310 years ago, on June 4, 1705, Tsar Peter Alekseevich allowed Nikita Demidov to build metallurgical plants in the Kungur region in the Urals. From that time on, the rise of the Demidov family, famous industrialists and landowners, began. The Demidovs became one of the founders of the mining and metallurgical industry in Russia.
From Russian metallurgy
Iron production in Rus' has been known since ancient times. Archaeologists have found in areas adjacent to Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Vyshgorod, Murom, Ryazan, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Smolensk, Pskov, Novgorod and other ancient Russian cities, as well as Lake Ladoga and other areas, hundreds of places with the remains of melting pots, cheese furnaces (the so-called . "wolf pits") and corresponding tools for metallurgy production.
Metallurgy was also developed in Scythia, the direct successor of which was Rus'. In one of the “wolf pits” dug for metal smelting near the village of Podmokloye in the southern part of the Moscow region coal basin, a coin dated to the beginning of the 9th century was discovered. That is, metallurgy in Rus' existed even before the introduction of Christianity. The surnames of the Russian people also speak of the widespread spread of metallurgy in Rus': Koval, Kovalenko, Kovalchuk, Kovalev, Kuznetsov. The mythology and folklore of the Russian people, where the blacksmith is one of the central figures fighting evil and representing heavenly forces, also confirm the fact of the development of metallurgy in Ancient Rus'.
To produce metal, two main factors are needed: fuel and raw materials. The main fuel at that time was charcoal. The highest quality charcoal was obtained from relatively rare and hardwood species - oak, beech and hornbeam, as well as birch. Iron smelting required a huge amount of wood: processing one ton of ore required almost 40 cubic meters of wood. A more technologically advanced replacement for charcoal, coke, appeared relatively recently (two hundred years ago). An interesting fact is that initially it was the absence of significant forests that prevented England from becoming the main metal producer in Europe. The increase in iron smelting in England destroyed almost all large tracts of forests.
There was fuel in Rus'. Since ancient times, forest has been the main fuel and building material on our land. But there were problems with the hardware. There is no accessible high-quality iron ore on the Russian Plain. The Kursk magnetic anomaly was discovered only in the 20th century and its depth is 200-600 meters. The technologies of that time did not allow the development of such deposits. Humanity knows: magnetic iron ore (more than 70% iron), red iron ore (55-60%), brown iron ore (limonite, 35-55%) and spar iron ore (40%). Magnetite and hematite lie deep on the Russian Platform, but there is no spar iron ore at all. Therefore, only brown iron ore remained. The raw material is bad, but its advantage is that it was almost everywhere. “Bog iron” (limonite) was mined in peat bogs. And the swamps were located among the then mighty forests of Rus'. Thus, metallurgy could be developed everywhere.
True, Europeans were luckier. There were rich deposits of iron and other metals in the mountains in Germany and the Czech Republic. Mass mining of metal ores by mining in the German lands began already in the 13th century. By the beginning of the 16th century, Germany had a powerful metallurgical industry that produced basic metals (iron, copper, silver and gold). In the 16th century, massive exports of iron and copper from Sweden began. Sweden had rich deposits of iron ore and for two centuries it firmly occupied first place in the supply of iron and copper. Until, thanks to the Urals, Russia has not surpassed it.
“Swamp iron” is formed almost everywhere where there is a transition from oxygen-containing soils to an oxygen-free layer (at the junction of two layers). In swamps, this boundary is located very close to the surface; iron nodules can be dug with a shovel, removing a thin layer of vegetation and soil. Deposits of such iron are classic placers and can be developed with a minimum of effort.
The cheese-making process used by the metallurgists of Ancient Rus' required iron-rich ore. And limonite ore is poor. Therefore, the swamp ore going into smelting was necessarily enriched. Methods of beneficiation of ore included: drying, roasting, crushing, washing and sifting. Thus, the availability of fuel and raw materials, as well as enrichment technologies, led to the fact that Rus' has been a country of gunsmiths since ancient times. We can safely say that Russian metallurgy allowed Rus' to withstand hundreds of wars of varying intensity for a thousand years, from local conflicts to full-scale regional wars. Military production has been the core of the Russian state since ancient times.
“Swamp iron” was the basis of Russian metallurgy until the 17th century. At the end of the Old Russian state, entire regions appeared that specialized in iron production. In the modern Kursk region, iron was produced in the city of Rimov. One of the largest centers of metallurgy was in the Novgorod land. Iron was produced in Ustyug Zhelezny (Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya). Bog iron was mined in the area of Yama, Koporye, Oreshek, and brought to Novgorod. At the same time, Novgorod also bought iron through Hanseatic merchants in Germany and Sweden. In the 16th century, Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya remained the largest center of metalworking and weapons making in Muscovite Rus'; iron was also produced in Tula, Tikhvin, Olonets and Zaonezhye.
Mining of non-ferrous metals on the territory of Rus' was virtually absent until the 18th century. There were small sources of copper in the Olonets region and Pechora, but they could not saturate the domestic market. In Novgorod they knew about the sources of silver in the Urals, but it was not possible to create production then. Therefore, the bulk of non-ferrous metals came to Rus' from Europe. Not only iron, but also the bulk of lead, tin and copper came through Novgorod.
It is clear that this affected the military-strategic position of Rus'. Iron and copper were the metals of war. As the country developed, more and more metal was needed. The Western opponents of Rus' - Sweden and Poland - took advantage of the fact that the main flow of metal to the Russian state went through them and periodically, for the purpose of political pressure and military weakening of Moscow, limited imports. Therefore, the attempts of the Russian government, starting with Ivan the Terrible and continuing with Pyotr Alekseevich, to “open a window to Europe,” that is, to bring part of the Baltic states under their control, were associated with the desire to achieve free trade in the Baltic.
When the British first appeared in the Russian North under Ivan Vasilyevich, Moscow was primarily interested in the possibility of supplying iron and other metals, bypassing the traditional sea route along the Baltic Sea and the land route through Poland. The British then did not see a threat from Russia, they were interested in Russian goods and passage to Persia along the Volga route, so the merchants of the “Moscow Campaign” began to actively sell non-ferrous metals and weapons to Moscow. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, Arkhangelsk continued to be an important center for metal supplies to Russia. They were supplied by English and Dutch merchants.
Under the first Romanovs, Moscow actively purchased high-quality steel and non-ferrous metals, as well as finished cannons and gun barrels. However, this was not beneficial for Russia. Foreign iron was expensive. If at the beginning of the 17th century one pound (16 kg) of Russian iron cost the manufacturer about 60 kopecks, then the cost of a pound of Swedish iron reached 1 ruble. 30 kopecks A pound of imported iron wire cost even more - up to 3 rubles. For comparison. An ordinary horse then cost about 2 rubles, and a serf could be bought for 3-5 rubles. A “strip of damask steel” (they were used for the production of sabers) cost about 3 rubles; they were imported from Holland and Persia. Copper was brought by English, Dutch, Danish and Swedish merchants. Its cost was 1.5-3 rubles, and roofing copper (for church domes) - 6 rubles. Silver and gold were also imported. Silver at the beginning of the 17th century cost about 450 rubles. pood, gold - about 3300 rubles. Tin, lead and copper were brought from Germany.
However, the main supplier of high-quality iron for Russia at that time was Sweden. Russia bought almost only metals from Sweden. It is clear that as relations between Russia and Sweden worsened, the situation became increasingly dangerous. The Swedes captured Russian lands in the Baltic, pushed back the Poles, turning the Baltic Sea into the “Swedish Lake”. Sweden's powerful metallurgical base made it a powerful military power that threatened Russia's future.
"Swamp Iron"
Development of metallurgy under the Romanovs
As soon as Russia recovered from the Troubles, the Russian government tried to create its own metallurgy. In 1632, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich gave the Dutch merchant Vinius a charter to establish an ironworks in the Tula region. Production was based on the Didilovsky mines. It was no longer “swamp iron”, but deposits of high-quality iron ore near the village of Didilovo. The issue with the labor force was resolved by assigning an entire volost to the enterprise, and this is how the category of assigned peasants began to emerge. In addition, “willing people”, that is, civilian workers, also worked at the enterprise. Vinius's enterprise became a real manufactory using machines.
Soon, Vinius was joined by the Dutch merchant Philemon Akema and the Dane from Hamburg, Peter Marcelis. They built three more manufactories in the Tula region (“Gorodishche Plants”). Not only Russians worked at the enterprises, but also craftsmen invited from Europe. Marcelis and Akema built several more iron factories on the Skniga River (“Kashira factories”). These iron enterprises became the core of metallurgy in Russia. However, the attempt to launch copper production in Karelia and get rid of expensive imported metal failed. Due to small copper reserves, high labor intensity of work and significant costs associated with this, the plant was considered unprofitable and closed. True, in the 1680s they were able to open five metallurgical manufactories using water energy in Karelia (“Olonets factories”). Under Peter, these enterprises began to specialize in the interests of the Baltic Fleet.
Andrei Denisovich Vinius, engraving by Cornelius Vischer, 1650
In 1693, the first iron smelter using water energy began operating in southern Russia. Metal from the Lipetsk plant was supplied to Voronezh, where Peter built the Azov flotilla. In 1703-1705 Production here was expanded, and the Lipa Iron Works emerged. They became the metallurgical base of the Azov flotilla and in the first years of the Northern War provided the country with half of the metal needed for military production.
However, this was not enough to create a metallurgical base capable of making Russia an advanced European power. "Swamp metal" and rare surface deposits of iron ore on the Russian Plain could not provide sufficient production. A qualitative breakthrough was needed. And only the Urals could provide it. Even in ancient times, the Urals were the center of metallurgy. Novgorodians have long discovered “Chud mines” on its slopes.
The first developments in the Urals began in the 17th century. But the region’s remoteness from the main Russian urban centers and the small Russian population prevented the development of the Urals. Only at the end of this century did Tsar Peter Alekseevich order the beginning of regular geological surveys in the Urals. In 1700, the Nevyansk blast furnace and ironworks were built on the Neiva River. Then an iron plant was erected on the site of the current city of Kamensk-Uralsky and a metallurgical plant in Alapaevsk. In 1723, the Yekaterinburg State Factory was founded.
Thus, under Peter, they created the basis of an industrial base in the Urals. Then the Urals would become the most important economic region of the Russian Empire for a long time. The region was an excellent place for the development of metallurgy. There were rich deposits of high-quality ores quite close to the surface, forests for charcoal production and numerous rivers, which made it possible to use water energy to operate machines. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Urals had already been populated, providing factories with labor. Already in 1750, Russia had 72 iron and 29 copper smelters. In the 18th century, the Ural industrial region would produce more than 80% of all iron and 95% of copper in all of Russia. Thanks to the Ural plants, Russia got rid of external dependence and itself became a major supplier of metal. The export of Russian metal began already under Peter I, and in the 1770s Russia supplied more iron to England than Sweden. For most of a century, the Russian Empire was the largest producer of the metal on the planet and its leading exporter to Western Europe. A powerful metallurgical base became one of the prerequisites for Russia's military and political successes in the 18th century.
Monument to Nikita Demidov and Peter I in Nevyansk
Fri, 03/04/2011 - 16:51
Bespalova N.Yu.
B.V. Ioganson. "At the old Ural plant"
Emperor Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov
Plan of the Pyskor factory, 1747
Plan of the Kamensky plant, 1741
Kamensky plant, view of the office and monastery
In the XVII century. Russia's metallurgical base was very poorly developed, and the country was entirely dependent on exports, although the presence of the richest ore deposits in the Urals was no secret. Metallurgical production has long been represented here by the so-called “peasant factories” - small handicraft workshops. Such a “factory” was a single stove owned by a separate peasant family, which serviced it during free time from agricultural work (mainly 3-4 winter months). To operate the stove, two people were required, one of whom inflated the bellows, and the other added charcoal. All family members were engaged in digging ore, collecting firewood, and charcoaling. Information about the scale of the activities of artisans is very vague; however, it has been established that at the end of the 17th century. There were 45 such “factories” in Kungur district. The annual smelting of each of them was slightly lower than 50 poods (0.82 tons). There were also buyers of semi-finished products - unprocessed pieces of iron nuts. These were the same peasants who held special water-powered hammers on the rivers. In their free time from agricultural work, they forged kritsa into strip and rod iron.
The first two state-owned metallurgical plants appeared in the Urals in the 1630s, under Mikhail Fedorovich, the first representative of the Romanov dynasty. The Nitsyn Iron Plant was located on the eastern slope of the Ural Range, as it mainly provided for the needs of the colonizers of Siberia. The Pyskor copper plant was located on the European slope, since the main consumer of its products was the Moscow Mint and state-owned foundries.
The personnel of the Nitsyn Iron Plant consisted of 16 peasant families forcibly settled in the newly formed Rudnaya Sloboda. Production took place from September 1 to May 9. In their free time from working at the factory, factory workers were engaged in arable farming, and were exempt from ordinary peasant duties. In addition, they were entitled to a salary of 5 rubles. in year. But the benefits did not attract peasants, and escapes were common. According to rough estimates by historians, the average annual iron smelting at the Nitsyn plant should have been 45 tons, i.e. slightly exceeded the total production of all handicraft farms in the Kungur district. Archaeological research shows that the plant operated for about 50 years.
During the construction of the Pyskorsky plant, many technical mistakes were made, which forced the work to start over several times. The construction was carried out by civilians. A worker with a horse received 12 kopecks. per day, on foot - 6 kopecks. There were 15 foreigners among the plant management. Workers serving production were of two categories. The first category is local peasants, apparently civilian workers. The source uses the phrase “eager businessmen.” The second category is convicted counterfeiters sent from the center as copper specialists. It is assumed that the average annual smelting of the Pyskorsky plant was 10 tons. The figure is negligible in comparison with the needs of the country. In 1656, the plant was stopped due to the mobilization of all qualified specialists for the siege of Riga. Apparently, the great sovereign Alexei Mikhailovich did not consider its functioning extremely important. In the 1660s, the enterprise was leased to private entrepreneurs by the Tumashevs, who soon stopped production due to the depletion of deposits. However, in the 18th century. the plant was restored. The development of technology has made it possible to extract metal from ore that previously went to dumps.
In the second half of the 17th century. There has been a rise in ferrous metallurgy in the European part of Russia. Russian entrepreneurs and Dutch concessionaires are establishing more than 20 iron factories - near Moscow, near Tula, in the Olonets and Vologda regions. The share of Russian (not imported) iron in the Russian domestic market at this time is quite large. The government is most interested in the Urals as a potential source of non-ferrous and precious metals. The search for deposits is encouraged in every possible way, but so far has not brought the desired results.
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Who owned the first metallurgical plants in Russia? and got the best answer
Answer from Condorita[guru]
Demidov
According to Akinfiy Demidov’s will, his entire “empire” was to go to his beloved son Nikita. However, as a result of long family proceedings (even Empress Elizaveta Petrovna herself participated in them), the entire inheritance was divided between three brothers - Prokofy, Grigory and Nikita. The latter received only the Nizhny Tagil part of the inheritance, which included six Ural factories. By the end of Nikita Demidov’s life, the number of enterprises he owned increased to nine. Moreover, in terms of production size, they surpassed all the factories that belonged to his father in the mid-18th century.
Nikita undoubtedly inherited from his father the talent of a manager and industrialist, as well as extreme cruelty towards those who forged this wealth for him. His bad temper became famous throughout Russia. Thus, the peasants of the village of Rusanovo, Tula province, having learned that Nikita Demidov had bought them, rebelled, refusing to pass to the new owner. A military detachment was sent to pacify the peasants - as a result of the clash, more than 60 people died.
Nikita Demidov no longer lives in the Urals, near his factories. He has the Petrovskoye estate near Moscow, luxurious houses in Moscow - one on Myasnitskaya (on the site of the current post office), the other on Voznesenskaya Street Nemetskaya Sloboda, on Yauza - Slobodskaya House (now Radio Street, 10). He was well known in Moscow. True, the house took so long to build (from 1762 to the end of the 1770s) that during this time the magnificent Baroque gave way to strict classicism. And the building, built in the Baroque style, no longer corresponded to enlightened taste and seemed somewhat old-fashioned. And yet the house was so good that M. F. Kazakov included it in his album “Particular buildings of Moscow.” The imagination of Muscovites was amazed not only by the house, but also by the magnificent garden with a grotto, figured ponds, decorative fences cast at Demidov factories, and greenhouses.
Unlike his brother Prokofy, who could not stand titled nobility, Nikita Akinfievich always strived to be recognized among high-ranking people. Perhaps, in this way, throughout his life he overcame the complex of his not entirely “pure”, humble origin. But they say that it constantly made itself felt. The outstanding Russian scientist-encyclopedist A. T. Bolotov, noting the cordiality and curiosity of the “glorious rich man”, in whose Moscow house he saw plenty of “such rare things as he had never seen before,” also notes that “with all his enormous wealth and celebrities" Demidov is, in essence, a simpleton, and through his gold one can see "all the rudeness of his vile nature."
b) 1613
In 1613 A Zemsky Sobor took place in Moscow, at which the question of choosing a new Russian Tsar was raised. The Polish prince Vladislav, the son of the Swedish king Karl-Philip, the son of False Dmitry 2 and Marina Mnishek Ivan, as well as representatives of the largest boyar families were proposed as candidates for the Russian throne.
On February 21, the cathedral chose Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the 16-year-old great-nephew of Ivan the Terrible’s first wife, Anastasia Romanova.
2. During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 -1645):
a) emergency taxes were introduced - five-dollar money
Zemsky Sobors were primarily concerned with finding funds to replenish the treasury and with foreign relations. In addition to increasing direct land taxes, the government, with the consent of the councils, several times collected emergency taxes, the so-called five-point money. For the period from 1613 to 1619. they gathered seven times, and twice more during the Smolensk War.
c) the period for searching fugitives has been increased to 10 years.
The state took the path of assigning peasants to their owners. In 1619 A five-year period was again announced, and in 1637. - nine-year investigation of fugitives. In 1642 A decree was again issued on a ten-year period for the search for fugitives and a fifteen-year period for the search for peasants who were forcibly removed.
d) the first handwritten newspaper “Chimes” appears.
The newspaper began publishing in Moscow in 1621 to inform Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich and the Boyar Duma, although individual issues appeared as early as June 1600, and continued to be published under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The newspaper was handwritten and prepared by the clerks of the Ambassadorial Prikaz especially for Alexei Mikhailovich. The source of information from abroad were foreign newspapers, letters from Russian people abroad, reports of ambassadors (“article lists”), news within the country came from various orders.
3. What are the conditions of the Stolbovo Peace Treaty of 1617? With Sweden?
c) Sweden held all the occupied lands except Novgorod.
After several military clashes, and then negotiations, the Stolbovo Peace Treaty was concluded in 1617 (in the village of Stolbovo, near Tikhvin). Sweden returned the Novgorod land to Russia, but retained the Baltic coast and received monetary compensation.
4. What are the conditions of the Deulin truce of 1618? With Poland?
b) Russia gave Smolensk to Poland
c) Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk lands went to Poland.
In the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in 1618. The Deulin truce was concluded with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which retained the Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversk and Chernigov lands.
5. Where did the first metallurgical plants appear?
b) in the Urals and Tula.
The development of small-scale production prepared the basis for the emergence of manufactories. Manufacture is a large enterprise based on the division of labor and handcraft techniques. In the 17th century Metallurgical plants were built in the Urals and in the Tula region.
6. What did the Council Code of 1649 introduce?
a) severe punishments for crimes against the king and the church.
b) the final equalization of the rights of the estate and patrimony.
c) restrictions on the growth of church and monastic land ownership.
d) freedom from the tax of fugitive settlements in favor of the state.
e) unlimited search for fugitives.
f) assigning the townspeople to the town.
g) serfdom.
“For the sake of fear and civil strife from all black people,” as Patriarch Nikon later wrote, the Zemsky Sobor was convened. Its meetings took place in 1648 -1649. and ended with the adoption of the Council Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The Council Code consisted of 25 chapters and contained about a thousand articles. Any criticism of the church and blasphemy was punishable by burning at the stake. People accused of treason and insulting the honor of the sovereign, as well as boyars and governors, were executed. The cathedral code provided for the exchange of estates, including the exchange of estates for patrimony, and limited the growth of church land ownership, which reflected the tendency of the church to subordinate to the state.
The most important section was Chapter 11, “The Court of Peasants”: an indefinite search for runaway and abducted peasants was introduced, and peasant transfers from one owner to another were prohibited. This meant the legalization of the serfdom system. Chapter 19 “About townspeople” brought changes to the life of the city. The “white” settlements were liquidated, their population was included in the settlement. The entire urban population had to bear the tax on the sovereign. Thus, the entire tax-paying population of the country was attached either to the land or, as was the case in the cities, to the settlement.
