Phonetics: definition, subject, object.
Acoustic aspect of phonetics.
The structure of the speech apparatus, articulation.
Classification of speech sounds.
Slogan and syllable.
Prosodic means of language.
1. Phonetics- This is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of the language. It includes all the sound means of the language, that is, not only sounds and their combinations, but also stress and intonation.
Depending on the amount of material that is the subject of direct study of phoneticians, there are different general phonetics,comparative phonetics and private phonetics individual languages. Generalphonetics explores patterns that are characteristic of the sound side of any language. Comparative phonetics is engaged in identifying the common and special in the sound side of two or more compared or compared languages. Phonetics of individual languages studies the features of the sound side of a particular language to the fullest possible extent. In turn, the phonetics of individual languages differ historical phonetics and descriptive phonetics. Historical phonetics specific language studies the history of the sound means of a given language to the extent that it is reflected in the monuments of writing in this language, dialect speech, etc. Descriptive phonetics explores the sound means of a particular language in a certain period of its history or in its current state.
In phonetics, such private disciplines are distinguished as acoustic phonetics; articulatory phonetics; perceptual phonetics; functional phonetics, or phonology; accentology, or the doctrine of word stress; intonation, or the study of intonation:
acoustic phonetics studies the purely physical features (characteristics, parameters) of speech sounds of individual languages;
articulatory phonetics explores the activity of the human speech apparatus, the physiology of speech, as a result of which sounds are produced;
perceptual phonetics considers the features of the perception of speech sounds human organ hearing;
functional phonetics, or phonology , studies the functions that the sounds of speech perform as part of the sounds that form the material, perceived side of the meaningful units of the language: morphemes, words and their forms.
In the circle of other linguistic units - grammar, lexicology - phonetics occupies an equal position with them as an independent science. It interacts primarily with grammar. This interaction is due to the fact that the same sound features of the sound form of linguistic phenomena are essential not only for the sound side of the language, but also for some parts of its grammatical structure. For example, certain types of alternations turn out to be morphologized, that is, they are used in the formation of different forms of the same words or different words from the same root morphemes (cf. in Russian: wake up - wake up, drive - drive, friend - friend or in German: sprechen- sprach, Stechen- stach).
2. Acoustic aspect of phonetics. Phonetics section "acoustics of speech" studies the physical signs of speech.
Speech sounds- These are fluctuations in the air environment caused by the organs of speech. Sounds are divided into tones (musical sounds) and noises (non-musical sounds).
Tone are periodic (rhythmic) oscillations vocal cords.
Noise- these are non-periodic (non-rhythmic) vibrations of a sounding body, for example, lips.
Speech sounds vary in pitch, strength, and duration.
Pitch is the number of vibrations per second (hertz). It depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords. Higher sounds have a shorter wavelength. A person can perceive the frequency of vibrations, i.e. pitch in the range of 16 to 20,000 hertz. One hertz is one oscillation per second. Sounds below this range (infrasounds) and above this range (ultrasounds) are not perceived by humans, unlike many animals (cats and dogs perceive up to 40,000 Hz and higher, and bats even up to 90,000 Hz).
The main frequencies of human communication are usually in the range of 500-4000 Hz. The vocal cords produce sounds from 40 to 1700 Hz. For example, the bass usually starts at 80 Hz, while the soprano is defined at 1300 Hz. The natural frequency of the tympanic membrane is 1000 Hz. Therefore, the most pleasant sounds for a person - the sound of the sea, forests - have a frequency of about 1000 Hz.
The range of fluctuations in the speech sounds of a man is 100 - 200 Hz, in contrast to women speaking at a frequency of 150 - 300 Hz (since men have an average vocal cords of 23 mm, and women - 18 mm, and the longer the cords, the lower the tone) .
The strength of the sound (loudness) depends on the wavelength, i.e. on the amplitude of oscillations (the magnitude of the deviation from the original position). The oscillation amplitude is created by the pressure of the air jet and the surface of the sounding body.
The strength of sound is measured in decibels. Whisper is defined as 20 - 30 dB, normal speech - from 40 to 60 dB, the loudness of a cry reaches 80 - 90 dB. Singers can sing with up to 110-130 dB of power. The Guinness Book of Records holds the record for a 14-year-old girl who shouted over a take-off airliner with an engine volume of 125 decibels. With a sound strength of over 130 dB, pain in the ears begins.
Different speech sounds have different strengths. The sound power depends on the resonator (resonator cavity). The smaller its volume, the greater the power. But, for example, in the word “saw” the vowel [and], being unstressed and having generally less power, sounds several decibels stronger than the stressed one [a]. The fact is that higher sounds seem louder, and the sound [and] is higher than [a]. Thus, sounds of the same strength but different pitches are perceived as sounds of different loudness. It should be noted that sound intensity and loudness are not equivalent, since loudness is the perception of sound intensity by the human hearing aid. Its unit of measurement is background, equal to decibel.
Sound duration(oscillation time) is measured in milliseconds.
The sound is complex. It consists of a fundamental tone and overtones (resonator tones).
Basic tone- this is a tone generated by the vibrations of the entire physical body.
Overtone- a partial tone generated by the vibrations of the parts (half, quarter, eighth, etc.) of this body. The overtone ("top tone") is always a multiple of the fundamental tone, hence its name. For example, if the fundamental is 30 Hz, then the first overtone will be 60, the second 90, the third 120 Hz, and so on. It is caused by resonance, i.e. the sound of the body when perceiving a sound wave having a frequency identical to the frequency of vibrations of this body. Overtones are usually weak, but are amplified by resonators. The intonation of speech is created by changing the frequency of the fundamental tone, and the timbre is created by changing the frequency of the overtones.
Timbre- This is a kind of coloring of sound created by overtones. It depends on the ratio of the main tone and overtones. Timbre allows you to distinguish one sound from another, to distinguish the sounds of different faces, male or female speech. The timbre of each person is strictly individual and unique, like a fingerprint. Sometimes this fact is used in criminalistics.
formant is an overtone amplified by a resonator that characterizes a given sound. Unlike the vocal tone, the formant is formed not in the larynx, but in the resonating cavity. Therefore, it is preserved even in a whisper. In other words, this is the band of sound frequency concentration that receives the greatest amplification due to the influence of the resonators. With the help of formants, we can quantitatively distinguish one sound from another. This role is played by speech formants - the most important first two formants in the spectrum of the vowel sound, which are closest in frequency to the fundamental tone. Moreover, each person's voice has its own vocal formants. They are always higher than the first two formants.
The formant characteristic of consonants is very complex and difficult to determine, but vowels with a certain reliability can be characterized using the first two formants, which correspond approximately to articulatory features (the first formant is the degree of elevation of the tongue, and the second is the degree of advancement of the language). It should only be borne in mind that the quantitative data given are approximate, even conditional, since researchers give different data, but the ratio of vowels in case of discrepancy in numbers remains approximately the same for everyone, i.e. the first formant, for example, for the vowel [and], will always be less than that of [a], and the second more.
The frequency characteristics of sounds are mobile, since the formants correspond to the basic lowest tone, and this is also variable. In addition, in live speech, each sound can have several formant characteristics, since the beginning of a sound may differ from the middle and end in terms of formants. It is very difficult for the listener to identify sounds isolated from the flow of speech.
3. The structure of the speech apparatus. The section of phonetics that studies the device of the speech apparatus is called anthropophony, or physiology of speech. She studies the biological features of speech, i.e. work performed by a person when pronouncing (articulating) or perceiving speech sounds.
The device of the human speech apparatus. Communicating with the help of language, a person pronounces sounds and perceives them. For these purposes, he uses the speech apparatus - a set of organs of the human body, adapted for the production and perception of speech. The speech apparatus in a broad sense covers:
central nervous system,
organs of hearing and vision,
speech organs.
The central nervous system is represented by the brain, which, through the motor center of speech (Broca's area), sends certain impulses through the nervous system to the organs of pronunciation (articulation) of speech.
The organs of speech, or the speech apparatus in the narrow sense, include:
Respiratory apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm and chest), which creates an air stream that provides the formation of sound vibrations necessary for articulation;
The organs of pronunciation (articulation) of speech, which are usually also called the organs of speech (in the narrow sense).
According to the role in the pronunciation of sounds, the organs of speech are divided into active and passive;
- active the organs of speech produce those or other movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and are thus of particular importance for their formation. The active organs of speech include the vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, back of the pharynx (pharynx) and the entire lower jaw;
- passive organs do not produce independent work in sound formation and play only an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech include teeth, alveoli, hard palate and the entire upper jaw.
cricoid cartilage, located below other cartilages. It is narrower in front and wider in the back;
thyroid cartilage, located at the top in front (in men it acts like an Adam's apple, or Adam's apple, because the two plates forming it make an angle of 90 degrees, and in women - 110), closes the cricoid cartilage in front and on the sides;
paired arytenoid cartilage in the form of two triangles located behind the top. They can move and move.
Between the arytenoid and thyroid cartilage are mucous folds, which are called vocal cords. They converge and diverge with the help of arytenoid cartilages, forming a glottis of various shapes.
During non-verbal breathing and when pronouncing deaf sounds, they are moved apart and relaxed. The gap in this case has the form of a triangle.
When pronouncing vowels, sonorous, voiced consonants, they first tense and approach, and then move apart and move, letting in a push of air. At the same time, they vibrate.
When pronouncing English or German [h] and some guttural sounds (for example, in Arabic), and also when whispering, they are close, but relaxed, and the air passes through them with difficulty. The vocal cords do not vibrate.
A person speaks on the exhale, on the inhale the donkeys only shout: “ia”. Inhalation is also used when yawning.
People with a larynx amputee are also able to speak in the so-called esophageal voice, using the muscle folds in the esophagus as a larynx.
To make sound great importance has an oral (supraglottic) cavity, in which noises and resonator tones are formed, which are important for creating a timbre. In this case, the size and shape of the mouth and nose play an important role.
The tongue is a mobile organ that performs two speech functions: 1) depending on its position, it changes the shape and volume of the resonator; 2) creates barriers when pronouncing consonants.
The lips and tongue also perform the function of creating a barrier.
The soft palate in the raised position closes the entrance to the nasal cavity, while the sounds will not have a nasal overtone. If the soft palate is lowered, then the air stream passes freely through the nose and as a result, nasal resonance occurs, which is characteristic of nasal vowels, sonants.
Russian and Latin names of speech organs and their derivatives
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linguistic |
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labial, labialized |
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dental |
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Alveoli |
alveoli(grooves) |
alveolar |
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Solid sky |
palatal |
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Soft sky |
velum(sail) |
velar |
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uvula(grape) |
uvular |
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nasal |
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Zev (pharynx) |
pharyngeal |
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laryngeal |
Articulation of speech sound.
Articulation of speech sounds is the work of the organs of speech necessary for the pronunciation of sound. For the formation of each sound of speech, a complex of works of the organs of speech in a certain sequence is necessary, that is, a well-defined articulation is needed.
The articulation of the sound of speech consists of a set of movements and states of the organs of speech - the articulation complex; therefore, the articulatory characteristic of the speech sound turns out to be multidimensional, covering from 3 to 12 different features.
The complexity of the articulation of sound also lies in the fact that it is a process in which three phases of sound articulation:
attack (excursion) consists in the fact that the organs of speech move from a calm state to a position necessary for pronunciation given sound;
excerpt - this is the preservation of the position necessary for pronouncing a sound;
indent (recursion) Articulation is the translation of the organs of speech into a calm state.
4. Classification of speech sounds is based on the acoustic and anatomical and physiological characteristics of sounds.
Each language usually contains about 50 speech sounds.
1) From an acoustic point of view, they are divided into vowels consisting of tone, and consonants formed by noise (or noise + tone). When pronouncing vowels, the air passes freely, without obstacles, and when articulating consonants, there is always some kind of barrier and a certain place of formation - focus.
In the formation of vowels, the voice prevails over the noise, while in the formation of most consonants (with the exception of sonorants), the ratio is opposite: the noise dominates the voice. The presence of two types of speech sounds (vowels and consonants), differing in articulation, makes it necessary to classify vowels separately from the classification of consonants.
As can be seen from their name, vowels are formed with the help of voice, i.e. they are always sonorous (from lat. sonus - sound).
2) The articulatory difference between vowels and consonants consists in the different intensity of the pronunciation apparatus and the absence or presence of a focus of education.
3) But the main difference between vowels and consonants is their role in syllable formation. A vowel always forms the top of a syllable, is a sonant, a consonant accompanies a sonant, is a consonant.
vowel pool is called in the language vocalism, a set of consonants - consonantism.
Vowel classification
Vowels are classified according to the following main articulatory features:
1) row, those. depending on which part of the tongue is raised during pronunciation: when the front of the tongue is raised, front vowels ( and, uh), medium - medium (s), rear rear vowels ( OU);
2) climb, i.e. depending on how high the back of the tongue is raised, forming resonator cavities of various sizes; vowels differ open , or, in other words, wide (a), and closed , that is narrow (and,at) (in some languages, for example, in German and French, sounds close in articulation differ only in a small difference in the rise of the tongue. Compare open [b] in words derm(German); fait, pret(fr.); and closed [e] in words Meeg(German); fee, pre(fr.));
3) labialization- participation of the lips in the articulation of sound: depending on whether the articulation of sounds is accompanied by rounding of the lips extended forward or not, rounded (labial, labialized) are distinguished, for example. [o], [y] and unrounded vowels, for example. [a];
4) nasalization- the presence of a special "nasal" timbre, which occurs depending on whether the palatine curtain is lowered, allowing the air stream to pass simultaneously through the mouth and nose, or not. Nasal (nasalized) vowels, for example, are pronounced with a special "nasal" timbre. Vowels in most languages are non-nasal (formed when the palatal curtain is raised, blocking the path of air through the nose), but in some languages (French, Polish, Portuguese, Old Church Slavonic), along with non-nasal vowels, nasal vowels are widely used;
5) longitude: in a number of languages (English, German, Latin, Ancient Greek, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish), with the same or close articulation, vowels form pairs, the members of which are opposed by the duration of pronunciation, i.e. for example, short vowels are distinguished: [a], [i], [o], [i] and long vowels: [a:], [i:], [o:], [i:].
In Latin and Ancient Greek, this phenomenon is used in versification: various poetic meters (hexameter, dactyl) are based on the ratio of long and short syllables, which correspond to modern poetic meters, which are based on dynamic stress.
Speech technique
Speech technique
Instead of a preface
speech apparatus and his work
speech apparatus
- respiratory organs
- organs of speech are passive
- speech organs active
- brain
Organs of speech
Exercises to train the main organs of speech: lips, lower jaw, tongue, larynx
Lip training
Exercise 10 Ultimately, with an effort to collect the lips into a “proboscis” so that at the same time they have a minimum area. Then, just as actively, with an effort, stretch them to the sides, without exposing your teeth. Repeat this movement 10-15 times until a sensation of warmth appears in the muscles of the lips.
Exercise 11 Pull out your lips and squeeze them into a “proboscis”. Turn the proboscis to the right, left, up, down slowly, then make a circular motion with your lips in one direction, then in the other. Repeat the exercise 3-4 times.
Exercise 12 Starting position - the mouth is closed. Lift the upper lip to the gums, purse the lips, lower the lower lip to the gums, purse the lips. Repeat the exercise 5-6 times.
Exercise 13 Bare your teeth by raising the upper lip and lowering the lower. The teeth are clenched. Repeat the exercise 5-6 times.
Exercise 14 Starting position - the mouth is half open. Pull the upper lip over the upper teeth, then gently return it to its place; pull the lower lip over the lower teeth, then return to its original position. Perform 5-6 times.
Exercise 15 Perform the movements of the upper and lower lips from exercise 14 at the same time. Repeat the exercise 5-6 times.
lower jaw training
Exercise 16 Calmly, without tension, lower the lower jaw (open your mouth) by 2-3 fingers, while the lips should be in the shape of a vertical oval, the tongue lies flat on the bottom of the mouth, and the palatine curtain is pulled up as much as possible. After 2-3 seconds, calmly close your mouth. Repeat 5-6 times.
Tongue training
Exercise 17 The mouth is open for two fingers, the lower jaw is motionless. With the tip of the tongue, touch the hard palate, the inner side, first the left and then the right cheek, return the tongue to its original position.
Exercise 18 The mouth is half open. Try to touch the nose with the tip of the tongue, then the chin, return the tongue to its original position.
Exercise 19 The mouth is half open. With the tip of your protruding tongue, write the letters of the alphabet in the air, after each letter, return the tongue to its original position.
Exercise 20"Click". The tip of the tongue is firmly pressed against the alveoli, then with a push it breaks off and jumps closer to the soft palate. In this case, a click occurs, similar to the clatter of hooves. Repeat 8-10 times.
Larynx training
Exercise 21 With any volume, say alternately the sounds I - U (I-U-I-U-I-U) 10-15 times. Exercise develops the mobility of the larynx.
Voice- this is a sound formed in the larynx by the vibration of tense vocal cords close to each other under the pressure of exhaled air. The main qualities of any voice are strength, height, timbre. A well-trained voice is also characterized by such properties as euphony, flight, mobility and variety of tone.
The power of the voice- this is its loudness, depending on the activity of the respiratory and speech organs. A person should be able to vary the strength of the voice depending on the conditions of communication. Therefore, the ability to speak both loudly and quietly is equally necessary.
Voice pitch- this is his ability to tonal changes, that is, his range. An ordinary voice is characterized by a range of one and a half octaves, but in everyday speech a person most often uses only 3-4 notes. Expanding the range makes speech more expressive.
The timbre of the voice they call it a unique individual color, which is due to the structure of the speech apparatus, mainly the nature of the overtones formed in the resonators - lower (trachea, bronchi) and upper (oral cavity and nasal cavity). If we cannot arbitrarily control the lower resonators, then the use of the upper resonators can be improved.
Under euphony of voice the purity of its sound, the absence of unpleasant overtones (hoarseness, hoarseness, nasality, etc.) are understood. The concept of euphony includes, first of all, sonority. A voice sounds loud when it resonates at the front of the mouth. If the sound is formed near the soft palate, it turns out to be deaf and dull. The sonority of the voice also depends on the concentration of the sound (its concentration at the front teeth), on the direction of the sound, and also on the activity of the lips.
The euphony of the voice implies, in addition, the freedom of its sound, which is achieved by the free work of all organs of speech, the absence of tension, muscle clamps. This freedom comes at the cost of long practice. The euphony of the voice should not be equated with the euphony of speech.
euphony of speech- this is the absence in speech of a combination or frequent repetition of sounds that cut the ear. The euphony of speech implies the most perfect combination of sounds, convenient for pronunciation and pleasant for hearing. For example, it causes a cacophony (that is, it is assessed as bad-sounding) repetition within a phrase or phrase of whistling and hissing sounds without special stylistic purposes: "in our class there are many students who are conscientiously preparing for the upcoming exams, but there are also loafers"; stringing words with several consonants in a row: "there is a nobler look of all feelings"; it is not recommended to build phrases in such a way that a gaping vowel is obtained: "and in John." However, the problems of its euphony do not apply to the technique of speech.
Mobility of the voice- this is his ability to change without tension in strength, height, pace. These changes should not be involuntary; in an experienced speaker, the change in certain qualities of the voice always pursues a certain goal.
Under tone of voice imply an emotionally expressive coloring of the voice, contributing to the expression in the speech of the speaker of his feelings and intentions. The tone of speech can be kind, angry, enthusiastic, official, friendly, etc. It is created by means such as increasing or weakening the strength of the voice, pausing, speeding up or slowing down the tempo of speech.
Speech rate is not a direct property of the human voice itself, however, the ability to vary, if necessary, the speed of pronouncing words and phrases can also be attributed to those skills that should be improved by the discipline "Speech Technique".
Exercise 22. Read the texts, changing the strength of the voice depending on the content:
There was silence, silence, silence.
Suddenly, it was replaced by a roar of thunder!
And now it's raining softly - do you hear? -
Draped, dripped, dripped on the roof.
He's probably going to drum now.
Already drumming! Already drumming!
Say louder the word "thunder" -
The word rumbles like thunder!
I sit and listen without breathing
The rustle of rustling reeds.
The reeds whisper:
- Shea, shea, shea!
- What are you whispering softly, reeds?
Is it good to whisper like that?
And in response, rustling:
- Shaw, sho, sho!
- I don't want to talk to you!
I will sing over the river and dance
I won't even ask permission!
I will sleep at the very reeds!
The reeds whisper:
- Sha, sha, sha...
As if asking in a whisper:
- Don't dance!
What shy reeds!
Thunder rumbles - boom! Fuck!
Like destroying mountains.
Silence in fright - ah! -
Plugs ears.
Flow, flow, rain, rain! I want to grow, grow!
I am not sugar! I'm not a shortbread! I'm not afraid of damp!
I go forward (tirlim-bom-bom) -
And it's snowing (tirlim-bom-bom)
Even though we are completely, not at all on the road!
But only here (tirlim-bom-bom)
Say, from - (tirlim-bom-bom),
Tell me, why are your feet so cold?
Exercise 23 Pick up chants, noise makers, counting rhymes (folklore or literary), other poetic works that, in your opinion, can be used to train the power of the voice.
Working on the tone of speech
Exercise 38 Say the phrase "What is his profession" so as to express: admiration; sympathy; contempt; neglect; question; envy; question-request; astonishment.
Exercise 39 Read the text in accordance with the author's remarks:
Came?! I'm scared for you! - - -(with fear)
Blame yourself for everything! - - -(with fear)
Came?! Where is selfishness? - - - (with condemnation)
Behind him like a faithful dog everywhere! - - - (with condemnation)
Came!? So fool me! - - - (with contempt)
You're not a man, you're a jerk! - - - (with contempt)
Came?! That's it, friend! - - - (with malice)
You can't fool me all of a sudden! - - - (with malice)
Came! Know, so be it! - - - (happily)
We can't live without each other! - - - (happily)
Gone! .. Will he come or not? Mystery. - - -(with anxiety)
I treated him so badly! - - -(with anxiety)
Gone! The mountain has fallen off my shoulders! - - -(relief)
God bless these meetings! - - -(relief)
Exercise 40. Connect the replicas of the characters and the author's words:
replicas
"Sasha, stop being angry! Excuse me if I offended you..."
"And you're still kidding? And you still dare to ask?"
"I'm not angry with you at all. I swear."
"I'm not to blame for anything!"
"Yes-ah-ah, you can't cook porridge with you ..."
She drawled regretfully.
She said softly but decisively.
She screamed and even squealed, waving her arms.
Exercise 41. Determine the tone in which the father, stepmother, sisters, fairy, prince speak to Cinderella. Words for reference: kind, angry, enthusiastic, indifferent, rude, gentle, surprised, frightened, sad, official, friendly.
Exercise 42. Tell us about the student being late for the lecture on behalf of the professor who gave the lecture, the student himself, the janitor.
Exercise 43. Think of a speech situation in which one and the same event can be told on behalf of different characters. Pay attention to the tone of speech.
Exercise 44. Choose an excerpt from a work for children with direct speech of heroes. Analyze the tone in which the remarks should be read. What means in the test help to choose the right tone of speech?
Diction
Diction- this is the degree of distinctness in the pronunciation of sounds, syllables and words in speech. The clarity and purity of the sound of speech depend on the correct and active work of the articulatory apparatus.
Speech therapy is engaged in correcting such shortcomings in diction as burr, lisp, nasality. In the speech technique course, attention is paid to less pronounced, but nevertheless much more common shortcomings: fuzziness, indistinct pronunciation of vowels and consonants. Special exercises should contribute to the improvement of diction. However, success can only be achieved through systematic work.
In the "Speech Technique" section, each vowel and consonant sound is worked out in the following sequence:
Determine the features of sound articulation (you can refer to any textbook of the modern Russian language, to books on speech therapy);
Check the position of the organs of speech in front of the mirror when pronouncing this sound;
Work out the correct pronunciation of the sound: first mentally, then in a whisper, then loudly;
Work out the pronunciation of individual words with this sound, and then - texts;
If possible, you should refer to the recording of your voice in order to analyze possible shortcomings from the outside.
Tips for a beginner speaker
A good public speech should be, first of all, meaningful, purposeful.
A good public speech must be absolutely literate both in the field of pronunciation and in the field of grammatical expression of thought.
A good public speech is least of all like a recitation, its highest quality is a relaxed conversation (conversation) with the audience on an interesting burning topic.
A good public speech cannot be chaotic. It must be consistent and reasonable in all respects.
Mastering the art of speech, we must remember that you can learn not only correct pronunciation but also to correct, orderly thinking.
Perseverance, perseverance and patience - this is what a novice speaker needs first of all.
The topic of your speech must be interesting for you and for your listeners.
When preparing for a speech, read more than one article, but several, compare the points of view of various authors. Use, if necessary, dictionaries and reference books.
Make a clear and harmonious plan of your speech according to the scheme: introduction, main part, conclusion.
Do not try to show off your knowledge, avoid unnecessary details and evidence - take only the most essential for speech.
Avoid jumps and omissions, finish the thought to the end.
Take care of the outside of speech. Don't get carried away with gestures. Speak slowly.
Practice giving speeches on a variety of topics.
Be careful and careful in pronouncing the combinations AE, EE, OE, UE in personal forms of the verb.
Don't skip vowels.
Do not double or triple consonants.
Make sure that the consonants V and M, which are between vowels, are clearly audible; don't swallow them.
Pronounce the initial consonant clearly, especially when it is followed by another consonant.
Match the ends of words (do not swallow them), especially in adjectives ending in -GIY, -KIY, -HIY, and in proper names on -KIY.
Don't compress words. Do not create meaningless and ridiculous combinations.
Listen carefully to the speech of the masters of the artistic word, artists of drama theaters and cinema, as well as to the speech of the announcers of the central radio and television.
Watch your pronunciation.
If possible, record your speech on a voice recorder. Listen to the recording several times, noting the flaws and errors in pronunciation.
Afterword
Our team was motivated to create the Speech Technique project by the desire to help everyone who wants to master correct and clear speech.
It is our deep conviction that correct and clear speech is even more self-confidence, the power of your voice and words.
However, correct speech is not possible without the Russian literary language, which serves as a single means of expressing thoughts and feelings, a means of communication between Russian-speaking people. It includes all the wealth of speech and visual means created by the people over the centuries. However, not everything that the national language has is selected into the vocabulary of the literary language.
Outside the literary language remain:
Some words and expressions characteristic of a particular dialect and incomprehensible to people living in places where this dialect is unknown;
Slang vocabulary - special words and expressions characteristic of various groups of the past (merchants, artisans, etc.);
The so-called argotic words and expressions inherent in the language of thieves, gamblers, cheaters and swindlers;
Swearing (obscene) words and expressions.
However, literary language is closely connected with the so-called vernacular - the everyday everyday vocabulary of the people, which has great figurative power and accuracy of definitions.
In conclusion, I would like to emphasize once again that those who have "lame" diction or pronunciation will need a lot of time to bring their speech apparatus to a state where a diction or pronunciation error becomes impossible, and in this, we are absolutely sure, our project will help "Speech Technique".
Working on the project, we decided for ourselves that "beauty is in simplicity." Therefore, we did not use databases and other technologies that slow down page loading, but went along the classical path.
Our team expresses gratitude to all the authors whose books were used in writing a collection of tasks and exercises that contribute to the development of the necessary skills in the setting of breathing, voice, diction, called "Technics speech" (Technics speech), as well as thanks to all the authors who Their books are cited by the mentioned authors, to whom we have expressed our gratitude earlier.
All rights to the idea, design, texts and drawings of the Technics speech project belong to the team of authors of the named project. When reprinting materials, an active hyperlink to the source is required.
http://technics-speech.ru/
Speech technique
Speech technique- it's a skill public speaking, business communication people through language constructs, created on the basis of certain rules of oratory, associated with strength, height, euphony, flight, mobility, tone of voice and diction.
Probably everyone in childhood dreamed, listening to a clear and well-placed voice of a central television or radio announcer, to master the technique of speech and speak just like them. Unfortunately, for various reasons, it is not given to everyone to clearly and articulately convey their thoughts to others. Many do not notice this for themselves, someone does not attach importance to this, and only a few feel out of place.
Overcoming various deviations in the sound structure of speech is of great importance. Timely elimination of pronunciation shortcomings helps to prevent those huge difficulties that may arise due to speech defects.
It is impossible not to take into account the factor that the shortcomings of pronunciation, like others speech disorders, can often be the cause of serious deviations in the development of the psyche, especially in children. Children who mispronounce words often avoid speech communication with friends, do not participate in children's performances at matinees, do not show activity. For adults, the mentioned shortcomings can serve as a kind of obstacle in moving up the career ladder.
Regular exercises according to the proposed method will help to cope or significantly reduce the discomfort of stuttering. Everything is very simple. Each person has developed the so-called inner speech, which is not pronounced aloud, but exists only in our brain and which we turn to ourselves. When we mentally talk to ourselves, we do not stutter. Inner speech, although it is silent, is not so different from external speech, sounding. Both are controlled by the same speech mechanisms.
It should be remembered that only with considerable perseverance and regular training can one achieve the desired goal and achieve positive results in rhetoric, diction and eloquence.
Instead of a preface
Meaningful and refined speech is not able to have the desired effect if it is dull in its form or mode of implementation. Therefore, representatives of those professions who constantly have to communicate with people, and even more so achieve their goals, should pay close attention to the technique of their speech and make efforts to improve the technique of speech.
Work to improve the level of speech culture is unthinkable without improving the speech apparatus. You can not speak to the audience, chewing the text, eating the beginning and end of words, replacing some sounds with others, or combining individual words into one meaningless combination. Such speech distorts the meaning of the statement and produces an unpleasant impression.
In preparing this collection, we have collected and summarized theoretical materials on the technique of speech, tasks and exercises that contribute to the development of the necessary skills. However, the expressiveness of speech can be achieved only as a result of systematic work aimed at both training and development of the organs of speech, and improving the properties of the voice.
Our collection consists of several sections, where the structure of the speech apparatus, the main properties of the voice are analyzed, techniques and exercises are given that contribute to the improvement of specific skills. oral speech. It is addressed to everyone who sets a goal to improve their speech skills.
Speech apparatus and its work
speech apparatus is a set of human organs necessary for the production of speech. It includes several links:
- respiratory organs, since all speech sounds are formed only when exhaling. These are the lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm, intercostal muscles. The lungs rest on the diaphragm, an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the chest increases and inhalation occurs, when they relax, exhalation;
- organs of speech are passive- These are motionless organs that serve as a fulcrum for active organs. These are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx;
- speech organs active- These are movable organs that perform the main work necessary for the formation of sound. These include the tongue, lips, soft palate, small tongue, epiglottis, vocal cords. The vocal cords are two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilage of the larynx and located almost horizontally across it. They are elastic, can be relaxed and tense, can be moved apart to different widths of the solution;
- brain, which coordinates the work of the organs of speech and subordinates the technique of pronunciation to the creative will of the speaker.
Organs of speech are shown in the following figure:
1 - hard palate; 2 - alveoli; 3 - upper lip; 4 - upper teeth; 5 - lower lip; 6 - lower teeth; 7 - front part of the tongue; 8 - the middle part of the tongue; 9 - back of the tongue; 10 - the root of the tongue; 11 - vocal cords; 12 - soft palate; 13 - tongue; 14 - larynx; 15 - trachea.
Sound as an object of phonetics
sound and letter
Writing is like the clothes of oral speech. It conveys spoken language.
The sound is pronounced and heard, and the letter is written and read.
The indistinguishability of sound and letter makes it difficult to understand the structure of the language. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay wrote: whoever mixes sound and letter, writing and language, “he will only with difficulty unlearn, and maybe never unlearn to confuse a person with a passport, nationality with the alphabet, human dignity with rank and title”, those. entity with something external .
The focus of phonetics is sound.
Sound is studied from three sides, in three aspects:
1) the acoustic (physical) aspect considers speech sounds as a variety of sounds in general;
2) articulatory (biological) studies the sounds of speech as a result of the activity of the organs of speech;
3) the functional (linguistic) aspect considers the functions of speech sounds;
4) the perceptual aspect studies the perception of speech sounds.
The work (set of movements) of the organs of speech during the formation of sound is called articulation of sound.
The articulation of sound consists of three phases:
1. Excursion (attack)- the organs of speech move from the previous position to the position necessary for pronouncing this sound (Panov: “the exit of the organs of speech to work”).
2. Excerpt- the organs of speech are in the position necessary to pronounce the sound.
3. Recursion (indentation)- the organs of speech come out of their occupied position (Panov: "leaving work").
Phases interpenetrate each other, this leads to various kinds of changes in sounds.
The set of habitual for speakers of given language movements and positions of the organs of speech are called articulation base.
When breathing, the human lungs are compressed and unclenched. When the lungs contract, air passes through the larynx, across which the vocal cords are located in the form of elastic muscles.
Having passed the larynx, the air stream enters the oral cavity and, if a small tongue ( uvula) does not close the passage, - in the nasal.
The oral and nasal cavities serve as resonators: they amplify sounds of a certain frequency. Changes in the shape of the resonator are achieved by the fact that the tongue moves back, forward, rises up, falls down.
If the nasal curtain (small tongue, uvula) is lowered, then the passage to the nasal cavity is open and the nasal resonator will also be connected to the oral one.
In the formation of sounds that are pronounced without the participation of tone - deaf consonants - not tone, but noise is involved.
All speech organs in the oral cavity are divided into two groups:
1) active - mobile and perform the main work during the articulation of sound: tongue, lips, uvula (small tongue), vocal cords;
2) passive ones are immobile and perform an auxiliary role during articulation: teeth, alveoli(protrusions above the teeth), hard palate, soft palate.
The speech apparatus is a set of work of human organs necessary for the production of speech. It includes:
- respiratory organs, since all speech sounds are formed only when exhaling. These are the lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm, intercostal muscles. The lungs rest on the diaphragm, an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the chest increases and inhalation occurs, when they relax, exhale;
- passive speech organs - these are motionless organs that serve as a fulcrum for active organs. These are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx;
- active speech organs - these are mobile organs that perform the main work necessary for the formation of sound. These include the tongue, lips, soft palate, small uvula, epiglottis, vocal cords. The vocal cords are two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilage of the larynx and located almost horizontally across it. They are elastic, can be relaxed and tense, can be moved apart to different widths of the solution;
- the brain, which coordinates the work of the organs of speech and subordinates the technique of pronunciation to the creative will of the speaker.
Functions of individual organs of speech.
1. The vocal cords are relaxed, open. The glottis is wide open. Air passes through it unhindered. No sound is produced. This is the state of the vocal cords when pronouncing deaf sounds.
2. The vocal cords are close and tense. The glottis almost closes. There is an obstruction in the way of the air stream. Under the pressure of the air jet, the vocal cords move apart and come together again, because. they are tense. Thus, oscillations occur. This creates a tone, a voice. This is the state of the vocal cords when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants
The oral cavity and nasal cavity Act as resonators
1. Palatine curtain. When the palatine curtain is lowered, nasal sounds are pronounced, when raised (folded back) - oral (pure) sounds.
2. The middle part of the back of the tongue. If the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate, soft consonants are formed. This additional movement of the tongue, superimposed on the main articulation, is called palatalization. When pronouncing solid consonants, there is no palatalization. For the sound [j], palatalization is not an additional, but the main articulation, therefore it is commonly called a palatal sound.
speech apparatus- this is the totality and interaction of human organs necessary for the production of speech. It consists of two departments: central and peripheral. The central section is the brain with its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways and nuclei of the corresponding nerves. The peripheral section is the whole set of executive organs of speech, including bones, cartilages, muscles and ligaments, as well as peripheral sensory and motor nerves, with the help of which the work of these organs is controlled.
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three main sections that act together.
1st department- respiratory organs, since all speech sounds are formed only when exhaling. These are the lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm, intercostal muscles. The lungs rest on the diaphragm, an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the chest increases and inhalation occurs, when they relax, exhalation;
2nd department- organs of speech are passive - these are motionless organs that serve as a fulcrum for active organs. These are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx. They have the greatest influence on the technique of speech;
3rd department- active speech organs are mobile organs that perform the main work necessary for the formation of sound. These include the tongue, lips, soft palate, small uvula, epiglottis, vocal cords. The vocal cords are two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilage of the larynx and located almost horizontally across it. They are elastic, can be relaxed and tense, can be moved apart to different widths of the solution;
The first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply a jet of air, the second to form a voice, the third is a resonator that gives strength and color to the sound and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, which arise as a result of the activity of individual active parts of the articulatory apparatus. The latter include the lower jaw, tongue, lips and soft palate.
The lower jaw drops and rises; the soft palate rises and falls, thus closing and opening the passage to the nasal cavity; tongue and lips can take a variety of positions. A change in the position of the speech organs entails the formation of locks and constrictions in various parts of the articulatory apparatus, due to which this or that character of the sound is determined.
The tongue is rich in muscles that make it very mobile: it can lengthen and shorten, become narrow and wide, flat and arched.
The soft palate, or palatine curtain, ending in a small tongue, lies at the top of the oral cavity and is a continuation of the hard palate, which begins at the upper teeth with alveoli. The palate has the ability to rise and fall and thus separate the pharynx from the nasopharynx. When pronouncing all sounds except m and n, the palatine curtain is raised. If the palatine curtain is inactive for some reason and is not raised, then the sound turns out to be nasal (nasal), since when the palatine curtain is lowered, sound waves pass mainly through the nasal cavity.
The lower jaw, due to its mobility, is a very important organ of the articulatory (sound-producing) apparatus, as it contributes to the full development of stressed vowels (a, o, u, e, and, s).
The painful state of individual parts of the articulatory apparatus is reflected in the correctness of resonation and the clarity of the sounds pronounced. Therefore, in order to develop the necessary articulation, all organs involved in the formation of speech sounds must work correctly and in concert.
The organs of speech are shown in the following figure:
1 - hard palate; 2 - alveoli; 3 - upper lip; 4 - upper teeth; 5 - lower lip; 6 - lower teeth; 7 - front part of the tongue; 8 - the middle part of the tongue; 9 - back of the tongue; 10 - the root of the tongue; 11 - vocal cords; 12 - soft palate; 13 - tongue; 14 - larynx; 15 - trachea..
Speech apparatus. People do not have special organs of speech, such as, for example, there are digestive organs or circulatory organs. As a result of the long evolution of man, his formation as a social being, certain organs that have the main biological function began to perform the function of speech production. These are organs that provide such physiological processes as respiration, digestion, etc.
In a broad sense, the speech apparatus is understood as all the organs that take part in the process of speech breathing, voice and sound production, and also ensure the emergence of speech (the central nervous system, hearing, vision, speech organs).
In a narrow sense, the speech apparatus refers to organs that are directly involved in the process of speech breathing and voice formation (respiratory organs, larynx and supraglottic cavities (extensible tube)).
The emergence of sound speech. The process of the emergence of sounding speech is as follows: a stream of air moving when exhaling from the lungs passes through the bronchi, trachea, larynx and exits through the pharynx and mouth or nose.
Breathing (ventilation of the lungs) is provided by the contraction of certain muscle groups. First of all, it is the diaphragm, lower abdominal, intercostal muscles. An important role in the process of speech formation is also played by the muscles of the neck, face, shoulder girdle. Preparation for speech activity should include exercises to develop and activate these muscle groups. The most important condition for working on the technique of speech is the ability to relieve muscle tension, “clamps”.
The formation of sound occurs during exhalation due to the work of the organs of speech. Exhalation is provided by the lungs, bronchi, trachea. At the middle level - the larynx - sound is produced. The larynx is a cricoid and thyroid cartilage, on which a muscular film is stretched, the central edges of which are called the vocal cords. The space between the diverging pyramidal cartilages is called the glottis. The glottis can change its shape, which affects the nature of the sound generated during the passage of air through it.
The upper part of the speech apparatus - the extension tube - includes resonators and speech organs (epiglottis, palate, lips, teeth, etc.). Since the voice formed with the help of the vocal cords is weak, inexpressive, unclear, resonators play a special role in speech formation, which, while vibrating, ensure the normal sounding of the human voice, create a certain timbre due to overtones, i.e. give the voice of each person uniqueness.
The most important of the resonators are the oral and nasal cavities, the cranium. They form a system of upper resonators that ensure the flight of the voice. The second group of resonators (lower resonator system) is the chest cavity, which provides the timbre of the voice.
The vibration of any resonator is easy to detect when pronouncing certain sounds (for example, when pronouncing the sound [m], the cranium resonates). Thus, a person is a kind of "musical instrument" that sounds during speech.
The whole variety of sounds of human speech is formed due to the work of the organs included in the extension pipe. Various configurations of the gap that the air overcomes are formed due to changes in the position of the tongue, lips, lower jaw in relation to immovable organs: the hard palate, alveoli, teeth.
Based on the features of the structure and functioning of the speech apparatus, it is possible to determine the main goal of preparing the speech organs for work. This should be a kind of “tuning”, activation of the main muscle groups involved in speech breathing, resonators that provide timbre and sonority of the voice, and finally, mobile (active) speech organs responsible for the distinct pronunciation of sounds (diction).
You should constantly remember about the correct posture, thanks to which the speech apparatus functions better: the head should be kept straight, not stooped, the back is even, the shoulders are straightened, the shoulder blades are slightly reduced. The habit of correct posture contributes to the improvement of appearance.
Relaxation of the speech apparatus. For people whose professional activity is associated with prolonged speaking, no less important than setting up the speech apparatus and its proper operation is the ability to relax the organs of speech, as well as restore the performance of the speech apparatus. Rest and relaxation (relaxation) are provided by special exercises, which are recommended to be performed at the end of speech technique classes, as well as after prolonged speaking, when fatigue of the speech organs occurs.
In the specialized literature, it is customary to talk about the posture and mask of relaxation, i.e., relaxation, removal muscle tension. The relaxation posture is taken in a sitting position. You should lean forward slightly, bending your back and bowing your head. The legs rest on the entire foot, spaced at right angles to each other, the hands lie on the hips, the hands hang freely. Close your eyes and relax all muscles as much as possible.
In the relaxation pose, separate auto-training formulas should be used to provide more complete relaxation and rest. It is extremely important for the teacher to master the mask of relaxation, that is, the methods of relaxing the muscles of the face.
To this end, in a relaxation pose, one should alternately strain and relax various muscle groups of the face (as if “putting on” masks of anger, surprise, joy, etc.), and then completely relax all the muscles. To do this, with a weak exhalation, pronounce the sound [t] and leave the lower jaw in the lowered position.
Relaxation is one of the elements of the hygiene of speech activity, the general requirement of which is protection from hypothermia and, as a result, from colds. Anything that irritates the mucous membrane should also be avoided. Special hygienic requirements - following a certain method of training the speech apparatus, observing the basic rules when performing exercises in speech technique, reasonable alternation of load and rest.
