 ZPDH YI YUYUMP CHP-TPUMP DP DCHBDGBFY DCHHI, B Yuete UPTPL RSFSH MEF, OBLBOHOE zhTBOGHULPK TECHPMAGYY, YUYUMP NBUPOCH DPUFYZB MP 100 FSHCHUSYU.

nBUPOSH Y GETLPCHSH lBFPMYYUEULBS GETLPCHSH U RPDPTYFEMSHOPUFSHHA Y PRBULPK OBVMADBMB OB VSHCHUFTSHCHN TBURTPUFTBOOYEN NBUPOUFCHB. nBUPOSCH VSHCHUFTP UPDBMY UCHPY UPVUFCHEOOOSCHE TYFHBMSCH, YUFPTYA, MEZEODSCH Y YETBTIYA, LPFPTSCHE SCHMSAFUS OEPFYAENMENPK RTYOBDMETSOPUFSHHA PZHYGIBMSHOPK TEMYZYY. xCE Ch 1738 ZPDKh RBRB lMYNEOF XII CHSHCHUFKHRIM U RETCHSHCHN Y PYUEOSH STPUFOSHCHN PVMYUEOYEN NBUPOUFCHB. h UCHPEK OGYLMYLE ON RPCHEMECHBM PFMHYUBFSH PF GETLCHY CHUEI LBFPMYLPCH, RTPIEDYYI PVTSD RPCHSEEOIS CH NBUPOULPE VTBFUFCHP. rBRB PVYASCHYM, UFP RTYOPUYNBS NBUPOBNY LMSFCHB ITBOYFSH UELTEFSH VTBFUFCHB SCHMSEFUS HZTPPK UCHSEEOOPUFY YURPCHEDY Y CHMBUFY GETLCHY, CHSHUFHRBM RTPFICH UPFTKHDOYUUEUFCHB U M ADSHNY, YURPCHEDPCHBCHYI PFMYUOSCHE PF PZHYGBMSHOPK GETLCHY HVETSDEOYK. rP CHUEK ECHTPRE ZTBTSDBOULYE CHMBUFY OBYUBMY CHSHCHRPMOSFSH RTEDRYUBOYS, OBLMBDSCHCHBS ABOUT NBUPOCH YFTTBZHSHCH Y DBTS RPDCHETZBS YI RSHCHFLBN.
rTEUMEDPCHBOISNY UP UFPTPOSCH LBFPMYUEULPK GETLCHY OYUETRSCHCHBMYUSH ZPOEOIS ABOUT NBUPOCH. rPYUFY UTBYH RPUME PZHYGYBMSHOPZP PFLTSCHFIS CHEMYLPK MPTSY CH mPODPOE CH 1717 ZPDH CH ZBEFBI UFBMY TEZHMSTOP RPSChMSFSHUS "TBBPVMBYUBAEYE" UPPVEEOIS P NBUPOUFCHE. nBUPOCH PVCHYOSMY H UPAIE U BOFIITYUFPN, HFCHETSDBMY, VHDFP ABOUT BLTSCHFSCHI UPVTBOYSI RTPIPDYF TBOKHDBOOSCHE PTZYY. rPMYFYUEULIE UPVSCHFIS, BNPTBMSHOSHCHE RPUFHRLY PFDEMSHOSHCHI UMEOPCH VTBFUFCHB CHTENS PF READING RPDPZTECHBMY BOFYNBUPOULIE OBUFTPEOYS. h 1735 ZPDH VSCHMY ЪBRTEEEOSCH UPVTBOYS ZPMMBODULYI MPTs YЪ VPSOY, UFP YUMEOSCH VTBFUFCHB RTYOYNBAF HYBUFYE CH RPMYFYYUEULYI YOFTYZBI. bOBMPZYUOSCHE BLTEFSCH RPUMEDPCHBMY CH HYCHEGYY CH 1738 ZPDKH Y CH 1745 ZPDKH CH yCHEKGBTYY.
OP OBYUBCHYEUS ZPOEOIS ABOUT NBUPOCH HTS OE NPZMY RTYCHEUFY L HOYUFPTSEOIA VTBFUFCHB, FBL UIMSHOSCH VSCHMY YI IDEY Y RPLTPCHYFEMSHUFCHP UP UFPTPOSCH CHMYSFEMSHOSCHI MADEK. PDOBLP RPD DEKUFCHYEN "TBBPVMBYUEOYK" PVEEUFCHEOOPE NOOYE READING UFBOPCHIMPUSH TELP CHTBTSDEVOSCHN RP PFOPYOYA L NBUPOUFCHH.

lBNEOEILY HIPDSF H OBHLH pFCHEFPN NBUPOCH UFBM HIPD CH YЪHYUEOYE YUFPTYY. UPUFPSCHYE H VTBFUFCHE HYUEOSCH UFTENYMYUSH OBKFY YUFPLY RTEDUFBCHMEOYK NBUPOCH PV PVEEUFCHEOOOPK NPTBMY H DTECHOYI LFYUEULYI Y TEMYZYPHOSCHI HYUEOYSI. sing PDOY Y RETCHSHI OBNEFIYMY TPDUFCHP DTECHOYI TEMYZYK Y YI FFYUEULYI UYUFEN NETsDH UPVPK, POY PFLTSCHMY RPTBYFEMSHOPE UIPDUFCHP LPUNPZPOYUEULYI RTEDUFBCHMEOYK P NYTE H TBMYUOSCHI OBTPDHR. fBL UFBMP RTYOYNBFSH UPCTENEOOHA ZHPTNKH RTEDUFBCHMEOYE P CHEMYLPN uFTPIFEME CHUEMEOOPK, CHPRMPFYCHYEN CH UEVE UEFTSHCH CHETIPCHOPZP VPTSEUFCHB TBMYUOSCHI OBTPDHR. yN HDBMPUSh ChPUUFBOCHYFSH UNSHUM BOFYUOSCHI NYUFETYK, RPUCHSFYFEMSHOSHCHI PVTSDPH TSTEGPCH DTECHOEZP eZYRFB, TBUYZHTPCHBFSH FBKOSHCH LBTF fBTP, RP-OPCHPNKh RTPUEUFSH RTEDBOYS BTYKU LYI OBTPPDCH GEOPTBMSHOPK BYY, HCHYDEFSH ZMHVYOOPE TPDUFCHP NETSDH FFYLPK YODHYYNB, VHDDYYNB, LPOZHHGYBOUFCHB, DBPUYYNB Y DTHZYI TEMYZYPOP-ZHYMPUPZHULYI UYU FEN chPUFPLB U LFYLPK CHEFIPZP ъBCHEFB Y ITYUFYBOUFCHB. rPUFEREOOP NBUPOUFCHP RTECHTBEBMPUSH CH UYOFEFYUEULPE, HOYCHETUBMSHOPE LFYLP-ZHYMPUPZHULPE HYUEOYE, UFP DBMP ENH CHPNPTSOPUFSH TBURTPUFTBOYFSHUS RP CHUENH NYTH, OE LPOZHMYLFHS RTY FFPN U TEMYZYPHOSHCHNY UYUFENBNY, PFMYUOSCHNY PF ITYUFYBOULPK TEMYZYY.
pDOBLP HYUEOYE FFP PUPVPZP UCHPKUFCHB: CHNEUFP ZHPTNKHMYTPCHPL, CHNEUFP UMPC DMS PVPOBBYUEOYS YUEMPCHEYUEULYI LBYUEUFCH, NPTBMSHOSHCHI, ZHYMPUPZHULP-LFYUEULYI RPOSFIK NBUPOSH YURPM SHJHAF UYNCHPMSHCH, CH LPFPTSHCHE RTECHTTBFIMYUSH CH RETCHHA PYUETESH UFTPIFEMSHOSHCHE YOUFTHNEOFSHCH. pDOBLP UNSCHUM RPOSFYK, LPFPTSHCHE PMYGEFCHPTSAF LFY YOUFTHNEOFSHCH, PFLTSCHCHBAFUS FPMSHLP FEN, LFP RTPYEM RPCHSEOYE Y CHSM ABOUT UEVS PVSBFEMSHUFCHP ITBOYFSH FBKOH. fBKOPC SCHMSAFUS FBLTS PUPVSHCHE UMPCHB Y OBLY, RP LPFPTSCHN NBUPOSH HOBAF DTHZ DTHZB. RETEIPDS Y UFEROOY H UFEREOSH NBUPO HOBEF OPCHSHCHE LBYUEUFCHB YOUFTHNEOPCHB Y UFPSEYE OB ONY OTBCHUFCHEOOOSCHE OPTNSCH, OPCHSHCHE UMPCHB Y OBLY, LPFPTSCHNY PO NPTCEF UPPVEYFSH HCE OE FPM SHLP UCHPEK RTYOBDMETSOPUFY L NBUPOULPNKh VTBFUFCHKH, OP Y P UFEROOY UCHPEZP RPCHSEEOIS.
UEZPDOS, LPZDB P NBUPOUFCHE YIDDBOP NOPZP LOIZ, LFY FBKOSH FBKOPC HCE OE SCHMSAFUS, Y FENOE NEOEE CHPMSHOSHE LBNEOEILY RTPDPMTSBAF YI ITBOIFSH. fBLPC RBTDPLU PVYASUOSEFUS DPCHPMSHOP RTPUFP: HNEOYE ITBOIFSH FBKOH - PDOP YUEMPCHEYUEULYI DPUFPYOUFCH, Y CHPURYFBOYE LFPZP LBYUEUFCHB CH UEVE - PDOB Yb PVSBOOPUFEK NBUPOB. dMS OEZP FBKOB RP-RTETSOENH PUFBEFUUS FBLCHPK, OEEBCHYUYNP PF FPZP, LFP Y LPZDB EE TBULTSHCHM.
pVSBOOPUFSH ITBOIFSH FBKOH RTPYUFELBEF Y Y DTHZYI UPPVTBTSEOIK. nBUPOUFCHP - DCHYTSEOYE ZHYMBOFTPRYUEULPE, F.E. PDOPC YI EZP GEMEK SCHMSEFUS UPFCHPTEOYE DPVTB VMYTSOIN. OP DPVTPE DEMP, P LPFPTPN PYASCHYMY CHPCHUEKHUMSHCHYBOSHE, UMHTSYF OE UFPMSHLP DPVTTH LBL FBLCHPNKH, ULPMSHLP ZPTDSCHOE FPZP, LFP EZP UDEMBM. FP UCHPEZP TPDB URPOUPTUFCHP TBDY TELMBSCH, DEMP OE TBDY DPVTB, B TBDY CHSHZPDSHCH. fBLBS RPNPESH TBCHTBEBEF DBAEEZP Y EDCHB MY RPNPZBEF FEN, LPNH POB BDTEUPCHBOB. rPDMYOOBS VMBZPFCHPTYFEMSHOPUFSH CHPNPTSOB FPMSHLP CH FBKOE, POB DPMTSOB VSHCHFSH BOPOINOPK, FPMSHLP FPZDB RPNPESH VHDEF RPRBDBFSH L FEN, LFP VPMSHIE CHUEZP CH OEK OHTSDBEFUS. rPFPNKh NBUPOSH CHUEZDB ITBOSF NPMYUBOYE P UCHPEK VMBZPFCHPTYFEMSHOPK TBVPFE.
l UPTSBMEOYA, LFY FBKOSHCH, RPDYUBU, OE DBAF RPLPS RPDPTYFEMSHOSHCHN MADSN, BUFBCHMSS YI CHYDEFSH CH LFPN UELTEFOSHCHE LPOY CHTBZPCH YMY CHUENYTOSHCHK SBZPCHPT MBDEECH, IPFS NBUPOUFCH P UHEEUFCHHEF HCE VPMEE 250 MEF RPYUFY PE CHUEI UFTBOBI NYTB Y DP UYI RPT OILFP OE UNPZ OBNEFYFSH UMEDPCH YMY TEEKHMSHFBFPCH "UMPDEKULPK DESFEMSHOPUFY NBUPOCH".
dBCE OBPVPTPF. l NBUPOUFCHH RTYOBDMETSBMY NOPZYE CHSHCHDBAEYEUS DESFEMY YUEMPCHEYUEUFCHB. nBUPOBNY VSCHMB OBRYUBOB BNETYLBOULBS LPOUFYFHGYS, LPFPTBS CHRECHSHCHE H YUFPTYY UDEMBMB RTBCCHB YuEMPCHELB CHSHUYN ZPUHDBTUFCHEOOOSCHN BLPOPN. l NBUPOULPNH VTBFUFCHH RTYOBDMETSBMY LPNRPYFPTSCH chPMSHZHZBOZ bNBDEK nPGBTF, JETEOG MYUF, kPJEZH zBKDO, MADCHYZ CHBO VEFIPCHEO, OYLLPMP rBZBOYOY, SLPC UYVEMYKHU, RYU BFEMY yPZBOO chPMSHZHZBOZ ZEFE, tBVYODTBOBF fBZPT, chBMShFET ULPFF, PULBT hBKMShD, nBTL FCHEO, RPFSCH bMELUBODT RPR, tPVETF VETOU, TEDShSTD LIRMIOZ. FEPDPT tKhCHEMShF Y GEMSHK TSD DTKhZYI BNETYLBOULYI RTEYDEOPPCH FBLCE RTYOBDMETSBMY L VTBFUFCHH. nBUPOPN VSHCHM hYOUFPO yuETYuYMMSH, BOZMYKULYK LPTPMSh dDHBTD VII DP CHUFHRMEOYS ABOUT RTEUFPM UPUFPSM Ch VTBFUFCHE. nBUPOBNY VSCHMY FBLIE Y’CHEUFOSHCHE MADY, LBL dTsPO dtseklpv BUFPT Y ZEOTY ZhPTD, BCHYBFPT yubtmsh mYODEOVETZ, UCHETYCHYK RETCHSHCHK PYOPYUOSCHK RETEMEF YUETE bFMBOFILH, RPMS TOSHCHE YUUMEDPCHBFEMY tPVETF RYTY, NYFSHA iEOUPO, BDNYTBM TYUBTD VETD. bNETYLBOULYK BUFTPOBCHF dDCHYO PMDTIO, UFKHRYCHYK ABOUT RPCHETIOPUFSH MHOSHCH 21 YAMS 1969 ZPDB, OEU H LBTNBOE OBNS U NBUPOULYNY LNVMEMBNY.
OE NEOEE YJCHEUFOSCHNY Y CHSHCHDBAEYNYUS MADSHNY VSHMY Y THUULIE NBUPOSHCH: bMELUBODT UETZEECHYU rhylyo, bMELUBODT chBUIMSHECHYU uHCHPTCH, NYIBYM yMMYBTYPOCHYU ZPMEOEYECH-LHFH ЪPC - HCE LFYI FTEI YNEO DPUFBFPYUOP, YUFPVSCH PFVTPUYFSH CHUSLHA NSHCHUMSH P "NBUPOULPN ЪBZPCHPTE RTPFYCH tPUUYY". OP URYUPL NPTsOP RTPDPMTSYFSH: uKHNBTPLCH, OPCHILPC, vBTSEOPCH chPTPOYIYO, MECHYGLYK, vPTCHYLPCHULYK, tsHLPCHULYK, zTYVPEDCH, b.zTYZPTSHECH, chPMPYO, zHNYMECH, bMDBOPC, PUPTZ YO, bDBNPCHYU, zBDBOPCH. zhYMPUPZHULP-LFYUEULYE CHZMSDSHCH MSHCHB fPMUFPZP VSCHMY PYUEOSH VMYLLY NBUPOUFCHH, YuFP ON UBN RTYOBCHBM. PDOP RTPUFPE RETEYUYUMEOYE FFYI CHEMYLYI YNEO ZPCHPTYF P FPN, YuFP NBUPOULIE MPTSY tPUUY PVYAEDDYOSMY MHYUYI MADEK UFTBOSHCH, UFP CH OYI LPOGEOFTYTPCHBMBUSH BFNPUZHETB OBRTSEOOSCHI DH ICHOSHI YULBOYK.
NYIBYM PUPTZYO, CHSHCHDBAEYKUS THUULYK RYUBFEMSH, LPFPTSCHK VSCHM CH 1922 ZPDKH CHSHCHUMBO VPMSHYECHYLBNY YЪ tPUUYY, FBL PRTEDEMYM NBUPOUFCHP CH PDOPK YU UCHPYI TEYUEK: "nBUPOUFCH P CHPCHUE OE UYUFENB OTBCHUFCHEOOSHHI RPMPTSEOIK, YOE NEFPD RPBOBOIS, YOE OBHLB P TSYOY, Y DBTSE, UPVUFCHEOOP, OE HYUEOYE. ELB, DESFEMSHOP UFTENSEEZPUS L YUFYOE Y KOBAEEZP, YUFP YUFYOB OEDPUFYTSYNB... vTBFUFCHP CHPMSHOSHI LBNEOEILPCH EUFSH PTZBOYBGIS MADEK, YULTEOOOE CHETKHAEYI CH RTYIPD VPMEE UPCHET YEOOPZP YuEMPCHEUUFCHB. rHFSH L UCHETIOUFCHPCHBOYA YuEMPCHEYUEULPZP TPDB METSYF Yuete UBNPHUCHETOEOUFCHPCHB-OYE RTY RPNPEY VTBFULPZP PVEEOIS U YЪVTBOOSCHNY Y UCHSBOOSHCHNY PVE EBOYEN FBLPC CE OBD UPVPK TBVPFShch. PK GEMY. JOBYUE - UPA OTBCHUFCHEOOOPK CHBYNPRPPNPEY".

nBUPOSHCH H tPUUYY RP RTEDBOYA, RETCHSHCHN TPUUIKULYN NBUPOPN VSCHM GBTSh REFT CHEMYLYK, LPFPTSCHK CH 1699 ZPDKH, ChTENS RTEVSCHCHBOYS CH BOZMYY U CHEMYLYN rPUPMSHUFCHPN, RTYOSM RPUCSEEOYE PF UBNPZP LTY UFPZHETB TEOB, BCH PDOPC U OIN MPCE UPUFPSM JTBOG INTERPTF. OP OILBLYI DPLKHNEOPCH, RPDFCHETSDBAEII LFP, OE OBKDEOP. pDOBLP DPUFPCHETOP RPDFCHETSDEOP, UFP NBUPOULYE MPTSY UHEEUFCHPCHBMY CH tPUUYY CH 30-I ZPDBI XVIII UFPMEFIS, OP YI FTHDOP OBCHBFSh TPUUYKULYNY, RPULPMSHLKH CH OYI UPUFPSMY RPYuFY Y ULMAYUYFEMSHOP YOPUFTBOGSCH, B RETCHSHCHN "CHEMILYN NBUFETPN DMS CHUEK TPUUYY" VSCHM OBOBBYEO CH 1731 ZPDKh BOZMYKULYK LBRYFBO DTsPO ZHYMYRU.
h 1740 ZPDKh VSHCHM OBOBBYUEO OPCHSHCHK ZTPUUNEKUFET ZOEETBM dTSEKNU (SLPC) LEKF, UPUFPSCHYK ABOUT THUULPK UMHTSVE. uYUYFBEFUS, UFP U FFPZP READING CH MPTSY OBYUOBAF CHUFHRBFSH THUULBS OBFSH. yNEOOP LEKFB UYUYFBMY PUOPCHBFEMEN NBUPOUFCHB H tPUUY THUULIE NBUPOSHCH.
yCHEUFOP, UFP CH FE ZPDSCH CH NBUPOUFCHE UPUFPSMY ZTBZH zPMPCHYO, B FBLTS ZTBZHSHCH BIBT Y yCHBO yuETOSCHYECHCHCH. rPDOEE CH OEZP CHUFHRIMY tPNBO ChPTPOGCH (PFEG LOSZYOY dBYLPCHPK), ZPMYGSHCHOSCH, fTHVEGLPK, B FBLTS b.r.uHNBTPLCH, VHDHEYE YUFPTYLY LOSSH eETVBFCH Y vPMFYO Y DT.
pDOBLP CH FP CHTENS MPTSY OE NPZMY RTYCHMEYUSH U UCHPY TSDSCH ULPMSH-MYVP VPMSHYPZP YUYUMB THUULYI MADEK, YVP PVEEUFCHP VSHMP RPYUFY MYYEOP YDEKOSHCHI YOFETEUPCH Y CHYDEMP CH NBUPOUFCHE MY YSH NPDOHA ЪBZTBOYUOKHA ЪBVBCHKh. UCHYDEFEMSHUFCHPN FFPNH SCHMSEFUS CHUFHRMEOYE CH MPTSKH OBNEOYFPZP CHRPUMEDUFCHY NBUPOB yCHBOB REZHYMSHECHYUB EMBZYOB, LPFPTSCHK RTPIYEM RPCHSEOYE EDYOUFCHEOOP YЪ MAVPRSFU FCHB Y FEEUMBCHYS.
PE CHFPTPK RPMPCHYOE XVIII RPMPTSEOYE NEOSEPHUS. lTBFLPCHTENEOOOPE GBTUFCHPCHBOYE REFTTB III, VMBZPZPCHCHEZP RETED JTYDTYIPN Y CH RPDTBTSEOIE ENH PLBSCHCHBCHYK RPLTPCHYFEMSHUFCHP NBUPOBN, B BLFEN CHEL ELBFETYOSCH U EZP VPMEOOOSCHN PU NSHUMEOOYEN ZHTBOGKHULYI ZHIMPUPZHPCH-YOGYLMPREDYUFCH Y U UFPMSH TSE VPMEOEOOOSCHN TBBYUBTPCHBOYEN CH OYI, RPSCHMEOYEN RETCHPK THUULPK YOFEMMYZEOGYY U HER OBRTTSEOOSCHNY DHIPCHOSHCHNY RPYULB NY UPDBM VMBZPRTYSFOHA BFNPUZHETH DMS CHPURTYSFYS NBUPOULYI IDEK.
LTHTSLY THUULPK YOFEMMYZEOGYY Y NBUPOULYE MPTSY FPZP READ CHPOYLMY ABOUT PDOK Y FPK TSE PUOPCHE - PUPBOBOY PVEEUFCHEOOOPK PRBUOPUFY Y TBCHTBBEAEZP CHMYSOIS CHPMSHFETSHSO UFCHB ABOUT THUULYE KHNSCH. CHUE NBUPOSHCH FPZP CHTENEOY RTPYMY YUETEI HCHMEYUEOYE "CHPMSHFETSHSOULYN PFTYGBOYEN" Y, ZMHVPLP CH OEN TBBYUBTPCHBMYUSH, RETETSYMY DHYECHOSHCHK TBMBD Y OBYMY PUOPCHH DMS UCHPYI DHIPCHOSCHI YULBOYK CH "RTCHPCHEDY NBUPOULPK OTBCHUFCHEOOPUFY". yNEOOP U UFFPZP NPNEOFB NBUPOUFCHP H tPUUYY RETEUFBEF VSCHFSH YOPENOPK DYLPCHYOPK, PVPZBEBEFUS DKHIPN RTPUSCHRBAEEZPUS OBGYPOBMSHOPZP UBNPUPOYOBOYS Y RPFPNKh NPCEF VSHCHFSH U X CHETEOOPUFSHHA OBCHBOP RETCHSHCHN YDEBMYUFYUEULYN FEYUEOOYEN THUULPK PVEEUFCHEOOOPK NSHCHUMY.
RP PGEOLE o.VETDSECHB CH TBVPFE "THUULBS IDES", DHIPCHOPE CHMYSOYE NBUPOUFCHB ABOUT PVEEUFCHP VSHMP PZTPNOP. PO HLBSCHCHBEF, UFP "MHYUYE THUULIE MADY VSCHMY NBUPOBNY. RETCHPOBYUBMSHOBS THUULBS MYFETBFHTB YNEMB UCHSHSH U NBUPOUFCHPN. GYEK PVEEUFCHB CH tPUUYY, FPMSHLP POP YOE VSHMP OBCHSBOP ACCORDING TO CHMBUFSH". RP EZP HVETSDEOYA, YNEOOP "CH NBUPOUFCHE RTPYYPYMB ZHPTNBGYS THUULPK LHMSHFHTOPK DHY, POP CHSHTBVBFSHCHBMP OTBCHUFCHEOOOSCHK YDEBM MYUOPUFY. rTBCHPUMBCHYE VSHMP, LPOEYUOP, VPMEE ZMH VPLYN CHMYSOOYEN ABOUT DHYY THUULYI MADEK, OP CH NBUPOUFCHE PVTBBPCHBMYUSH LHMSHFHTOSHCHE DHY REFTPCHULPK LRPI Y RTPFICHPRPUFBCHMSMYUSH DEURPFIYNKH CHMBUFY Y PVULHTBOFYNH... h NBUPOU LPK BFNPUZHETE RTPYUIPDYMP DHIPCHOPE RTPVHCDEOYE...".
h 70th ZPDSCH CH tPUUY CHPOYLBAF RPYUFY PDOCHTENEOOP DCHE NPEOSCHE NBUPOULIE UYUFENSCH - EMBZYOULBS Y GIOOEODPTZHULBS. pVE TBVPFBMY CH RETCHSHCHI FTEI UFEREOSI F.O. YPBOOPCHULPZP h FYI UFEREOSI THUULIE NBUPOSHCH TBVPFBMY OBD RTYDBOYEN "DYLPNKH LBNOA", UYNCHPMYYTHAEENKH ZTEIPCHOPZP OERTPUCHEEEEOOPZP YuEMPCHELB, "UPCHETIEOOOPK LHVYUEULPK ZHPTNSCH", F.E. PUYEEOYEN EZP PF RTPPLCH. sing RTYPVTEFBMY VPME YTPLYE RP UTBCHOEOYA U RTETSOYNY TEMYZYPЪP-LFYUEULIE RPOSFYS, BDKHNSCHCHBMYUSH OBD CHPRTPUBNY CHETSHCH Y OTBCHUFCHEOOPUFY, HRPTO CHPURYFSHCHCHBMY CH UEVE UPCHEUFMYCHSHI Y YUEUFOSHCHI MADEK.
y.r.eMBZYO, CHUFKHRICHYYK CH NBUPOUFCHP EEE CH 1750 ZPDKh, L FPNKh READING HUREM "RETEVPMEFSH" CHPMSHFETSHSOUFCHPN Y UFBM TECHOPUFOSHCHN "CHPMSHOSCHN LBNEOEILPN". according to RPMHYUYM PF CHEMYLPK mPODPOULPK MPTSY RBFEOF ABOUT HUTETSDEOYE OPCSHCHI MPTS, Y CH OBYUBME 1772 ZPDB UFBM rTPCHYOGYBMSHOSHCHN CHEMYLYN nBUFETPN. PUOPCHBOOBS YN UYUFENB MPTs VSCHMB OBYVPMEE CHMYSFEMSHOPK, YCH LPOGE LPOGPCH DBCE THLPCHPDYFEMY GOOEODPTZHULPK UYUFENSCH DPMTSOSCH VSCHMY YURTBYCHBFSH X OEZP RBFEOF DMS PFLTSCHFIS OPCHSHCH AND NBUFETULY. y EUMY MPTSY GIOOEODPTZHULPK UYUFENSCH UPDBCHBMYUSH YULMAYUYFEMSHOP CH UBOLF-REFETVKhTZE, FP EMBZYOULYE UHEEUFCHPCHBMY FBLTSE CH nPULCHE, CH nPMDBCHY, CH RPMSHYE.

from TBCHUFCHEOOOSCHE YULBOYS tPUUYKULPE NBUPOUFCHP 70-I ZPDCH YUFPTYLY OBSCCHCHBAF OTBCHPHYUYFEMSHOSHCHN. U FYN FTHDOP OE UZMBUIFSHUS. pVEEUFCHEOOBS RPMENYLB CH MYFETBFHTE, UBFYTYUEULYI TSKHTOBMBI FPZP READING CHTBBEFUUS CHPLTHZ RTPVMEN MYUOPK YuEUFY, UPCHEUFY, RPTSDPYUOPUFY, RTBCHDYCHPUFY, CHPCHUE OE UBFTZ YCHBS VPMEE YITPLYE CHPRTPUSCH.
OP CH OBYUBME 80-I ZPDCH TPUUYKULYI "CHPMSHOSCHI LBNEOEILPCH" HCE RETEUFBAF HDPCHMEFCHPTSFSH "OTBCHUFCHEOOOSCHE RTERPDBSOYS" FTEIUFEREOOPZP NBUPOUFCHB. ChPURYFBOOSCHE ABOUT ZHTBOGKHULYI ZHYMPUPZHBI HNSCH FTEVPCHBMY OPCHPK RYEY, bNEYBOOPK OE ABOUT CHPMSHFETSHSOULPN ULERFYGYYNE, B OERTENEOOOP ABOUT TEMYZYP'OP-YDEBMYUFYUEULYI YDESI. OP BRBDOPECHTPREKULBS ZHYMPUPZHYS PRYTBMBUSH ABOUT TBCHYFHA OBHLKH, Y VPTSHVB RTPFICH OEE FTEVPCHTBMB "PTHTSYS", RTECHPUIPDSEEZP RP UYME OTBCHPHYUYFEMSHOSHCHE RTPRPCHEDY. eUMMY HUEUFSH UMBVPUFSH TBCHYFYS TPUUYKULPK LTYFYUEULPK NSHCHUMY, FP OEHDYCHYFEMSHOP, UFP LFY RPYULY RTYCHEMY L RPCHBMSHOPNH HCHMEYUEOYA NYUFILPK Y OBFHTZHYMPUPZHYEK.
h FY ZPDSH RPSCHMSEFUS VPMSHYBS TBOYGB NETSDH FEN, YUEN BOINBAFUS NBUPOSHCH DCHHI TPUUYKULYI UFPMYG. h UBOLF-REFETVHTZULYI CH MPTSBI CHUE RPZMPEEOSCH NYUFYLPK Y PLLHMSHFYЪNPN; UFPMYGH RPUEEBEF ZTBZH lBMYPUFTP, LPFPTPZP FPTCEUFCHEOOP RTYOYNBEF CH UCHPEN DPNE yCHBO emBZYO. ZhTBYOBS RHVMYLB CHBMPN CHBMYF ABOUT EZP "PRSHCHFSCH", ZDE ON CHSHCHCHCHBEF DHIPCH, FEOY KHNETYI, PVCYUBEF BMIYNY Y Y "MBFPDEMBOYA". According to RTEDUFBCHMSEFUS "RPMLPCHOILPN YURBOULPK UMHTSVSHCH", OP CHULPTE CH REFETVKhTZULYI ZBEFBI RPSCHMSEFUS ЪBSCHMEOYE YURBOULPZP RPUMB P FPN, UFP OILBLPZP FBLPZP "RPMLPCHOILB" "ABOUT UMHTSVE EZP ZPUHDBTS ABOUT OBJUIFUS. bFEN RPSCHMSAFUS RTEDUFBCHYFEMY LTEDIFPTPCH, LPFPTSHCHE TBSHCHULYCHBAF lBMYPUFTP RP CHUEK ECHTPRE. tBTBTSBEFUS ZTPNLYK ULBODBM, ZTBZH VETSYF YJ REFETVKhTZB, Y ZBEEFSH DPMZP EEE EDLP RYYHF P NBUPOBI, CHPUFPTTSEOOP RTYOYNBCHYYI RTPIPDYNGB.
h nPULCHE CH FP CHTENS NBUPOSHCH BOINBAFUS RTPUCHEFYFEMSHUFCHPN. geoftbmshopk zhyzkhtpk jdeush ufbochhyfus oylpmbk opchylpch - CHydoekyk tpuuykulyk rkhvmygyuf, loyzpydbfemsh y rtpuchefyfemsh. TBOEE ON TSYM CH UBOLF-REFETVKhTZE, ZDE UMHTSYM CH BTNYY, CHSCHYEM CH PFUFBCHLH RTBRPTEILPN yЪNBKMPCHULPZP RPMLB, RPFPN YЪDBCHBM YЪCHEUFOSHCHE Y RPRHMSTOSHCHE UBFYTYUEULY E TsHTOBMSCH "fTHFEOSH", "TSYCHPRYUEG", "LPYEMEL". RETEVTBCHYUSH H nPULCHH, BY VETEF H BTEODH FYRPZTBZHYA nPULPCHULPZP HOYCHEUYFEFB. OH CH LPFPTPFLPK UFBFSHE, OY CH FPMUFPK LOYSE OEF CHPNPTSOPUFY RETEYUYUMYFSH CHUE, UFP CHSHYMP Yb UFEO EZP FYRPZTBZHYY. FP HYUEVOYLY, MYFETBFHTOSHCHE RTPYCHEDEOYS, OBHYUOSCHE Y ZHYMPUPZHULYE FTHDSCH, TBVPFSCH THUULYI Y OBTHVETSOSCHI FEPMPZCHCH. VPMSHYBS YUBUFSH LFYI LOIS OILPZDB H tPUUY OE YJDBCHBMBUSH, NOPZYE YJ OYI VSHMY CHETCHECHEDEOSHCH U MBFYOULPZP Y OENEGLPZP SJSCHLCH, RTYUEN RETHECHPDYUYLBNY VSCHMY UV HDEOFSH HOYCHETUYFEFB. bUCHPA TsYoSH PO YdDBM VPMSHIE LOIS (OE RP FYTBTSKH, B RP OBCHBOISN!), Yuen Vshchmp Yddbop dp OEZP bb CHUA YUFPTYA ZPUHDBTUFCHB tPUUYKULPZP.

aboutBYUBMP ZPOEOIK hChMEYUEOYE PLLHMSHFYINPN Y NYUFILPK, B FBLTS RPUFPSOOSCHE NEFBOIS TPUUYKULYI CHPMSHOSHI LBNEOEILPC, PVTBEBCHYIUS FP L PDOPC, FP L DTHZPK NBUPOULYN UYUFENBN, UPUMKhTSYMY YN D HTOHA UMHTsVH. bB ULBODBMPN ChPLTKhZ ZTBZhB lBMYPUFTP RPUMEDPCHBM RBNZHMEF ELBFETYOSCH II "fBKOB RTPFYCHPOEMERPZP PVEEUFCHB", Ch LPFPTPN NPTSOP VSCHMP TBZMSDEFSH RETCHSHCHE RTYOBLY RTYVMYTSBAE JEUS ZPOEOIK. at RPDPTEOYEN PLTHTSEOYE YNRETBFTYGSCH CHPURTYOYNBMP Y UCHSKY TPUUYKULYI NBUPOCH U NBUPOBNY ZETNBOYY, yCHEGYY, BOZMYY. rPUME RKHZBYECHULPZP ChPUUUFBOYS YNRETBFTYGB OBYOBEF U OEDPCHETYEN, B RPTPK Y U CHTBTSDPK PFOPUYFSHUS L YDESN UCHPVPDSH MYUOPUFY Y OBTPDOPZP RTPUCHEEEEOIS, TECHPMAGYS PE JTBOGYY MYYSH HVE TsDBEF EE, UFP FBLPZP TPDB IDEY NPZHF RTEDUFBCHMSFSH DMS NPOBTIIY PRBUOPUFSH.
l FPNKh TSE CH 80-I ZPDBI CH ZETNBOY OBYUBMPUSH HUIMEOOPE RTEUMEDPCHBOYE FBKOSHCH PVEEUFCH, YNECHYI PFOPYOYE L NBUPOUFCHH Y YMMANYOBFUFCHH. yI PVCHYOSAF CH HTSBUOSHI RTEUFHRMEOYSI, CH UFTENMEOYY OYCHETZBFSH FTPOSCH, BMFBTY, CH PFTBCHMEOYSI Y HVYKUFCHBI. IPFS LFY PVCHYOEOYS VSCHMY ZPMPUMPCHOSCHNY Y OILPZDB DPLBBSCHOE VSCHMY, POI BUFBCHYMY ELBFETYOKH RP-DTHZPNH CHZMSOHFSH ABOUT TPUYKULPE NBUPOUFCHP.
ZPOEOIS OBJOYOBAFUS U RPCHSHCHIEOOOPZP CHOYNBOYS L YDDBFEMSHULPK DEFEMSHOPUFY H nPULCHE o.OPCHYLPCHB. pDOCHTENEOOP RTBCHYFEMSHUFCHP UFBMP RTEUMEDPCBFSH Y VMBZPFCHPTYFEMSHOHA DESFEMSHOPUFSH OPCHYLPCHULPZP LTHTSLB, RPD RPLTPCHYFEMSHUFCHPN LPFPTPZP UFTPMYUSH YLPMSCH, VPMSHOYGSCH. h SOCHBTE 1786 ZPDB RPSCHMSEFUS HLB P RETEDBYUE CHUEI YUBUFOSHCHI YLPM Y VPMSHOYG rTYLBH PVEEUFCHEOOPZP RTJTEOYS, LPFPTPPNH FBLTS RPCCHEMECHBMPUSH OBVMADBFSH b Chueny Hyutets DEOYSNNY OPCHILPCHULPZP LTHTSLB. TBBDBYUB OPCHILPCCHN IMEVB RTPUFPNKH OBTPDH CH ZPMPDOPN 1687 ZPDH RPUMHTSYMB FPMYULPN L VPMEE FOETZYUOSCHN NETTBN: RPUMEDPCBMP RBTEEEOYE REYUBFBFSH CH UCHEFULYI FYRPZTBJYSI LOY ZY, PFOPUSEYEUS L GETLPCHOPPNKH YMY UCHSEEOOPNKH RYUBOYA, BRTEEEOB YI RTPDBTsB CH YUBUFOSHCHI MBCHLBI, OBLPOEG, RPUMEDPCHBMP BRTEEEOYE PFDBCHBFSH OPCHILPCHH HOYCHETUYFEFULHA FIRPZTB JYA, UFP ZTPYMP UCHETIEOOOSCHN RTELTBEEOYEN YJDBFEMSHULPK DEFEMSHOPUFY.
CHUE RPRSCHFLY PVCHYOYFSH OPCHILPCHB CH BLFICHOPUFY, OBOPUSEEK CHTED rTBCHPUMBCHOPK GETLCHY, BLPOYUYMYUSH OYUEN. NYFTPRPMYF rMBFPO, Y'CHEUFOSHCHK TECHOYFEMSH PTFPDPLUBMSHOPZP RTBCHPUMBCHYS, RPUME VEUED U o.opchylpchshchn RYUBM YNRETBFTYGE: "with PDPMTSBAUSH RP UPCHEUFY Y UBOH NPENH DPOEUFY FEVE , UFP NPMA CHUEEEDTPZP vPZB, UFPVSHCHOE FPMSHLP CH UMPCHEUOPK RBUFCHE, vPZPN Y fPVPK NOE CHCHETEOOOPK, OP Y CHUEN NYTE VSCHMY ITYUFYBOE FBLPCSHCHE, LBL OPCHILPC".
h OBYUBME 1690-I ZPDCH oCHCHILPC VSCHM BTEUFPCHBO Y DPRTBYCHBMUS UOBYUBMB CH nPULCHE, B RPFPN VSCHM DPUFBCHMEO CH yMYUUEMSHVKhTZULHA LTERPUFSH. pDOCHTENEOOP OBYUBMPUSH UMEDUFCHIE CH PFOPIOYOY DTHZYI YUMEOPCH OPCHYLPCHULPZP LTHTSLB, LPFPTPE H nPULCHE THAN LOSSH rTPЪPTCHULYK. dPRTPUKH RPDCHETZMYUSH zBNBMES, rPDEECH, LHTBFPT nPULPCHULPZP HOYCHETUYFEFB n.n.iETBULPC. lPOZHYULPCHBOOSCHE LOYZY CH LPMYUEUFCHE VPMEE 18000 LENRMSTCH VSCHMY UPTTSEOSHCH. oCHYLPCH RTCHEM H yMYUUEMSHVKhTZULPK LTERPUFY 15 MEF.
TBVPFSCH NBUPOULYI MPTSBI CH LFP CHTENS RTELTBFYMYUSH, Y CHPЪPVOPCHYMYUSH FPMSHLP RP CHPUYEUFCHY OB RTEUFPM YNRETBFPTB rBCHMB I, LPFPTSCHK CH VSCFOPUFSH CHEMYLYN LOSEN VMBZCHPM YM L NBUPOBN Y DBCE VSHCHM RPUCHEEEO H CHCHUPLYE UFEREOY. ABOUT DTHZPK DEOSH RPUME UNETFY ELBFETYOSCH ON PUCHPPVPDYM OPCHYLPCHB Y CHUEI, SBNEYBOOSCHI CH FFPN DEME; LOSSH lHTBLIO, LOSSH TEROYO, vBTSEOPCH, MPRHIYO VSCHMY CHSHCHBOSH LP DCHPTH Y EEDTP CHPOBZTBTSDEOSCH.
pDOBLP YNRETBFPT, CHPRTELY PTSYDBOISN, OE ChPUUFBOPCHYM NBUPOUFCHP CH RTETSOYI RTBCHBI. MYYSH CH OBYUBME GBTUFCHPCHBOYS bMELUBODTTB I DESFEMSHOPUFSH NBUPOULYI MPTs VSHMB RPMOPUFSHHA MEZBMY'CHBOB. OP OPCHILPC Y EZP RPUMEDPCHBFEMY VPMEE OE RTYUPEDYOSMYUSH L PFLTSCHFP DEKUFCHPCHBCHYYN DCHHN LTHROEKYN UPABN - CHEMYLPK rTPCHYOGYBMSHOPK MPTS Y CHEMYLPK MPTS BUFTES.
UBN oPCHYLPCH Y RPUEMYCHYKUS CH EZP YNEOYY u.y.zBNBMES NOPZP TBVPFBMY OBD UPDBOYEN RSFIDEUSFYFPNOPC ZETNEFYUEULPK VYVMYPFELY, RETERYUSCHCHBS DMS OEE OBYVPMEE CHBTSOSHCH NBUPOUL YE UPYOEOYS Y UYUYFBS UCHPEK ZMBCHOPK ЪBDBYUK UPITBOEOYE DMS RPUMEDHAEYI RPLPMEOYK DHIPCHOPZP OBUMEDYS NBUPOUFCHB 70-80-I ZPDCH.
nBUPOULYE RPYULY "YUFYOOPZP ITYUFYBOUFCHB" FPZP READING, UFPMSh HChMELBCHYE o.opchylpchb, j.ch.mPRHIYOB, u.y.zBNBMES, y.r. TsBF CH THUME LPOGERGYY "DPUFPYOUFCHB ITYUFYBOUFCHB Y OEDPUFPYOUFCHB ITYUFYBO", RPMHYUYCHYEK YTPLPE TBURTPUFTBOOYE CH tPUUYY CH OBYUBME and CHELB. h RPYULBI "YUFYOOPZP ITYUFYBOUFCHB" THUULYN NBUPOUFCHPN XVIII CHELB HZBDSCHCHBEFUUS PDOP Y PUOPCHOSHI FEODEOGYK CHOEGETLPCHOPZP OBRTBCCHMEOYS RTBCHPUMBCHOP-ITYUFYBOULPZP TEZHPTNB FPTUFCHB XIX-XX CHELB, UFTENYCHYEZP PVTEUFY "YUFYOOPE ITYUFYBOUFCHP" CH DPRPMOOEOYE L ITYUFYBOUFCHH FTBDYGYPOOPNKH, METSBEENH CH THUME PZHYGIYBMSHOPK GETLCHY. yNEOOP DEUSH METSBMY YUFPLY CHZMSDPCH CHSHCHDBAEYIUS THUULYI ZHIMPUPZHPC-YDEBMYUFPC LPOGB XIX - OBYUBMB XX CHELPC, L FTHDBN LPFPTSCHI UEKYUBU CHOPCHSH PVTBEBEFUUS TPUUYKULBS YOFEMM JEOHYS.
h 1822 ZPDKh NBUPOUFCHP CHOPCHSH VSCHMP ЪBRTEEEOP, PDOBLP OE YUYUEMP. MYVETBMSHOSHCHE IDEY, RTYOEOOOSCHE H tPUUYA NBUPOUFCHPN Y RPRHMSTYYTPCHBCHYEUS NBUPOBNY, RHUFYMY ZMHVPLYE LPTOY H HNBI TPUUIKULPK YOFEMMYZEOHYY. sing PUFBMYUSH CH RTPYCHEDEOYSI CHSHCHDBAEYIUS THUULYI RYUBFEMEK, RHVMYGYUFCH. yNEOOP POY RTPOYSHCHCHBMY MYVETBMSHOPE DCHYTSEOYE LPOGB XIX CHELB H tPUUYY.
1822 ZPD YUFPTYLY UYUYFBAF OE FPMSHLP ZPDPN ЪBRTEFB NBUPOUFCHB H tPUUYY, OP Y ZPDPN OBYUBMB RETCHPK CHPMOSHCH THUULPK NYZTBGYY. NOPZYE YЪ FEI, LFP OE NPZ TSYFSH CH PVUFBOPCLE TEBLGIY, RPLYDBMY tPUUYA Y PUEDBMY CH DTHZYI UFTBOBI ECHTPRSC, ZMBCHOSCHN PVTBBPN PE ZhTBOGYY, ZDE CHUFHRBMY CH MPTSY CHEMYLP ZP chPUFPLB YMYY CHEMYLPK mPTsY zhTBOGYY. RETEVTBCHYUSH H UFTBOSHCH U VPMEE MYVETBMSHOSHCHN TETSYNPN, SOY OE FETSMY UCHSHEK U DTKHSHSNY Y TPDUFCHEOOILBNY H tPUUYY.
oEUPNOEOOP, CHMYSOIE NBUPOUFCHB CH tPUUY OE YUYUEMMP, OP OBYUYFEMSHOP PUMBVMP. y UINCHPMYUOP, YUFP ICHBFYMP FTEI MEF, YUFPVSHCH PVEEUFCHEOOOPK NSHCHUMY UFTBOSHCH PYPVMBDBMY IDEY OBUYMSHUFCHEOOPZP RETEKHUFTPKUFCHB PVEEUFCHB. rTPRPCHEDSH UPYDBOIS UNEOYMBUSH RTPRPCEDSHHA TBTHYEOIS.
h DERBVTE 1825 ZPDB CH uBOLF-REFETVKhTZE RTPY'PYYEM NSFETS ABOUT UEOBFULPK RMPEBDY. rPDOEE TECHPMAGYPOETCH-BTYUFPLTBFPCH UNEYOMY TECHPMAGYPOETSC-TBPYUYOGSHCH, B B OYNY - NBTLUYUFSHCH, RPUFBCHYCHYYE FETPT, OBUYMYE, UPOBFEMSHOPE TBTHYOYE PVEEUFCHB ABOUT OBHYUOKHA PUOPCHKH Y UDEMBCHYYE FFP UCHPEK RTPZHEUYEK. uFTBOB, ULPCHBOOBS LTERPUFOSHCHN RTBCHPN, PFSZPEEOOBS BVUPMAFOPK CHMBUFSHHA GBTS, DHIPCHOSCHN UPZMSDBFBKUFCHPN uYOPDB, OE NPZMB UCHPPVPDOP TBCHYCHBFSHUS. MYYEOOBS CHPNPTSOPUFY CHSHCHVPTB, POB DCHYOKHMBUSH RP RHFY OBUYMYS, VEHNOSCHI Y LTPCHBCHSHI LTEUFSHSOULYI VHOFCH, ЪBZPCHPTCH Y FETTPTB.

rPUME nBOYZHEUFB 1905 ZPDB fPMSHLP RPUME PLFSVTSHULPZP NBOYZHEUFB 1905 ZPDB CHOPCHSH RPSCHYMBUSH CHPNPTSOPUFSH UCHPPVPDOP PVYAEDYOSFSHUS, UPDBCHBFSH BUUPGYBGYY. h 1906 ZPDH CHSHCHDBAEYKUS THUULYK HYUEOSCHK nBLUIN lPCHBMECHULYK, PUOPCHBFEMSH Y VEUUNEOOSCHK THLPPCHPDYFEMSH RPRHMSTOPK CH FP CHTHENS tHUULPK YLPMSHCH CH rBTYCE, RPMHYUYM TBTEYOYE CHEMILPZP chPUFPLB zhTBOGYY ABOUT UPDBOIE H tPUUY THUULYI MPTs. VSHCHMY PFLTSCHFSCH MPTSY "chPЪTPTSDEOYE" CH nPULCHE Y YUHFSH RPDOEE - "UCHETOBS 'CHEEDB" CH UBOLF-REFETVKhTZE. h 1908 ZPDKh "UECHETOBS 'CHEODB" RPMKHYUYMB RTBCHP UBNPUFPSFEMSHOP PFLTSCHCHBFSH OPCHSHCHE MPTSY VE LPOUKHMSHFBGYK U upChEFPN CHEMYLPZP chPUFPLB, B CH 1910 ZPDH THUULYE MPTSY ZHPTNB MSHOP PFDEMYMYUSH PF ZHTBOGKHULYI, OBYUBCH UBNPUFPSFEMSHOHA DEFEMSHOPUFSH.
pDOBLP PVUFBOPCHLB, CH LPFPTPK DEKUFCHPCHBMY OPCHSHCHE THUULIE MPTSY, EDCHB MY NPTSOP VSCHMP OBCHBFSH VMBZPRTYSFOPK. CHUE POY OBIPDYMYUSH RPD OBD'PTPN RPMYGYY, RPFPNKH OE NPZMY CHEUFY RTPFPLPMSH UPVTBOIK Y DTHZYE BRYUY, MPTSY VSCHMY NBMPYUYUMEOOSCHNY, UCHSY NETSDH ONYY OE RPDD ETTSYCHBMYUSH - YUMEOSCH PDOK MPTSY OE NPZMY OBFSH DBTS OBCHBOIS DTHZPK.
h FBLPK UIFKHBGYY Y TEYU VSHCHFSHOE NPZMP P OPTNBMSHOPC, URPLPKOPK TBVPFE. YUHCHUFCHXS RPUFPSOOSCHK RTYZMSD PITBALL, PEHEBS RPUFPSOOHA HZTPJH UFBFSH PTHDYEN CH RPMYFYUEULPK YZTE, CHPURTYOYNBS LBL TEBMSHOHA HZTPЪH UEVE Y UCHPENH DCHYTSEOY A, NBUPOSH OEYYVETSOP UFBMY RPMYFYYTPCHBFSHUS. rPUME PFDEMEOYS PF ZHTBOGHULPZP CHEMILPZP chPUFPLB POI PYUEOSH VSHCHUFTP PFPYMY PF UPVMADEOYS PUOPCHPRPMBZBAEYI RTBCHYM (UTEDY LPFPTSCHI - BVUPMAFOSHCHK BRTEF PVUHTsDBFSH CHPRTPUSCH RP MYFYLY Y TEMYZYY), VSCHMY PFNEOEOSCH GETENPOY, TYFHBMSCH. OPCHPE THUULPE NBUPOUFCHP RP UHFY DEMB RTECHTBFYMPUSH CH UELTEFOSCK RPMYFYUEULIK LMHV, FEUOP UCHSBOOSCHK U LBDEFULPK RBTFYEK, IPFS UBN MYDET LBDEFPCH r.nymalpch L NBUPOUFCHH OE YNEM OILBLLPZP PFOPIEOYS.
OE UMHYUBKOP THUULIE NBUPOSHCH FPZP READING SCHOMBMY UEVS U LBDEFULPK RBTFYEK. its IDEPMPZYUEULIE RPUFKHMBFSCH - LPOUFYFKHGYPOOPE RTBCHMEOYE Y CHMBUFSH BLPOB - CH OBYVPMSHYEK UFEREOY RPDIPDYMY NBUPOBN, NEYUFBCHYYN P ZBTNPOYUOPN, TBGYPOBMSHOPN HUFTPKUFCHE PVEE UFChB.
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The symbol of freemasons.

Each Freemason honors God while in Freemasonry, he is addressed as the "Great Builder (Architect) of the Universe", and any traditional religion is allowed. Freemasonry is not a religion or a substitute for religion, Freemasonry does not have its own theology, and discussions on religious matters are excluded from Masonic meetings. Each Mason continues to profess the religious views with which he came into the lodge, and his greater attention to his religion is welcome. The recognition of faith in God, as the basis of Freemasonry and its principles, goes back to the founders of modern speculative Freemasonry at the beginning of the 18th century, and this is followed by the dominant majority of world Freemasonry (the so-called regular or Conservative Freemasonry), there is an emphasis on compulsory monotheism.

Freemasonry is positioned as a moral and ethical system, expressed in allegories and illustrated by symbols, most of the symbols are borrowed from other cultures, legends with biblical characters are played out in rituals. The attention of Masons is drawn to the need for moral self-improvement, as well as spiritual growth within the framework of the religion that each of them professes. The philosophy of Freemasonry includes external elements from both Christianity and other religions.

The radiant Delta reminds the mason of the all-penetration of the Creator, the Higher Being. This is the main Masonic symbol of the first degree, the degree of the disciple. Stylistically, the eye is often replaced by a circle inscribed in a triangle. In liberal Freemasonry, the Radiant Delta is considered a sign of enlightenment or the principle of consciousness.

One of the symbols of Freemasonry is also the acacia, which is considered one of the main symbols used in Freemasonry and is associated with the so-called Legend of the Death of Master Hiram - the thematic base of the Master Mason degree. Further: a plumb line is a symbol of striving for perfection, a level is a symbol of equality, a square is a symbol of poise and reconciliation of the unchanging striving for perfection with what is really achievable, a symbol of the earthly, compasses is a symbol of moderation and prudence, as well as striving for the highest and spiritual, a trowel is a symbol of strengthening fraternal ties, etc. The biblical legend about the construction of the Temple of Solomon is widely used in Freemasonry.

Loyalty to the authorities of those countries and territories where Freemasonry exists is one of the Masonic principles. Working for the benefit of society is considered one of the Masonic virtues. For the majority of Freemasons in the world, this is realized by their participation in charitable activities.

Regular Freemasonry

Regularity (see also Freemasonry, Regularity) is the mechanism by which relationships in Freemasonry (brotherhood) are established. It is implemented practically with the help of a system of recognition of the Grand Lodges (VL) by each other on a reciprocal basis.

The concept of regularity in Freemasonry is relatively young, it arose at the beginning of the 20th century, as a result of the spread of Freemasonry in the world. For the first time, the principles of regularity (Basic Principles) (English) (see also) were published by the United Grand Lodge of England (UKLA) in 1929, and later confirmed by it in 1938 in the document Aims and Relationships of the Craft (English). Other Grand Lodges of the world, with minor variations, have adopted similar principles and standards of regularity. At present, adherence to regularity and its recognition allow, with the autonomy of the national Grand Lodges and mutual respect for their sovereignty, to be world regular Freemasonry in an integrated state and create conditions for the preservation of Masonic traditions, testify to adherence to basic Masonic values.

Regularity standards include:

With organizations that are not recognized as regular, but, nevertheless, consider themselves Masonic, relations in regular Freemasonry are excluded, regular Masons are not allowed to attend their meetings. Grand Lodges usually publish in special editions lists of Masonic jurisdictions (Grand Lodges, Grand Orients) that are in a relationship of recognition with them (see, for example, UGLE Recognized Grand Lodges).

Issues of recognition and relations are often dealt with by special commissions (which systematize information and develop expert opinions regarding the compliance of a particular Grand Lodge with regularity standards), in the USA, where there are Grand Lodges in each state, and more recently the Grand Lodges of Prince Hall (created by African Americans) are also recognized as regular, there is a general recognition commission that meets annually.

In many countries (including Russia) there is a principle that there can be only one regular Grand Lodge within a country or territory, however, historically and at present there are countries in the world where more than one overhead line operates in one territory if there is an agreement between these overhead lines on the so-called. "division of territory" or mutual recognition.

Regular Freemasonry is the strongest and most numerous in the world. In modern Russia, it is represented by the Grand Lodge of Russia (VLR). This is the only organization in Russia related to regular Freemasonry.

Requirements for candidates

The main requirements for candidates follow from the general principles of the movement. The candidate confirms his faith in God, the Supreme Being. In The Book of Constitutions, compiled by the London preacher James Anderson, the Mason was ordered not to be "neither a stupid atheist nor an irreligious freethinker", to support civil authorities. The candidate must be of mature age (at least 21 in most Grand Lodges of the world), decide to become a Freemason of their own free will, be of good repute, be "free and of good morals".

The traditional rule when joining the Order sounds like "to be a Mason, ask a Mason about it", "2 be 1 ask 1", the initiative for admission to the lodge must come from the candidate. The candidate may apply to the Lodge at the place of residence. To join the lodge, you need the recommendations of its full members, one way or another, the entry is preceded by a certain period of acquaintance with the Masons, who recommend the candidate. Some jurisdictions require an applicant to apply for membership 3 times, however this is becoming less common. In some jurisdictions, entry information is open so that a potential candidate knows where to find more information.

The decision on his entry into the lodge is made by secret ballot. Members voting to join use white stones (balls are most commonly used in the ritual); those who are against are black. The number of nay votes required to reject a candidate's application is set by the local Grand Lodge, and is 1 vote in some jurisdictions.

Lodge membership and religious beliefs

The religious beliefs of the candidate are the subject of his conscience. Upon joining, the candidate brings an obligation to the Holy Book of the faith that he professes and which embodies the Revelation above his faith, this can be the Bible, the Koran, the Torah, etc. Usually the candidate belongs to one of the traditional confessions, respectively, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, etc. candidate for the philosophy of deism or God - the "Great Architect of the Universe" as an abstract idea-symbol, or are canceled altogether, and atheists and agnostics can enter the box.

Rite of passage

Rite of passage

At the beginning of the rite, a candidate for Masons is taken to the Reflection Room, painted black, the furnishings of which correspond to the name, it may contain objects that remind the candidate of the frailty of being. In it, the candidate will write on paper a moral and philosophical testament, his wishes and vows regarding himself and other people, his country, family and humanity as a whole. Then he will be asked to reaffirm his faith in God.

Before entering the temple where the initiation takes place, the candidate is blindfolded. As a sign of humility, the candidate is “neither dressed nor undressed” (partially undressed, and the left chest is bare as a sign of openness of the heart), all valuables (“metals”) are taken away from him, his right leg is rolled up and his left shoe is removed. A rope is put around his neck, symbolizing the bonds of human imperfection. The candidate is taken to the temple premises (lodge meeting room), where he goes through ritual trials, listens to moral and philosophical instructions, participates in small scenes and dialogues, the purpose of which is to visually present the moral instructions of the ritual. At the end of the ceremony, he makes a solemn commitment to the Holy Book of the religion he professes (usually the Bible, a compass and square are also placed on it). Then the bandage is removed for the candidate, saying that he has now “passed the tests and is worthy of the Light”, a Masonic apron is put on him, and after that the presiding officer of the ceremony (Venerable Master) announces to those present that they have now found a new brother and calls to help him in difficulties, being sure that he will help them in difficult times. Often the initiation ceremony is accompanied by musical accompaniment, which further enhances the impression of the candidate.

The initiation rite is described by L. N. Tolstoy, who himself was initiated into the first degree, in "War and Peace" (an episode with the initiation of Pierre Bezukhov), but there are also more modern sources of a scientific nature about Masonic rituals.

Freemasonry in Russia

Freemasonry appeared in Russia in the middle of the 18th century. In Masonic legends, Peter I and his associates Franz Lefort and Patrick Gordon are often referred to as the founders of Freemasonry in Russia. This version, however, has no documentary evidence. The first reliable news of the beginning of Freemasonry in Russia dates back to 1731, when the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of London, Lord Lovell, appointed Captain John Philips as Provincial Grand Master for Russia. Freemasonry became widespread in Russia with the founding of several lodges in the 1740s by General of the Russian Service James Keith. The documents of the Grand Lodge of England indicate that in 1740 he was appointed provincial Grand Master for Russia. Initially, most of the members of Russian lodges were foreigners - officers in the Russian service and merchants, but soon the number of Russian-born Masons began to grow. In the 1750s, a lodge under the leadership of Count R. I. Vorontsov worked in St. Petersburg.

An alternative Elagin Masonic system was the so-called Swedish or Zinnendorf system, founded by the former chamberlain of the Braungschweig court P.-B. Reichel. In 1772-1776, Reichel founded several more lodges: Apollo (St. Petersburg), Harpocrates (St. Petersburg), Apollo (Riga), Isis (Revel), Gorusy (St. Petersburg), Latons (St. Petersburg), Nemesis (St. Petersburg) and Osiris (St. Petersburg - Moscow ). In 1776, after negotiations, the Elagin and Reichel lodges merged into a single system.

A new stage in the development of Russian Freemasonry is associated with the name of N. I. Novikov, who joined the Freemasons in 1775 in one of the Elagin lodges. Together with Johann Schwartz, Novikov launched a broad propaganda campaign in Moscow, where the center of activity of Russian Freemasonry had shifted. On August 1, 1822, Masonic lodges were officially closed by the imperial rescript of Alexander I.

A new stage in the spread of Freemasonry in Russia dates back to the beginning of the 20th century, when lodges of the so-called “Great East of France” became widespread in Russia - then transformed into the “Great East of the peoples of Russia”. Freemasonry at the beginning of the 20th century was openly political in nature.

After the October Revolution of 1917, Masonic organizations were banned, Masons were persecuted by the VChK-GPU-NKVD.

A small number of Russian lodges worked in exile, primarily in France. Over time, the number of Russian Freemasons decreased due to the aging of emigrants. During the German occupation of France during World War II, the remaining Russian lodges were closed along with all French lodges.

Historians of Freemasonry

• Sergey Karpachev

Freemasonry in film

• The mystery of the villa "Gretta" ()
• Bankers of God / The Bankers of God ()

"All-seeing eye" on banknotes

The All-Seeing Eye is depicted on the banknotes of several countries. So on the reverse side of the 1 US dollar bill since 1935, the Great Seal of the United States has been placed, which depicts a truncated pyramid with an eye. The initiators of the banknote change were G. Wallace and F. Roosevelt, its designer was Edward M. Wicks, supervisor of the Engraving Department of the Bureau for the Issue of Banknotes and Securities under the US Treasury Department (the artist Nikolai Roerich, to whom some authors erroneously attribute the idea of ​​​​the banknote drawing, has nothing to do with this). The All-Seeing Eye is also depicted on the Nicaraguan banknote (1 cordoba) and on the Ukrainian banknote of 500 hryvnia (the author of the drawing is Grigory Skovoroda).

Miscellaneous links

Notes

1. After amalgamation in 1813 with another Grand Lodge of the Ancients which had arisen in 1751, see GVLA History, 18th/19th century.
2. which in turn allude to an older origin for this and other basic Masonic principles, see for example Anderson's Constitutions of 1823.
3. T. A. Sherkova. "Eye of Horus": eye symbolism in pre-dynastic Egypt. "Bulletin of Ancient History", No. 4, 1996
4. Amulets and symbols of the Egyptians
5. Pendant "Eye of Horus"
6. Landmarks are ancient commandments, a set of traditional principles of Freemasonry, a Masonic lodge, "landmarks" that separate Freemasonry from what is not. The most famous collection of landmarks is the landmarks of Makei. Landmarks are reflected in the constitutions of modern lodges, the principles of regularity.
7. http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/History/masony/4.php
8. S. P. Karpachev, Secrets of the Masonic Orders, M., Yauza Press, 2007.
9. V. S. BRACHEV Masons in Russia
10. "Charter of Freemasons"
11. About the Grand Lodge of Russia, VLR website.
12. S. P. Karpachev, Guide to Masonic Secrets (library of a freemason), M., "Center for Humanitarian Education", 2003.

Many legends have developed around the Masons - from the theory of the "world Jewish Masonic conspiracy" to blood-chilling stories about ritual murders. The Freemasons themselves call themselves not a secret society, but a society with secrets. In our review, a selection of facts about this private men's club of rich intellectuals.

1. About five million Freemasons

Freemasonry exists in various forms throughout the world. It is believed that there are about five million Freemasons in the world (including about 480 thousand in Great Britain and more than two million in the United States).

2. Masons - secret or not secret?

Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons are not a secret society. A Mason is free to tell people that he is a Mason. But they cannot divulge the secrets of their order.

3. June 24, 1717

4. Morality, friendship, brotherly love

Images of working tools in the symbolism of Masons are an illustration of morality, friendship and brotherly love of the members of the order.

5. Origin of symbolism

It is believed that Masons use the symbols because of the secrecy of the brotherhood. However, in fact, Freemasonry began to use symbols, since at the time of the foundation of the society, most of its members could not read.

6. Square and compass

The oldest Masonic symbol is the square and the compass. It is also the most common symbol of Freemasonry, although its exact meaning varies from country to country.

7. Masonic lodge - a community of people

The Masonic lodge is a community of people, and not just the name of a building. Each lodge must receive a charter from the "Grand Lodge", but after that they are mostly self-governing. Also, there are no generally accepted rituals for conducting meetings, they are different in each lodge.

8. Atheist? So not a mason

An atheist cannot become a Freemason. The first requirement is that prospective members must believe in some sort of higher power.

9. Two branches of Freemasonry

There are two branches of Freemasonry: regular, which is subordinate to the "United Grand Lodge of England", and liberal, which is subordinate to the "Grand Orient de France".

10. Secret signs

Freemasons traditionally greet each other with various "secret" signs, including wearing a ring with the Masonic emblem, various badges, and sometimes exchanging the so-called "Masonic handshake".

11. Anders Breivik

Anders Breivik, known for the 2011 Norwegian serial murders, was also a Freemason.

12. Ordered to bear false witness

Freemasons cannot give truthful evidence in court if the defendant is their brother in the order, and he is guilty. They admit that this may be perjury, but in the brotherhood it is considered a much greater sin not to protect "one's own."

13. Freemasonry has no single leader

Freemasons are a multitude of people in numerous organizations that are subordinate to the local Grand Lodge. None of these members of the fraternity and not one organization can speak on behalf of the entire Freemasonry - this is allowed only by the Grand Lodge.

14. Statue of Liberty

Frederic Bartholdi, the man who created the famous Statue of Liberty, was a Freemason.

15. Handshakes and passwords

The secret handshakes and passwords currently associated with Freemasonry were previously used by Freemasons to get to know each other. This was essential to keeping the secret of the brotherhood.

16 Lunar Module Pilot

Astronaut Buzz Aldrin was a member of Clear Lake Loggia #1417 in Texas. He was also the lunar module pilot on the Apollo 11 mission.

17. Catherine Babington

Catherine Babington was so eager to learn the secrets of Freemasonry that she hid inside the pulpit during lodge meetings in Kentucky for a year. When she was discovered, she was held captive for a month.

18. The most famous Freemasons

Charles Darwin, Mark Twain, Winston Churchill, J. Edgar Hoover, Benjamin Franklin, and the first President and Founding Father of the United States, George Washington, were all Freemasons.

19. Illuminati and Freemasons

Conspiracy theorists link Freemasons to the Illuminati. However, this seems unlikely because the Illuminati is a completely secret society (to the extent that most people believe that this society does not exist today), while Freemasons may divulge that they are members of the Masonic lodge.

20. The Nazis destroyed the Freemasons

23. Chicago Masonic Temple

The Masonic Temple in Chicago, Illinois, completed in 1892, was at the time the tallest building in the world. It had 22 floors.

24. Freemasons at War

During the American Civil War, soldiers in enemy armies who recognized each other as Freemasons helped and saved each other's lives. Even during the war, the loyalty of the Freemasons to the brotherhood did not disappear anywhere.

In 2007, the most mysterious organization in the world reopened its lodge in Russia. Today it already includes about 400 people. can be found in one of our reviews.

freemasonry

FREEMASONRY-A; m.

1. Religious and ethical movement that arose in the early 18th century. in England and spread in Europe, in the USA and other countries, which set the task of creating a secret world organization to unite humanity in a fraternal union (Masonic organizations - lodges - are built on the model of medieval guild associations of masons, from which the specifics of the rite, complex paraphernalia are borrowed). Freemasonry development. The study of Russian Freemasonry.

2. Condition, position of a Mason; his views and beliefs. His m. was limited to participation in the meeting of the lodge.

freemasonry

(Freemasonry) (from the French franc maçon - freemason), a religious and ethical movement, arose at the beginning of the 18th century. in the UK, spread to many countries, including Russia. The name, organization (association in lodges), traditions are borrowed by Freemasonry from medieval workshops (brotherhoods) of builders-masons, partly from medieval knightly and mystical orders. The Freemasons sought to create a secret worldwide organization with the utopian goal of the peaceful unification of mankind in a religious fraternal union. Honoring God as the great architect of the universe, Freemasonry allows the practice of any religion. The greatest role played in the XVIII - early XIX centuries. Freemasonry has been known in Russia since the early 1730s. In the second half of the XVIII century. spread among the educated nobility. In the 1810-1820s. almost all members of the Decembrist movement, many prominent statesmen and public figures were members of the lodges. In 1822, Masonic lodges were banned by a decree of Emperor Alexander I and did not play a significant role in the future. Attempts to revive Freemasonry were made at the beginning of the 20th century: the so-called Duma Freemasonry united prominent political figures of the liberal camp associated with the State Duma. After October 1917 all lodges were liquidated.

FREEMASONRY

Freemasonry (Freemasonry) (French franc mason, English free mason - lit. "freemason"), a religious and moral movement that arose in the early 18th century in Great Britain, associated with the satisfaction of religious needs on a non-church basis. The first lodge (Grand Lodge) was founded in London on June 24, 1717. From Great Britain it spread to other countries, including Russia, where Freemasons used in the 18th - first third of the 19th century. great influence. In France, Freemasons played a prominent role in the preparation of the French Revolution. In countries where the Catholic Church was dominant, Masons were often persecuted. "Masonic" in Italy, Spain and some other Catholic countries called liberal parties.
Masonic metaphysics, symbolism had a great influence on culture and art (opera by W. A. ​​Mozart (cm. MOZART Wolfgang Amadeus)"Magic Flute", St. Paul's Cathedral in London, some churches in Moscow, design of US dollars, etc.).
In Russia, almost all Masonic systems that were in use in Western Europe became widespread. These are the English, Swedish-Berlin, Swedish, French systems and, of course, Rosicrucianism (cm. Rosicrucians). In addition, there were also their own - "national" - systems that were named after the names of their creators. These are, for example, the systems of Saltykov, Fessler, sometimes they talk about a special Masonic degree of the “spiritual knight” I.V. Lopukhin (cm. LOPUKHIN Ivan Vladimirovich), or a special system of I. P. Elagin (cm. ELAGIN Ivan Perfilevich).
Religious and philosophical views of Russian Masons. Exegesis
For Russian Masons, the Bible is one of the sources of mystical inspiration. The Masonic view accepts everything that was born outside of Christianity, if, in their opinion, it is consistent with their ideas about Christianity. The cultural heritage of antiquity (and not only it) had almost the same attitude as the Holy Scriptures. The religious faith of Russian freemasons covered the works of these authors with an aura of "holiness" and placed them on a par with the Bible. Freemasons tend to speak not "on their own behalf", but referring to "enlightened sages" and reproducing established views. A distinctive feature of the Masonic view of the history of the emergence and development of the society of freemasons is the inseparable unity of sacred and civil history. When solving historiosophical questions, the main attention is paid to the Pentateuch of Moses. Antiquity with its mythological heroes, the Middle Ages and the time in which Russian Freemasons lived and worked were conceived as a single whole. An analysis of the texts shows that the history of the Masonic order is the central line in the development of the human race for Masons. It turns out to be a link in the preservation of true humanity and Revelation, acts as an environment in which unity with God must occur. The Holy Spirit is present in each of the people, making them the sons of God, the Masons believed. But He is not revealed in each of them, but only in the "prudent." The history of the world in the aspect of the union of man with God is, as it were, located in concentric circles, in the center of which stands the order, and inside it stands out a group of people - enlightened and wise, who are already entering into union with God. The semantic spiritual unity of the historical process of people's lives is provided not by the Church, but by the order as the "Temple of the Living God." It is the order, the degree of its prevalence in public life, that is the spiritual conductor of the harmonious structure of both society itself and man. The integrity of the historical process is preserved due to participation in the "Higher Knowledge", and the people, whom God's Providence pointed out, preserve and transmit it, providing the spiritual basis for the development of the human race. Freemasonry, in its goals and objectives, served to satisfy religious needs on a non-church basis.
Ideas about the Creator
At the heart of Masonic metaphysics is the position of the creation of the world - the idea of ​​the creation of the world. Nature has its source in God; He appears as the Absolute, in relation to which any manifestation of being is relative. God is the source of goodness and the center of perfection. “God is the center of everything,” the brothers said. For Freemasons, the world cannot be thought outside of God. However, it is impossible to identify God and nature. The Creator reveals Himself through nature. Creation is a free gift of God. The world was created by the Divine will "out of nothing". Creation "out of nothing" is an article of faith of the Freemasons, coinciding with the Christian tradition. The existence of God is reflected in the created. The purpose of the created and the justification of the created consist in reciprocal glorification of Him.
The integrity of the world is one of the stable features of Masonic views. The world was created in a certain order and harmony out of mercy and love. The world for Freemasons appears as a living whole, having a certain structure. Dedicated intuition opposes the idea of ​​the world as a simple sum of various things and processes. Universal sympathy operates in the world, which binds the world into a single organism - an organic whole. Mutual attraction, or "magnetism," a concept often used by Freemasons in the 18th and 19th centuries, strengthens the bonds of mutual love. Created beings in their love are endowed with the ability to become like God. This is their purpose and true life.
"Old Adam" and "New Adam"
Man is "the extract of all things," the Masonic brethren often repeated. Man is a being that is not separated from the creature, but connected with the rest of the world. But the world naturally does not yet allow a person to become a “true man”, a “new Adam”, that is, the image of a person that Russian Masons aspired to. Man as a created being, in addition to this, also has a Divine principle. The perfection of man and his lofty predestination lie not in the fact that he is likened to the totality of the created, even if he carries the best properties of the created, but precisely in the fact that he is distinguished from nature and likened to the Creator. He is called, as the Masons believed, to build the "Temple of the Living God." Nature appears in the Masonic worldview not just as a macrocosm, but as a macroanthropos, as something dependent and determined by the final paths and goals of human development. Just as the fall of man led to the “damage” of nature on a cosmic scale, so his rebirth should restore that “norm” of nature that comes from the Creator. The very concept of "peace" in Masonic philosophy is a concept that carries sinfulness in itself. The destinies of the world and man are inseparable, and they have only one path. For this reason, metaphysical ideas are directly related to the development of moral and religious ideas and concepts by Freemasons.
The source of the mystical realism of the Freemasons lies in the metaphysical realm. After the fall of Adam, nature and man have two "layers" of being. The first is empirical, associated with a deviation from the norm, from the creative principle; the second is hidden, mystical. These two levels are not equivalent. The surface of being is determined by its mysterious belonging to a "hidden" source. Hence, the task of enlightening everything visible has always been in the Masonic worldview. In accordance with the Christian tradition, the Freemasons singled out two levels in man: external and internal, carnal and spiritual man. Each of these "two beings" is endowed with certain abilities that constantly manifest themselves in the world.
Freemasonry and Society
Russian freemasonry was the first manifestation of civic initiative. The Masonic Order was engaged in both "internal" - purely Masonic, moralizing - work, and "external" - social and philanthropic - activities; he acted as an organizational and religious-ideological formation of civil society in Russia in the 18-19 centuries. It clearly showed in its historically concrete form that civil society should have (and at that time actually had) conscious goals and objectives; one should worry about one's own welfare and see to its preservation. And the Masonic order was such a social form of self-organization, in which a moral and religious program of behavior for Masonic brothers was developed, the possibility of non-political ways of development of Russian society was indicated and opened (although the attitude towards state power on the part of the Masons was always emphasized respectful).
On the inner freedom of man
A feature of the moral philosophy of Russian Freemasons was the adherence to the "patristic" tradition of the organic unity of the way of thinking and way of life, theory and practice. It is possible for the Masonic worldview to speak of a certain experiential anthropology. Another feature - the pathos of human autonomy in solving spiritual and moral issues - is a distinctive characteristic of Russian Freemasonry of the 18th and 19th centuries at all stages of historical development. No force can violate the sovereignty of a person: neither the state, nor the church, nor any other social institution.
The mystical meaning of the degrees of initiation
The Masonic lodges preached a gradual transition from one level of religious and moral knowledge to another. All degrees of initiation have a mystical meaning. The truths of freemasons are connected with the truths of religious feeling and faith, with a certain experience of experiencing the surrounding world, which led the brothers to Masonic lodges. The desire for the gradual formation of the moral consciousness and moral activity of each brother expresses one of the main principles of the Masonic way of thinking. As a direct model of life for the Masons, the life of the incarnated God - Jesus Christ acted. The path of the Mason is the path of ascent from the created man to the Divine nature. A person can achieve “deification” only through “co-operation” with God. The cosmic consequences of the Fall, when everything created was subjected to death and decay, can only be overcome by man. The world follows him, because he is, as it were, the nature of man. The way of saving the world is the way of connecting the original image of man with the Prototype. The "co-operation" of God and man elevates and saves nature as well.
Worldly Knowledge and Revelation
The thinking of a Russian Freemason is believing thinking, and only believing thinking is capable of carrying out all acts of knowledge. The Christological principle permeates the worldview of the Russian brothers. Without Revelation, freemasons believed, the unity of faith and reason cannot be realized in all its fullness and clarity. The ideal of the integrity of the human spirit, where faith and reason, reason and heart are united into a single force, is one of the creative inspirations of masons. It led to the genesis of Slavophilism.
The desire for knowledge is one of the innate abilities of a person, the Masons believed. The desire of a person to know nature "directly", without changing his internal state, and only in this way to acquire knowledge of the Divine laws, Masons consider it limited. That worldly rational knowledge that has become widespread among people, according to the Freemasons, is “violent wisdom” that came from the serpent-tempter. He tied man to the sensible world. "Sensual" knowledge comes from the pride and selfishness of man. False sensual concepts are developed through which the Light of God cannot penetrate. The mind itself, in the state in which it is currently, cannot comprehend supernatural things, therefore, it cannot show the way to transformation and rebirth. A person with such a mind is still in a state of darkness. It is quite natural that Freemasonry did not accept the enlightenment that came from the West. Moreover, education itself for Freemasons has a pronounced religious and philosophical meaning. Knowledge for Freemasons is “the inner Primal Light; and ignorance is "internal Primal Darkness".
brotherly spirit
Without the spirit of freemasonry, the spirit of fraternal unity, it is impossible to perform Masonic work, even if they are directed to each brother individually. In Freemasonry, there is a “choral principle” - the brothers aspired to this. Where there is no friendship, there can be no “power of attorney” in those secret knowledge that they aspired to. Through friendship, love, "power of attorney" and consent, Masonic virtues were acquired and the revival of man and nature was carried out. The Masonic order acts as a single human soul. The process of self-knowledge does not fit within the framework of individual consciousness. In essence, we are talking about self-knowledge as a certain function of the higher (cathedral) consciousness.
Russian freemasonry in the middle of the 18th century. English system
Freemasonry became widespread in Russia in the 18th century. and covered mainly noble and bureaucratic circles, expressing the emerging civil initiative. Depending on the time, on the events that took place in Russian society in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century, the internal alignment of Masonic forces, one or the other Masonic system came to the fore, and at the same time there were changes in the system of value orientations of Russian freemasons and the degree of influence.
There was a legend among Russian masons that the first lodges were opened by Peter the Great, but the first documented news of the spread of Freemasonry in the Russian Empire dates back to 1731, when, according to an English source, the grand master of the Grand Lodge of London, Lord Lovell, appointed Captain John Philips as a provincial grand master for all of Russia, that is, primarily for foreigners living in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Then this post (since 1740) was held by General of the Russian Service Yakov Keith. As in many European states, the beginning of Freemasonry here was associated with England. In connection with the strengthening of German influence under Anna Ioannovna (cm. Anna Ivanovna) there was a spread of German Freemasonry among the Russian brothers. Already at the end of the reign of Empress Elizabeth (cm. ELIZAVETA Petrovna) Masonic lodges have taken root in the country, and one can speak of Freemasonry as a new emerging form of social consciousness.
Initially, the main form of Freemasonry in Russia was the English system with three simple degrees of initiation: apprentice, fellow and master. John the Baptist was considered the patron saint of these degrees. (cm. John the Baptist), and June 24 - Ivan's Day - became a common order holiday. In honor of St. John the Baptist, the first three degrees were called John. The distinctive color of this system was the color of azure - the color of the sky as a symbol of the sublimity of aspirations and thirst for spiritual self-improvement (because of this, John's Freemasonry was also called blue Freemasonry). Each of them was issued a constitution from the mother lodge - a constituent charter, thanks to which it was considered fair and perfect, and the chain of Masonic brotherhood was not interrupted. Otherwise, even if the newly opened lodge worked according to authentic Masonic acts and rituals, it was illegal in the eyes of the Masonic brotherhood. The symbolism of the three moral degrees was the originality of John's Masonic doctrine.
The main role in the spread of the English system of Freemasonry in Russia belonged to I. P. Elagin (cm. ELAGIN Ivan Perfilevich), who joined the Masonic fraternity as early as 1750. He founded up to 20 lodges in Russia that worked according to the English system.
German and Swedish systems in Russia (from the 1770s)
In parallel with the approval of the "Yelagin Union" in the early 70s. 18th century there is a spread in Russia of the German form of Freemasonry, which was called the Swedish-Berlin, or Zinnendorf.
The German brothers, like the Russians, have always been in the process of spiritual quest. They also believed that the true form of Freemasonry, or "true knowledge", must come from abroad. As a result, approximately the same situation arose as in the case of the spread of the English system in Russia.
Johann Wilhelm Ellenberger, known in the history of Freemasonry under the name of von Zinnendorf, established contacts with Swedish Freemasons and received from them the appropriate papers for opening lodges according to the Swedish model. Although later the Swedes did not recognize the correctness of Zinnendorf's lodges, the Swedish system of Freemasonry, which had already spread in Germany, surpassed the German systems in the number of higher degrees and inspired the new brothers with the hope of receiving genuine Masonic wisdom. It was believed that Jesus Christ left not only the teaching that was transmitted by His disciples in the Gospels, but also some secret knowledge. It was transmitted in oral tradition and reached the clerics of the Templar (cm. Templars) orders, and from them - to the Masons of the Swedish system, and only representatives of Christian denominations are worthy of this true knowledge. The idea of ​​"some important sacrament" on which "the fate of the human race depends" will sound in Russia not only among the representatives of the Swedish system, but also among the Rosicrucians and Freemasons of the English system.
In Russia, the Zinnendorf system was initially established in the first three degrees of John's Freemasonry. The former chamberlain at the court of the Duke of Brunswick, von Reichel, established in March 1771 in St. Petersburg the first lodge of the Swedish-Berlin persuasion called "Apollo", which consisted of 14 brothers, of whom only one was Russian. The affairs of the new lodge were going badly, and Reichel was forced to close it, and in return opened in May 1773 the lodge of "Harpocrates" under the direction of Prince. N. Trubetskoy. The majority in it were already Russian brothers. However, the new lodge did not receive support from the Berlin National Lodge, which recommended that the "Russian Zinnendorfers" turn to the provincial grand master I.P. Elagin (cm. ELAGIN Ivan Perfilevich) or straight to the Grand Lodge in London. As a result, a paradoxical situation developed: the Russian brothers of the Swedish-Berlin system were dependent on the English Grand Lodge. Moreover, the great master of the English system introduced acts of the Swedish-Berlin system in the lodges loyal to him. Some time later, there was an intersection of interests between the Yelagin and Reichel lodges, which ended in a short-lived unification in September 1776.
Among the masters of the united lodges, N. I. Novikova can be distinguished (cm. NOVIKOV Nikolay Ivanovich)- from 1777 the master of the chair of the lodge "Laton" (subsequently transferred this lodge to Moscow), Prince. G.P. Gagarina - from the same year, the master of the Equality lodge, the secretary of Catherine II Khrapovitsky, who from September 1776 led work in the Nemesis lodge. A. N. Radishchev visited the Urania Lodge (cm. RADISHCHEV Alexander Nikolaevich). But the newly formed union did not justify the hopes for the unification of Russian lodges on the basis of one system, and the subsequent history of the development of the Elagin lodges contains only fragmentary data.
The greatest influence in Russia since the late 70s. 18th century the Swedish system of Freemasonry was used, which existed until the prohibition in 1822 of the activities of Masonic lodges. Its official distribution was initiated by the book. Alexander Borisovich Kurakin (1752-1818).
The main figures of Freemasonry in St. Petersburg were dissatisfied with the chaotic nature of Masonic quests and those systems that were distributed among the brothers until 1775. They decided to send the book. A. B. Kurakina (cm. KURAKIN Alexander Borisovich (1752-1818)) for negotiations with the supreme order power of Sweden with a request to open access to the "genuine sacraments". Using the interest of the Swedish brothers in expanding his influence in Russia, he was personally initiated into the secrets of the Swedish rite by Duke Charles of Südermanland (later King Charles XIII).
Prince Kurakin signed acts on the subordination of future Russian lodges to Sweden and on the introduction of the Swedish system in Russia. After that, he received a number of documents: a constitution for the foundation in St. Petersburg of the main governing lodge of the Swedish system - the Phoenix Chapter, a diploma from Prince. Gavriil Petrovich Gagarin (1745-1808) for the title of managing prefect of the chapter and other official papers and ceremonial items. However, the book Kurakin was not given all the acts necessary for the opening of the chapter.
In February 1778, in accordance with the instructions, the chapter of the Phoenix became the secret supreme government and the secret supreme court for Russian masons of the Swedish rite. The final approval of decisions remained with the Swedish chapter. This strict dependence (or “system of strict obedience”) on the Swedish Freemasons was clearly not to the liking of Russian masons.
The Swedish system spread rapidly in Russia, and in 1779 the grand opening of the Grand National Lodge took place in St. Petersburg as an explicit government for all Russian lodges of the Swedish persuasion. But for those brothers who were ordained to the highest degrees, the chapter of the Phoenix remained the supreme body. As a result, the "officials" of the Swedish system were given double titles, one for the chosen brethren, the other for the Masonic mob. The union that arose in the Masonic movement began to be called the "Gagarin lodges."
The Swedish system claimed its ancient origin from the order of the Knights of the Temple and contained ten degrees of initiation. John's degrees (first department): 1) student, 2) comrade, 3) master. Andreevsky, or Scottish, degrees (second department): 4) apprentice-apprentice, 5) master. Knightly degrees (third department): 6) Stuart brothers, or knights of the East and Jerusalem; 7) the brothers-chosen of King Solomon, or the knights of the temple, or the West, or the Key; 8) Neighbors of St. John, or Brethren of the White Ribbon; 9) Neighbors of St. Andrew, or Violet Ribbon Brothers, often called Knights of the Purple Ribbon. The tenth degree - the brothers of the pink cross - was divided into three classes: the 1st consisted of members of the chapter who did not hold positions in it; 2nd - from the great officers of the chapter; 3rd - great ruling master.
The Swedish system was patriarchal and hierarchical in nature, based on the principles of autocracy, irremovability of power and strict subordination of junior lodges and brothers to superior ones.
In accordance with the instruction sent to Russia in 1780, which was in force until the prohibition of all freemasonry work in 1822, the newly formed union was headed by the great provincial master - for the Masonic crowd, and for the elected brothers it was indicated that the title of great provincial master was inseparable from the title of grand prefect of the Phoenix chapter and the position of chairman of the Directory.
The Directory ran the Chapter, and included the most trusted members of the Chapter. For the Masonic crowd, it was called the Council of the Grand National Lodge. Each member of the Directory also had a double title. She kept under strict control all the work that was carried out in the subordinate lodges, was in charge of the issues of the receipt and expenditure of funds, the admission of new members, in other words, she demanded and established “strict submission”. It could only include Masons starting from the 7th degree of initiation. It was divided into two chambers: the lower - executive - for Masons of the 7-8th degree of initiation, and the upper - legislative - for Masons of the 9th degree. In turn, the Directory was directly subordinate to the great provincial master of the IX province, that is, Duke Charles of Südermanland, and at the end of each year had to provide him with a general report on the work done and at any time on any significant events. However, after Ivan Vasilyevich Beber (1746-1820) was elected Grand Secretary of the Grand National Lodge, who immediately began to restore order in the Masonic archive, it turned out that, despite promises from the Swedish Supreme Chapter, acts were sent to the Russian brothers only up to the 7th degree of initiation inclusive.
In the Swedish system, one of the ways to organize a noble civil society in Russia was presented. Despite the successful spread of the Swedish system among the highest circles of Russian society, the Phoenix chapter failed to unite under its leadership all the Masonic lodges of Russia. Moreover, strife began within the order itself. A certain dissatisfaction arose among domestic masons with the initially accepted strict dependence on Duke Charles of Südermanland, and Russian Freemasons were ashamed of "the subjugation of the Russian brotherhood to the Swedish brotherhood."
The first reaction of Catherine II
Catherine II was wary and suspicious of Masonic activity. She did not want to extend the power of Sweden to the tribal nobility of Russia, as well as to increase the influence of Masons on Tsarevich Paul. The Empress became aware that the Swedish Masons had sent a rather large amount of money to the Russian brothers, which caused her indignation. In 1780, a satire on the Freemasons appeared in the press under the title "The Secret of the Antiabusive Society." Government structures in various ways constantly sought to control the Masonic movement long before the persecution of N. I. Novikov began.
"Harmony"
In Moscow at the end of 1780, the "secret and scientific" Masonic lodge "Harmony" was organized, which included Prince. N. N. Trubetskoy, N. I. Novikov (cm. NOVIKOV Nikolay Ivanovich), M. M. Kheraskov (cm. KHERASKOV Mikhail Matveevich), I. P. Turgenev, A. M. Kutuzov (cm. KUTUZOV Alexey Mikhailovich), I. G. Schwartz (cm. SCHWARTS Ivan Grigorievich), book. A. A. Cherkassky, Prince. P. N. Engalychev. The "secret" character of the lodge consisted in the fact that its formation was not known not only to the uninitiated, that is, to the profane, but also to many Masons; the term 'Syentific' referred to the lodge's search for a true 'form of Freemasonry'. Lodge "Harmony" united in its ranks representatives of various Masonic systems, who sought to acquire independence in resolving issues of freemasonry. For this reason, it is also called "eclectic" in the research literature.
The ritual and ceremonial side of Freemasonry was not obligatory for the members of the Harmony Lodge. The organization of this lodge was a kind of prologue to the subsequent educational transformations by the Moscow Masons. To a certain extent, she reconciled representatives of various "Masonic denominations". But not only. The significance of the activities of the Lodge of Harmony was that it laid the foundation for the theoretical development of the worldview of domestic Masons, and at the same time, Russian Freemasonry as a national phenomenon in the public life of Russia in the 18th century was paving its way.
Russia declared an independent Masonic province
One of the problems facing the "eclectic" union of brothers was the formal dependence on the Supreme Stockholm Chapter. Freemasons did not tolerate imposture in their midst, and it was required to overcome the existing situation of subordination of all masons to Russia to Sweden in an official way. The other side of the indicated problem was that the belief in the possibility of receiving the "true Light" was not lost. As a result, in 1781 I. G. Schwartz (cm. SCHWARTS Ivan Grigorievich), a professor at Moscow University, who had already become well-known in Masonic circles, went on a collective decision of the Harmony Lodge in search of the "true form" of Freemasonry abroad.
He was given an act stating that he was the only supreme representative of the "Theoretical Degree of Solomon Sciences" in Russia, initiated into the sacrament of the Rosicrucians, and only he was allowed to organize Russian Rosicrucianism. The same act appointed N. I. Novikov a lower rank - the chief warden of a theoretical degree. At the same time, I. G. Schwartz met Baron Schroeder, who later came to Russia and became for a short time one of the main leaders of the Order of the Golden-Pink Cross.
In the spring of 1782, Schwartz returned to Moscow, and in the summer of that year the Wilhelmsbad Convention took place, at which Russia was recognized as the VIII completely free and independent province of the Masonic world. The Masonic Convention adopted a resolution by which it dissociated itself from the Knights Templar (cm. Templars). The seat of the IX province remained vacant: the convention hoped that the Swedish Freemasons would repent and join a single Masonic brotherhood.
The Moscow brothers gained independence from Swedish Freemasonry in resolving freemasonry issues, and from that moment on, Russian Freemasonry acquires independence. The brothers of the Swedish system of Freemasonry in Russia also took advantage of the results of the convention - they joined the newly formed union. If the "eclectic" lodge of Harmony laid the foundation for the systematic development of the Masonic worldview, then the decisions of the Wilhelmsbad Convention documented the very possibility of such an activity. From that moment on, one can speak of the beginning of Russian Freemasonry as a national phenomenon.
At the end of 1782, the Muscovite brothers received a resolution from the congress, and immediately began work on organizing a provincial chapter and directory.
In the chapter, P. A. Tatishchev was appointed prior, I. G. Schwartz was appointed chancellor, N. I. Novikov was appointed treasurer (cm. NOVIKOV Nikolay Ivanovich). N. I. Novikov became president of the Directory. The position of grand provincial master in the chapter house remained vacant. It is believed that this position was reserved for the heir to the throne, Pavel Petrovich. Four lodges - "Three Banners" by P. A. Tatishchev, "Osiris" book. N. N. Trubetskoy, "Latona" N. I. Novikov and organized book. G. P. Gagarin in 1783, the Sphinx lodge received the right to independently form new lodges.
The set goal - the acquisition of independence - was achieved, and the Moscow brothers are gradually moving away from the Duke of Brunswick, maintaining ties with the Berlin Rosicrucians. In other words, Schwartz organized a secret circle of Rosicrucians, which included Prince. N. and Yu. Trubetskoy, Prince. A. Cherkassky, Prince. Engalychev, N. and A. Novikov, I. Turgenev, M. Kheraskov, S. Gamaleya, I. Lopukhin and others. Work in the Masonic doge did not stop either.
The basis of the Rosicrucian activity was the general Masonic doctrine of the three John's degrees.
Educational activity. 1780s
In 1783, on the basis of a decree on free printing houses, members of the "Friendly Society" opened two printing houses - one in the name of N. I. Novikov, the other - in the name of I. V. Lopukhin, the third printing house, which consisted of two printing presses located in Schwartz's house, was intended exclusively for "internal use", and its publications were not for sale.
In February 1784, Schwartz died. In accordance with the instructions received from Berlin, it was decided to establish a Directory of three masters: P. A. Tatishcheva, N. I. Novikov and Prince. N. N. Trubetskoy. The chief overseers of the Directory were Baron Schroeder - for the German brothers, I.V. Lopukhin - for the Russians. Baron Schroeder, in accordance with Welner's instructions, took the place of I. G. Schwartz in the Rosicrucian Order. But the new representative of the “Theoretical Degree of the Solomon Sciences” did not enjoy the authority and respect of both ordinary Freemasons and those initiated to higher degrees, which subsequently led to an aggravation of relations between Moscow Freemasons and the baron, and he was forced to leave Russia.
In September of the same year, a "Printing Company" was established, of which 14 members, 12 were Rosicrucians. The affairs of the newly formed company were managed by Prince. N. and Yu. Trubetskoy, S. I. Gamaleya, N. I. Novikov, I. V. Lopukhin, A. M. Kutuzov, Baron Schroeder.
The second reaction of Catherine. "Test" Novikov
With the beginning of 1785, the attention of government circles to the activities of the Moscow brothers becomes more intense. Count Ya. A. Bruce, who was appointed commander-in-chief of Moscow after the death of Count 3. G. Chernyshev, forced I. V. Lopukhin to resign. This was followed by a series of decrees by Catherine II on the inspection of private schools and colleges in Moscow, many of which were under the patronage of Masons, on the testing by Archbishop Platon N. I. Novikov (cm. NOVIKOV Nikolay Ivanovich) in the Law of God and the examination of the books printed by him. The immediate reason was probably the foreign connections of Russian Freemasons and, most importantly, their attempts through V. I. Bazhenov (cm. BAZHENOV Vasily Ivanovich) establish contact with Pavel Petrovich. Plato, as you know, recognized Novikov as a "good Christian", but this did not stop the empress. In 1786, all private schools and hospitals were banned, and a ban was issued on the printing of books of spiritual content in private printing houses.
In 1784, the activities of the Russian Rosicrucians were suspended in connection with the announcement by the highest orders of the chiefs of "silanium", that is, silence (in the Masonic language). Then, at the end of 1786, through Baron Schroeder, an initial verbal warning came, and then an official message about the suspension of the activities of the order meetings from the beginning of 1787 due to the spread of "the tricks of the Illuminati." However, this did not exclude the active study by the Freemasons of those materials that had already been received from the Berlin Rosicrucians and, above all, the Theoretical Degree of the Solomonic Sciences.
Thus, at the time of the publication of the announcement of Silanium, the following situation developed in Russian Freemasonry: firstly, the main Masonic systems that became widespread in Russia had three degrees at their core - student, comrade and master. John's Freemasonry was a "mass form" of the worldview of the Russian brothers, and it was precisely this that formed the basis of the system of value orientations of free masons.
Secondly, there was a close relationship between the rites and rituals in the first degrees of Freemasonry of the “first Yelagin Union”, the lodges of Baron Reichel, the “Gagarin lodges” and the brothers of the Novikovsky circle. With all the diversity of Masonic systems, the original internal unity of Freemasonry in Russia stands out.
Thirdly, the Swedish system headed by G. P. Gagarin and the Moscow Rosicrucians of the Novikov circle occupy a leading position in the Masonic movement in Russia, and it is the materials related to their activities that can provide the most representative and accurate information about the main line in the religious and philosophical aspirations of domestic Masons.
In 1792, Novikov, M. I. Bagryansky, V. Ya. Kolokolnikov, and M. I. Nevzorov were arrested, Trubetskoy, Lopukhin, and others were deported to their estates.
Freemasons in the reign of Paul I and at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I
With the accession to the throne of Paul I, the Masons, who were in disgrace, were forgiven. Novikov, leaving the Shlisselburg fortress, appointed G. M. Pokhodyashin and A. F. Labzin (cm. LABZIN Alexander Fedorovich) leaders of Moscow lodges. In 1799, Paul banned the activities of Masonic lodges. Later, in the early years of the reign of Alexander I, the new tsar confirmed this decree. But freemasonry, in spite of everything, is gaining strength, and the liberal politics of that time "through the fingers" looks at the newly formed lodges, and in the future seeks to put Masonic work under its control.
Acts of the Rosicrucian rite preserved by A. F. Labzin (cm. LABZIN Alexander Fedorovich) and I. A. Pozdeev. A student of the Novikovsky circle, A. F. Labzin, opened in January 1800 the “Dying Sphinx” lodge in St. Petersburg. During the first five years of its existence, it worked in deep secrecy, then, in 1803, in Moscow, through the efforts of the Rosicrucians, a secret lodge "Neptune" was established under the chairmanship of Senator P. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov. It is named so in memory of the eponymous lodge of the 18th century. in Kronstadt, which worked according to the Swedish system. The new lodge had a different focus, although it retained the old seal and name. To "cover" it, members of the Neptune lodge organized a legal lodge called the Harpocrates.
Chapter of the Phoenix, known to the Masonic crowd in the 18th century. under the name of the Great National Lodge, in 1810 it became known as the Great Directorial Lodge of Vladimir to Order. Under her authority were three lodges, which originated from the Pelican Lodge, established in 1773, which did not stop its work, despite various prohibiting government decrees. In 1805 it was renamed the Alexander Charity Lodge for the Crowned Pelican, and I. V. Beber became its head. Then, in 1809, a lodge was formed from her in honor of the Empress "Elizabeth to Virtue" under the chairmanship of the freemason of Catherine's time, A.S. Sergeev. The third lodge - "Peter to the Truth" - was opened in 1810, the presiding master is E. E. Ellisen.
It should be noted that if in the 18th century. The basis of the Swedish system was primarily the well-born nobility, but already from the beginning of the 19th century it unites the broader social strata of Russian society.
By 1810, the activities of domestic Masonic lodges of various directions received a wide public outcry, and the government, through the Minister of Police A. D. Balashov, who was a member of the United Friends Lodge and initiated to the highest degrees, turned to Masonic leaders with an order to provide acts, legal provisions and rites for familiarization with their activities. There were rumors among the Freemasons that Fessler's denunciation was the reason for the check.
In 1811, the government returned the reviewed acts of the Masonic rites to the manager of the Grand Directorate Lodge, I. V. Beber (at the same time he was the prefect of the Phoenix Chapter) and did not interfere with the spread of the lodges of the Swedish system. Government Committee, in which M. M. Speransky took part (cm. SPERANSKY Mikhail Mikhailovich)(by this time he had already been accepted into the Masonic fraternity), he was obliged to submit to the police monthly reports on the events taking place in the lodges.
It should be noted that I. V. Beber provided the police with only acts of the St. John's degrees, and the highest degrees of the Swedish rite were not reviewed. A. F. Labzin (cm. LABZIN Alexander Fedorovich) acted more radically: he did not give any acts of his lodge of the Dying Sphinx at all.
By this time, the restoration of the activity of the chapter of the Phoenix with the Directory called the Supreme Order Council. I. V. Beber was elected the head of the order and received the title of "Vicar of Solomon, the Wise of the Wise", which corresponded to the highest degree in the Swedish system. In Sweden, only Charles of Südermanland initially held this title, and later the monarchs of Sweden accepted the highest degree by inheritance.
"Zion Herald"
A. F. Labzin continues his publishing activities in the tradition of the “Novikov’s” decade, and in January 1806, under his editorship, the first issue of the magazine “Sionsky Herald” was published, which was closed in the September issue and resumed its existence only in 1817. The significance of the “Sionsky Herald” in public life consisted in the fact that the first attempt was made to create a religious periodical by a secular person. In essence, it was the first religious and philosophical journal in the truest sense of the word. Actively A.F. Labzin was engaged not only in Masonic journalism. The range of his interests included the publication of literature, which was of undoubted interest among the Rosicrucians not only of the "new" generation of brothers, but, above all, of the "old" Freemasonry of Catherine's time. In January 1807, another student of the Novikov school, M.I. Nevzorov, began publishing his monthly magazine Friend of Youth. Its publication was published until 1815. These journals had a Masonic orientation.
Religious and moral education was one of the goals of the Rosicrucians. In 1809, work was already being actively carried out in Moscow and St. Petersburg, not only in the first degrees of John's Freemasonry, but also in the "Theoretical Degree of the Solomonic Sciences."
In 1802, A. A. Zherebtsov opened the “United Friends” lodge in St. Petersburg, which worked according to the French system and consisted at first of the St. Petersburg nobility. Members of this lodge were Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, c. Stanisław Kostka Potocki (later Minister of Confessions and Public Education in the Kingdom of Poland), A. H. Benckendorff (cm. BENKENDORF Alexander Khristoforovich), from 1810 - Minister of Police Alexander Dmitrievich Balashov, Freemasonry reformer Ignatius Avreliy Fessler and others.
The committee appointed by the government to review the acts and ceremonies, pointed out the spirit of freethinking of the French system, which, under appropriate conditions, can clearly manifest itself, and delayed the permission for Masonic work. In turn, A. A. Zherebtsov declared that his lodge had no relations with the French Freemasons. However, the decision of the committee could no longer be reversed, and in 1812 the St. Petersburg French lodge of the United Friends was forced to join the directorial lodge of the Swedish rite "Vladimir to Order" in order to continue its work.
These three directions - Rosicrucianism, the Swedish and French systems - were the main actors in Masonic history before 1812. There were other directions, but they did not have a significant impact on the development of the Masonic movement in Russia. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the French system did not have that stable influence on the nature of the philosophical worldview of the Freemasons, which was the case with the Rosicrucians and the brothers of the Swedish system. The supremacy and leadership since the 80s of Catherine's time belonged to them.
Ellisen's letter
During and after the war of 1812, national-patriotic feelings intensified in Russian society. This did not fail to affect the nature of Masonic activity, and above all, the fact that in the organizational structure of the Masonic lodges, the "Russian party" occupied the leading and decisive role, as they said then. Naturally, such an attitude caused dissatisfaction among non-Russian Masons. Acquaintance during the war with Western Europe increased the attention of noble circles to the issues of democratic reforms. The ideas of liberalism and democracy began to penetrate into Masonic lodges, shaking the patriarchal foundations of the Swedish system and Rosicrucianism.
In July 1814, the master of the lodge "Peter to the Truth" Yegor Yegorovich Ellizen (as Johann Georgy David Ellisen was called in the Russian manner) wrote a letter famous in the history of Russian Freemasonry to the great master of the directorial lodge "Vladimir to Order" V. I. Beber. In it, he questioned the necessity and expediency of the existence of higher degrees and emphasized that true Freemasonry is associated with the three degrees of John's Freemasonry. This letter was a formal pretext for raising really urgent problems in the Masonic movement in Russia.
Ellisen joined the Phoenix chapter immediately after the resumption of work in 1811 and was initiated to the highest degrees. He was one of those few middle-class brothers who reached the heights of the Swedish system. For the majority of the brothers of the Ellisen circle, due to the statutory requirements that were presented in the Swedish system, this path was closed. For those who did not come from Russia, as well as for those brothers who were unable to confirm their noble origin, it became impossible to reach the "higher degrees". The bulk of the Freemasons who supported E. E. Ellisen were foreigners. And both capitals watched with intense attention the unfolding struggle between the "foreign" and "Russian" parties.
In the already mentioned letter to V. I. Beber, E. E. Ellisen stated that the Phoenix Chapter was an illegal formation. Such a statement had a basis: since the acts of the higher degrees were not submitted to the government commission and, naturally, were not approved by it, the chapter had no right to allow work in the higher degrees. Moreover, the brothers of the John degrees and the brothers of the higher degrees, as stated in the letter, were in an unequal position: if the St. John's lodges had to submit regular reports to the police and indicate the full names of the participants in the Masonic work, then at the same time the Phoenix chapter did not provide such materials, and all Masonic documents signed only with order names, hiding the real names of the participants. Such an unjust position caused discontent among the Masonic crowd. It is quite clear that sooner or later such questions had to be raised for the system of "strict observation" to which the Swedish system of Freemasonry in Russia belonged. And so it happened. E. E. Ellisen specifically emphasized in the letter that many Freemasons are in favor of the "democratization" of Masonic work.
The ideas of freedom and self-government in the organization of Masonic activity in many respects echoed the liberal ideas of the beginning of the reign of Alexander I and the radicalism of part of Russian society after the war of 1812.
E. E. Ellisen launched a propaganda campaign for these ideas, and they received support in the Masonic fraternity. The fact is that he emphasized the political nature of the Swedish system, capable of solving fundamental questions about power. As confirmation, he cited the fact that the brothers of the lower degrees do not know their leaders, and such a strict system of subordination in Sweden made it possible for Gustav III to restore the monarchy. In practice, the Swedish system was accused of being Illuminati.
When there was a split in Russian Freemasonry, A.F. Labzin addressed a letter to the Minister of Education and Spiritual Affairs A.N. Golitsin in defense of the higher degrees. Another Rosicrucian, P. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, wrote a whole series of denunciations denouncing "false Freemasonry." Both feared that new trends and the arrival of a "foreign party" could have an irreparable impact on the fate of Russian Freemasonry.
Despite all the efforts of I. V. Beber to rally the brotherhood and stop the "Masonic heresy", the process of disengagement among the brothers of the Swedish system continued. As a result, I. V. Beber was forced to submit a note to the government on July 26, 1815, in which he spoke in favor of higher degrees as the guardians of Christian covenants, while emphasizing that these degrees had been reviewed by the Minister of Education, Count Razumovsky. A proposal was also made here that a disengagement among the Masonic fraternity is possible, and Beber is ready to establish, in accordance with ancient acts, a new Grand Governing Lodge, naturally, with higher degrees, which will work under the direct control of the government, and other brothers of the Swedish system will not have any points of contact with the newly formed union. In response, Ellisen formed an alliance of lodges that supported his program, and the establishment of a Grand Governing Lodge for this alliance called "Astrea" (after the goddess, personifying the golden age that the Masons dreamed of and aspired to). In the same year, the code of the new lodge was printed. This dealt the first powerful blow to the patriarchal-hierarchical management system of Freemasonry.
The Constitution of Astrea enjoyed undoubted popularity among the Masonic brotherhood. This is evidenced by the increase in the number of lodges of the educated union: if in 1818 it included 18 lodges, then in 1820-1821 there were already 25 of them. John's Freemasonry, with its three simplest degrees, again gained strength and became a priority. The Union of Astrea, thanks to the release of its documents, was considered in the eyes of Russian society as a "true" Masonic union.
However, the Phoenix chapter did not give up its positions. In 1816, the "Great Directorial Lodge of Vladimir to Order" was closed and replaced by a new Grand Provincial Lodge. This was already the third image of the patriarchal Swedish system.
Government circles agreed on the existence in Russia of two great governing lodges: the Great Provincial and Astrea. An agreement of friendship was signed between these lodges. But the desire to build a universal system of Freemasonry did not fade away, and the struggle between the lodges for influence among the Masons continued.
Unexpectedly for everyone, I. V. Beber, who for a long time stood at the head of the chapter of the Phoenix and enjoyed the respect of the brothers of the highest degrees, left the Grand Provincial Lodge and joined the union of Astrea. This was, of course, a strong blow to the patriarchal Swedish system of Freemasonry in Russia. So did a number of other senior officials of the Phoenix Chapter.
Power in the chapter passed to c. M. Yu. Vielgorsky (cm. VIELGORSKY Matvey Yurievich). The count was under the great influence of the Rosicrucian mystics S. I. Gamaleya, A. F. Labzin, I. A. Pozdeev, R. S. Stepanov, and often delivered speeches in lodges that were composed by these older brothers. The spiritual closeness of the Rosicrucians and the leaders of the highest degrees of the Swedish system has already become a tradition for the Masonic movement in Russia.
Disagreements between representatives of the lodges of the Swedish system were caused not only by the resolution of the issue of the status of higher degrees, but also by questions about the origins of mystical practice and the theory of Freemasonry. For mystical teaching, the question of the continuity and preservation of mystical knowledge is essential and important. For this reason, the reform of E. E. Ellisen called into question, above all, the mystical side of Masonic teachings.
Since the union of Astrea officially proclaimed tolerance for all Masonic systems, the "brothers of the highest degrees" took advantage of this. They proposed to organize under Astrea a special ceremonial chapter, which would be in charge of these higher degrees. As a result, a paradoxical situation arose again: the union, which, according to the original plan, was called upon to reject the higher degrees, in reality protected them. The Chapter of the Phoenix, by such a legal and political move, managed to remain faithful to the old traditions. In the spring of 1822, after various twists and turns, the two Russian unions merged. The original unity was restored. But not for long.
In the Alexander era, John's Freemasonry retained its significance and served as a mass form of Freemasonry, which became widespread among representatives of various Masonic systems. Disagreements concerned, first of all, the method of governing the Masonic lodges. But the government was certainly aware even of those brethren who tried to conduct their work in a "secret" way.
Closing of lodges by Alexander I and Nicholas I
The domestic policy of Alexander I was changing. This also applied to the attitude towards the Masons. Initially, in 1821, lodges in Poland were closed. In December of the same year, on the denunciation of one of the employees, the work of the lodge of A.F. Labzin was stopped. At the same time, a ban was imposed on the distribution of Masonic songs and other works of this kind.
August 1, 1822 followed by the highest rescript addressed to gr. V. P. Kochubey (cm. KOCHUBEY Viktor Pavlovich) about the closure of all lodges in Russia. The reason for this was the brothers' occupation of "secretly political subjects." Many of the Decembrists were members of various Masonic lodges, the organizational structure of the early Decembrist organizations of the Union of Salvation and the Order of Russian Knights partly reproduced the structure of the lodges. Future Decembrists participated in the work of lodges known to the government and unknown.
On April 21, 1826, one of the first rescripts addressed to the Minister of the Interior, Nicholas I, confirmed the prohibition of the activities of Masonic lodges. However, the Masonic brothers met in secret.
It is quite obvious that the Masonic worldview turned out to be a stable form of consciousness in Russian society, if 90 years have passed since its civil birth. But even after the prohibition of Masonic lodges in 1822, their ideas did not fade away, finding their continuation in the subsequent decades of the 19th and 20th centuries. Nothing speaks so much about the rootedness of Freemasonry in Russian soil as following the traditions and developing these traditions. This is one of the reasons for highlighting the Masonic philosophical worldview as a national phenomenon.
Freemasonry at the end of the 19th century - 1917
In the second half of the 19th century and inventor P. N. Yablochkov in France created the Cosmos Lodge, into which M. M. Kovalevsky was admitted (cm. KOVALEVSKY Maxim Maksimovich), N. A. Kotlyarevsky, E. V. De Roberti and others. Branches in Russia were created from the Cosmos lodge, but the revival of the lodges took on the most massive forms after the Manifesto on October 17, 1917. At the same time, there were two main directions: the followers and supporters of Kovalevsky were of the opinion that the brothers should believe in God, and the supporters of E. I. Kedrin adhered to the principle of freedom of religion. The former sought to join the "Grand Lodge of France", and the latter - to the "Grand Orient", they were in the majority. In November 1908, the First Russian Masonic Convention was held, at which both branches of Freemasonry agreed on an alliance and the governing bodies in Russia were formed: the Supreme Council and the Council of 18 (for brothers of higher capitular degrees). Among the members of the lodges there were many representatives of the parties of the Cadets, the Socialist-Revolutionaries and other parties of a liberal orientation, one way or another oriented towards the overthrow of the autocracy. After the exposure of the provocative activities of Azef (cm. AZEF Evno Fishelevich) a number of masons of higher degrees (including Kedrin) were accused of excessive talkativeness, in 1910 the new leaders, A. M. Kolyubakin and Prince. S. D. Urusov, sharply limited ties in the "Grand Orient of France". In the future, politicized brothers by 1915-16. constituted the majority among the members of the lodges. The Rosa Lodge consisted of deputies of the State Duma, the actual leadership of the Masonic lodges of Russia was carried out by the secretaries of the Supreme Council (in 1915-16 A. F. Kerensky (cm. Kerensky Alexander Fedorovich), from June-July 1916 A. Ya. Galpern). Among the members of the "Rose" are E. P. Gegechkori, M. I. Skobelev, N. S. Chkheidze (cm. CHKHEIDZE Nikolay Semyonovich), I. N. Efremov, A. I. Konovalov. Meeting at meetings, these figures, formally of different political orientation, discussed and coordinated their actions in the Duma. Its lodge united journalists from liberal and left-wing publications. Before the February Revolution, the Bolshevik I. I. Skvortsov-Stepanov also joined the Great East lodge. A number of members of the Provisional Government continued to meet in lodges even after coming to power, but such prominent politicians as Prince G. E. Lvov, P. N. Milyukov, M. V. Rodzianko were anti-Masonic.
After the October Revolution, the activities of Masons were discontinued. After the fall of communism, lodges began to be re-established in Russia.

This question about the Masons has plagued more than one generation. Each of us has heard something: some theories about secret societies, some statements about a one world government. Our interest in this organization was qualitatively fueled by Hollywood films such as The Da Vinci Code, From Hell, National Treasure, Crimson Rivers, Armor of God. We all seem to know something, but, in fact, we know nothing.
Freemasonry, it is shrouded in such a veil of secrets that it is almost impossible to get to the meaning. For more than one century, the great minds of mankind have been trying to figure out what is happening behind the heavy doors in the temple of this society, what advantages its members have, what is the history of Freemasonry. But, unfortunately, there are still many more questions than answers.


Freemasonry is not a "secret society", it would be more correct to call it a "society with secrets". After all, everyone already knows that it exists, almost everyone knows where they gather, it’s not clear just “why?”.

So, now we will try to open this heavy veil of secrets, and find out what Freemasonry is?

The center of Freemasonry is the USA and Western Europe. This organization is divided into lodges that unite people - members of the Masonic society territorially. Local lodges are part of the Grand Lodge, according to the rules, there should be one such organization in the country, it is led by the Grand Master. Each Grand Lodge has its own jurisdiction and is itself free to recognize or not recognize other Grand Masonic Lodges.

The emergence of the United States, the collapse of the Soviet Union, the construction of a modern banking system, the management of politics, world domination, these are just a few that are prescribed to the Masonic society. But in order to let at least a thin ray of light into this darkness, let's turn to history and fast forward several centuries ago.

One thing must be said right away: we only know what we are allowed to know.

To begin with, exactly how the Masonic organizations originated is still a mystery. There are several theories about the emergence of this society on the world stage. The theory, which the Freemasons themselves adhere to, says that the origins of Freemasonry arose in 1000 BC. e., namely during the reign of the wisest king on earth, Solomon, whose life is described in detail in the Bible. Freemasons intertwine their past with one of the greatest architectural structures of mankind, with the temple of King Solomon. Masons believe that they adopted their knowledge and skills from Alif Kheram, the man who led the construction of the temple.


Another theory intertwines the origin of Freemasonry with another no less secret organization - the Knights Templar. This time we are interested in the XI century. At this time, one of the most significant events in the history of mankind takes place on the world stage, namely the crusades. In 1099, the Crusaders were able to recapture Jerusalem, they became the first Europeans to visit the Temple Mount, where Solomon's temple was located 2,000 years ago. The crusaders were so amazed by the grandeur of the temple mount that, without hesitation, they called themselves "the poor knights of Christ and the temple of King Solomon."

The Knights Templar became a kind of Christian elite, and their activities were similar to those of modern large international corporations. It was the richest organization. It is believed that the Templars in the dungeons of Solomon's palace were able to find the legendary treasures of the richest king of all time.
The power of the Templars grew with every decade, but their entire existence was strictly classified.

October 13, 1307 was the beginning of the end for the order. King Philip the Fair of France ordered the extermination of the Templars. In history, this terrible massacre took the name "Black Friday". By the way, our well-known “Friday the 13th” takes its roots from this sinister event.

Fall of the Templars

An analogue of the events taking place at that time in Europe would be the complete collapse of our banking system.
In 1314, the last master of the order, Jacques de Molay, was burned. The Templars have officially ceased to exist. The master never revealed the secret of finding the legendary treasures.
One thing became clear: the order continued to exist, only under a different cover. There is an opinion that it was the Templars who eventually developed into a Masonic organization.


The name "freemason" or "freemason" in French literally means "freemason". This organization owns such amazing creations as the Cathedral in Chartres, the Cathedral in Cologne, the Cathedral in Salisbury. Many creations of the hands of the Masonic organization have survived to this day.


In the Middle Ages, masons were respected people who were considered creators.
The magnificent cathedrals built by freemasons for the common people were a real miracle, something inexplicable, beyond understanding. The commoners of the Middle Ages believed that the masters of the guild had special knowledge. Entire generations of freemasons worked on certain objects, which eventually became the advanced achievements of mankind.


The architects and masters of the guild enjoyed many privileges and lived by their own laws. These people already at that time had their own specific system of gestures, their secrets, held secret meetings. The power of the Masons grew, but their secrets were never revealed.


The end of the 17th century was a turning point for the Masonic order. From now on, lodges began to accept not only masons. But not everyone could get there. The members of the lodge themselves chose people who were worthy of the honor of being in their company. Most often they were wealthy people, representatives of wealthy families, well-known political and cultural figures.
For centuries, the authorities have tried to destroy Masonic societies. But no one could eradicate the modernized organization of freemasons. As a result, members of the Masonic society were not only able to infiltrate the top of the power structure, but perhaps even take places at a rank above the government known to us.


The United States, or rather the city of Washington, is considered the center of the world's secret society. In the very center of Washington, on the inside of the dome located in the Capitol, there is an image of George Washington, on which the first US president is lifted up to heaven. But few people know that the first stone in the construction of the Capitol was laid by the US President himself, and he is also a well-known representative of the Masonic fraternity. Based on this, it should not be surprising that most of the signatories of the US Declaration of Independence are members of the Freemasons.


As for subsequent US presidents, more than 10 of them are also Freemasons. From here, the order has full influence on world politics.
Prior to the coming to power of George W. Bush, all oaths before the beginning of the presidency took place on the Masonic bible.
And the most powerful world American currency? On the back of the one dollar bill, there is a pyramid with an all-seeing eye - the most striking Masonic symbol. This pyramid has 13 layers, the coat of arms has 13 arrows, 13 olives. Freemasons are trying in every possible way to perpetuate themselves, leaving various symbols, signs.


The largest Masonic temple is located next to the white house. Near it rises a monument to George Washington. It is not difficult to guess which organization is the creator of this monument, because a huge symbol of Freemasonry was created above the bust of the president - a square and compasses.


Masons honor their symbols and traditions. At their meetings, members of the society must wear an apron, which is symbolically a mason's apron that protected him from sharp debris, white gloves that demonstrate the purity of the intentions of the members of the order, a cylinder hat, which is a symbol of freedom, a special collar that demonstrates the rank of a mason.


The main symbols of Freemasons are the bible, square and compasses. The meaning that the Masons attach to these objects is interpreted in different ways, the order itself refuses to comment.


Freemasons use building objects in every possible way to designate their symbols and conduct rituals: the level is a symbol of equality, the plumb line is the pursuit of excellence, the trowel is brotherhood, and so on.


According to the Masons themselves, their main goal is self-development and self-knowledge. But the fact that these people have the most direct influence on the political and cultural development of all mankind leaves no doubt.
Let's think about it, the order accepts the richest, noblest and most influential people in the world. They included the heads of states of the Middle Ages, presidents, cultural figures such as Mozart, Goethe. Meetings, rituals of society are strictly classified. Masonic representations are located all over the world, and the symbols of this secret society are located in the most noble places. Also, Zurich scientists in 2007 proved that all the most profitable and wealthy corporations in the world are secretly controlled by others. During the screening, only 150 largest conglomerates remained, whose assets constantly overlap, that is, it can be said with certainty that they are common property. And this means that at least 40% of the world's finances are controlled by a certain organization. And here the paths again lead us to the Masonic order.


We can say with confidence that there is some kind of political, financial, cultural force that is strictly closed from the eyes of the common people. We can only guess about their intentions, plans and main purpose. Maybe one day we will find out the truth?